Proto-Rathmosian: Difference between revisions

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Proto-Rathmosian (view source)

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=Morphology=
=Morphology=
==Verbs==
Verb forms in Rathmosian are largely agglutinative and the verbal system could be described as active-stative, in which verbs are marked differently according to the degree of agency the subject has. There is no clear-cut distinction made between conjugation and derivation with, for example, verbal aspect belonging to both categories.
Verbal stems are divided into five classes based on their level of agency, transitivity and activeness. Verb roots may change internally to indicate certain aspects, and derivational prefixes and suffixes may be added to the root to alter its basic meaning. However, the conjugation of the verb is largely carried out with suffixes to indicate aspect, voice, subject and object. The order of elements is fixed in the following ways:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Elements of the Verb'''
|-
|style="width: 100px;" | Negative <br /> Prefix  || style="width: 100px;" | Directional <br /> Prefixes || style="width: 100px;" | '''ROOT''' ||style="width: 100px;" | Aspect <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Causative <br /> ''-əm-'' ||style="width: 100px;" | Voice <br /> Marker || style="width: 100px;" | Mood <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Absolutive <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Ergative <br /> Marker
|}
===Verbal Classes===
Rathmosian verb stems are divided into five classes (I-V) according to whether they are active or stative, and how much agency the subject has. These classes affect the way in which the aspect and voice markers are used.
* '''Class I''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject of the verb is not the agent, and which describe fixed or ongoing states, usually translated into English with 'be' and an adjective, e.g. ''dreh-'' "be red", ''rin-'' "be alive, live".
* '''Class II''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is not the agent and which describe a change of state, e.g. ''mlak-'' "die", ''tum-'' "fall".
* '''Class III''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is not the agent, and which describe a temporary state or an uncontrolled action, e.g. ''fal-'' "sleep", ''kled-'' "stand".
* '''Class IV''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is the active agent of the verb, e.g. ''yur-'' "run", ''met-'' "speak".
* '''Class V''' verbs are transitives.
Some roots may belong to more than one class with a change of meaning, e.g. ''yur-'' "run" may be Class IV when the subject is an animate noun and the sense is "propel oneself quickly" but is Class III when the subject is inanimate and the sense is "flow, move quickly". The distinction, in practice, between the two senses is shown by the suffixes added to the root.
===Aspect===
Verbals aspects may be conjugational or derivational.
====Conjugational Aspects====
These are formed from the root alone and convey the primary aspect distinction between imperfective (incomplete) and perfective (complete) actions or states. These aspects can generally be applied to any verb, with some semantic restrictions.
* The primary root is '''imperfective''', describing ongoing or incomplete actions/states, e.g. ''ker-'' "ruling", ''fal-'' "sleeping".
* The lengthened root is '''perfective''', describing completed actions/states, e.g. ''keer-'' "ruled", ''faal-'' "slept".
====Derivational Aspects====
These are generally formed with affixes attached to the root and often alter the semantics of a verb. They may be used in conjunction with the conjugational aspects.
* The reduplicated root marks the '''frequentative''' aspect, usually describing actions characterised by rapid repetition and often used to diminish the intensity of states or actions e.g. ''fafl-'' "sleeps fitfully", ''dedərh-'' "is somewhat red".
* The addition of ''-t-'' to the root creates the '''habitual''' aspect, describing actions that are regularly carried out or states that are regularly attained, sometimes shading towards a gnomic meaning, e.g. ''kert-'' "rules (often)", ''falt-'' "sleeps (often)", ''dreht-'' "is red".
* The addition of ''-n-'' to the root creates the '''inchoative''' aspect, describing the beginning of actions or 'becoming' a state, e.g. ''kern-'' "begin to rule", ''faln-'' "fall asleep".
* The addition of ''-ban-'' creates the '''terminative''' aspect, describing the end of actions or states, e.g. ''kerban-'' "ceased to rule", ''falban-'' "woke up".
* The addition of ''-tsat-'' to the root creates the '''intensitive''' aspect, describing more severe forms of the action or state, e.g. ''kertsat-'' "tyrranise, subjugate", ''faltsat-'' "sleep deeply". After plosives, the affix is ''-sat-'', e.g. ''kuksat-'' "gorges".
===Voice===
Voice markers function in different ways for different verbs. They are distinguished primarily for the ways in which they focus the subject or object of the verb. The four primary voice categories are:
* '''Patient focus''' is marked with '''''-a-''''' and is mainly used with intransitive verbs in which the subject is the patient of the verb (i.e. Classes I-III), e.g. ''dreha-'' "be red", ''tuma-'' "fall". Used with semantically transitive verbs of Class V, it is effectively a passive marker e.g. ''keyka-'' "is seen". The subject of patient focus verb is in the Abs. case and there can be no direct object.
* '''Dual focus''' is marked with '''''-i-''''' and is used only with Class V (transitive) verbs in which both the subject and direct object are stated, e.g. ''keri-'' "rule". The subject of the verb is in the ergative case and the direct object in the absolutive.
* '''Agent focus''' verbs are marked with '''''-u-''''' and are used with Class IV and V verbs, where the subject is the agent of the verb, but where no direct object is stated e.g. ''kuku-'' "eat", ''yuru-'' "run". The subject is in the ergative case for both transitive and intransitive verbs.
* '''Medial''' verbs are marked with '''''-e-''''' and are used with Class V transitive verbs when the agent and the patient refer to the same entity, creating a reciprocal or reflexive meaning, e.g. ''sape-'' "wash oneself". The subject here is in the ergative case.
In addition, there is a '''Causative''' infix '''''-əm-''''', which may be used preceding the voice markers in the following ways:
* '''''-əmi-''''' and '''''-əmu-''''' form the basic causatives and are added to intransitive verbs (Class I-IV) to create a transitive, or to transitive (Class V) verbs to make a ditransitive, e.g. ''mlak-'' "be dead" (intrans.) > ''mlakəmi-'' "kill" (trans.), ''keyk-'' "see" (trans.) > ''keykəmu-'' "show, explain" (ditrans.). In the first case (''əmi''), both the subject and direct object of the causative verb are stated; in the second (''əmu''), the direct object is omitted. The subject ('causer') of the causative verb is always in the ergative. The subject of the original verb, whether transitive or intransitive, takes the absolutive case. The direct object of an originally transitive verb is demoted to the dative.
* '''''-əma-''''' creates the '''Patient Causative''', used to describe an action or state which is assumed to be caused, but without reference to the 'causer', e.g. ''keyk-'' "see" > ''keykəma-'' "is made to see, understands", ''mlak-'' "be dead" > ''mlakəma-'' "is killed".
* '''''-əme-''''' creates an '''Autocausative''', in which the agent causes the action to itself, e.g. ''mlakəme-'' "kill oneself".
===Mood===
There are five moods, indicated by affixes that follow the voice markers:
* The '''indicative''' or '''realis''' mood, which denotes events deemed by the speaker to be real, is indicated by the absence of a mood marker, e.g. ''keeykatsu'' "I saw you".
* The '''potential''' mood, which indicates that an event is likely, is marked by '''''-bel-''''', e.g. ''keeykabeltsu'' "I probably saw you".
* The '''possible''' mood, which indicates that an event may have taken place, is marked by '''''-ker-''''', e.g. ''keeykakertsu'' "I may have seen you".
* The '''irrealis''' or '''hypothetical''' mood, which denotes events known not to be true, is indicated by '''''-wal-''''', e.g. ''keeykawaltsu''
* The '''hortative''' mood, which denotes a request or encouragement, and the '''imperative''', which denotes a command, are marked with '''''-p-'''''. The hortative is used in the first and third persons, e.g. ''keykupu'' "let me see", ''falapəd'' "let him/her sleep". The imperative is used only in the second person, e.g. ''kukupisk!'' "eat".
===Negation===
Negation of the verbal string is indicated with the negative prefix '''''ga-''''' added to the beginning, e.g. ''gakuukibu'' "I did not eat it".
===Subject and Object Markers===
The absolutive markers agree with the subject of a intransitive verb or the direct object of an transitive verb. The 3rd person may be animate or inanimate.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Absolutive Markers'''
|-
! width="50;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''-n'' || ''-l''
|-
! 2
| ''-ts'' || ''-h''
|-
! 3an
| ''-d'' || ''-w''
|-
! 3in
| ''-b'' || ''-r''
|}
Where the previous element ends in a consonant, the epenthetic vowel ''ə'' may be inserted, e.g. ''mubnaməd'' "he was saddened", ''
The ergative markers agree with the subject of a transitive verb. Since inanimate nouns cannot be the agent of a verb, by definintion, there are no inanimate ergative markers.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Ergative Markers'''
|-
! width="50;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''-u'' || ''-an''
|-
! 2
| ''-isk'' || ''-enk''
|-
! 3an
| ''-et'' || ''-af''
|}
Examples:
* ''reykitsu'' "I love you"
* ''keeykiwan'' "we saw them"
* ''falaw'' "they are sleeping"
* ''yuurut'' "he/she ran"
===Verbals Nouns and Participles===
Each verb has a verbal noun and most have two or three participles.
Verbal nouns are created from the root of the verb + either ''-a'' or ''-u'':
* '''Class I''' verbs take ''-a'' to create an abstract noun of state, e.g. ''dreha'' "redness (the state of being red)", ''nuka'' "darkness".
* '''Class II''' & '''III''' verbs take ''-a'' to form a simple gerund, e.g. ''tuma'' "falling", ''fala'' "sleeping".
* '''Class IV''' & '''V''' verbs take ''-u'' to form a simple gerund, e.g. ''yuru'' "running", ''kuku'' "eating".
* '''Class V''' verbs can also take ''-a'' to create a passive verbal noun, e.g. ''kuka'' "being eaten".
Verbal nouns can be formed from extended stems, e.g. ''mlagna'' "dying", ''metsatu'' "speaking quickly, babbling".
Two forms of participles exist, one ending in ''-t'' and one ending in ''-s''.
Participles are formed in a similar way to verb nouns, with an additional ''-t'' after the voice marker. The primary root is used to form the equivalent of a present participle, e.g. ''yurut'' "running", ''falat'' "sleeping". The lengthened root forms a past participle, e.g. ''kuukat'' "eaten", ''tuumat'' "fallen".
==Nouns==
==Nouns==
Nouns belong to one of three classes and are declined into eight cases and three numbers.
Nouns belong to one of three classes and are declined into eight cases and three numbers.
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Note that inanimate nouns do not have ergative forms.
Note that inanimate nouns do not have ergative forms.


==Verbs==
==Adjectives==
Verb forms in Rathmosian are largely agglutinative and the verbal system could be described as active-stative, in which verbs are marked differently according to the degree of agency the subject has. Verbal stems are divided into five classes, according to agency, transitivity and activity. Verb roots may change internally to indicate certain aspects, and derivational prefixes and suffixes may be added to the root to alter its basic meaning. However, the conjugation of the verb is largely carried out with suffixes to indicate aspect, voice, subject and object. The order of elements is fixed in the following ways:
There are two forms of adjectives, '''verbal adjectives''' and '''nominal adjectives'''.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
===Verbal Adjectives===
|+ '''Elements of the Verb'''
Verbal adjectives are Class I verbs and behave like any other member of that class, taking the same inflexional and derivational endings.
|-
| style="width: 100px;" | Derivational <br /> Prefixes || style="width: 100px;" | '''ROOT''' ||style="width: 100px;" | Derivational <br /> Suffixes ||style="width: 100px;" | Aspect <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Voice <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Absolutive <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Ergative <br /> Marker
|}
 
===Verbal Classes===
Rathmosian verb roots are divided into five classes (I-V) according to whether they are active or stative, and how much agency the subject has. These classes affect the way in which the aspect and voice markers are used.
 
* '''Class I''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject of the verb is not the agent, and which describe fixed or ongoing states, usually translated into English with 'be' and an adjective, e.g. ''dreh-'' "be red", ''rin-'' "be alive, live".
* '''Class II''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is not the agent and which describe a change of state, e.g. ''mlak-'' "die", ''tum-'' "fall".
* '''Class III''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is not the agent, and which describe a temporary state or an uncontrolled action, e.g. ''fal-'' "sleep", ''kled-'' "stand".
* '''Class IV''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is the active agent of the verb, e.g. ''yur-'' "run", ''met-'' "speak".
* '''Class V''' verbs are transitives.
 
Some roots may belong to more than one class with a change of meaning, e.g. ''yur-'' "run" may be Class IV when the subject is an animate noun and the sense is "propel oneself quickly" but is Class III when the subject is inanimate and the sense is "flow, move quickly".
 
===Aspect===
Verbal aspect is marked by altering the form of the root itself or by adding suffixes to the primary root:
* The primary root is '''imperfective''', describing ongoing actions, e.g. ''ker-'' "rules, ruling", ''fal-'' "sleeping, sleeps".
* The lengthened root is '''perfective''', describing completed actions, e.g. ''keer-'' "ruled", ''faal-'' "slept".
* The reduplicated root is '''frequentative''' aspect, describing repetitive events or habitual states e.g. ''kekr-'' "rules (habitually)", ''fafl-'' "sleeps (often)".
* The addition of ''-t-'' to the root creates the '''generic''' or gnomic in aspect, describing states or actions without regard to their state of completeness, e.g. ''kert-'' "rule", ''falt-'' "sleep".
* The addition of ''-n-'' to the root creates the '''inchoative''' aspect, describing the beginning of actions or 'becoming' a state, e.g. ''kern-'' "begin to rule", ''faln-'' "fall asleep".
* The addition of ''-tsat-'' to the root creates the '''intensitive''' aspect, describing more severe forms of the action or state, e.g. ''kertsat-'' "tyrranise, subjugate", ''faltsat-'' "sleep deeply". After plosives, the affix is ''-sat-'', e.g. ''kuksat-'' "gorges".
 
===Voice===
Voice markers function in different ways for different verbs. They are distinguished primarily for the ways in which they focus the subject or object of the verb.
 
* '''Patient focus''' is marked with '''''-a-''''' and is mainly used with intransitive verbs in which the subject is the patient of the verb (i.e. Classes I-III), e.g. ''dreha-'' "be red", ''tuma-'' "fall". Used with semantically transitive verbs of Class V, it is effectively a passive marker e.g. ''keyka-'' "is seen". The subject of patient focus verb is in the Abs. case and there can be no direct object.
* '''Dual focus''' is marked with '''''-i-''''' and is used only with Class V (transitive) verbs in which both the subject and direct object are stated, e.g. ''keri-'' "rule". The subject of the verb is in the ergative case and the direct object in the absolutive.
* '''Agent focus''' verbs are marked with '''''-u-''''' and are used with Class IV and V verbs, where the subject is the agent of the verb, but where no direct object is stated e.g. ''kuku-'' "eat", ''yuru-'' "run". The subject is in the ergative case for both transitive and intransitive verbs.
* '''Medial''' verbs are marked with '''''-e-''''' and are used with Class V transitive verbs when the agent and the patient refer to the same entity, creating a reciprocal or reflexive meaning, e.g. ''sape-'' "wash oneself". The subject here is in the ergative case.
* '''Causative''' verbs are marked with '''''-im-''''', which is added to intransitive verbs (Class I-IV) to create a transitive, or to transitive (Class V) verbs to make a ditransitive, e.g. ''mlak-'' "die" > ''mlakim-'' "kill", ''keyk-'' "see" > ''keykim-'' "show, explain". The subject ('causer') of the verb is always in the ergative. The subject of an originally intransitive verb or the direct object of an originally transitive verb remains in the absolutive case. The subject of an originally transitive verb is demoted to the dative.
* '''Patient Causative''' verbs take '''''-am-''''' and are used to describe an action or state which is assumed to be caused, but without reference to the 'causer', creating a passive causative, e.g. ''keyk-'' "see" > ''keykam-'' "is made to see, understands", ''mlak-'' "die" > ''mlakam-'' "is killed"
* '''Autocausative''' verbs take '''''-em''''' and create a causative in which the agent causes the action to itself, e.g. ''mlakem-'' "kill oneself".


===Subject and Object Markers===
When used predicatively, verbal adjectives behave as normal verbs and follow the noun they qualify, e.g. ''negu manad'' "(the) woman is strong", ''belun harad'' "the sun is hot". When the subject of the sentence is a pronoun, the verb alone may be used or the pronoun may be added for emphasis, e.g. ''faawkan'' or ''ni faawkan'' "I was afraid".  
The absolutive markers agree with the subject of a intransitive verb or the direct object of an transitive verb. The 3rd person may be animate or inanimate.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
When used attributively, these adjectives take their participle form, e.g. ''manat negu'' "(the) strong woman", ''harat belun'' "the hot sun".
|+ '''Absolutive Markers'''
|-
! width="50;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''-n'' || ''-l''
|-
! 2
| ''-ts'' || ''-h''
|-
! 3an
| ''-d'' || ''-w''
|-
! 3in
| ''-b'' || ''-r''
|}


Where the previous element ends in a consonant, the epenthetic vowel ''ə'' may be inserted, e.g. ''mumubnaməd'' "he was saddened", ''
===Nominal Adjectives===
Nominal adjectives are those derived from other parts of speech, be it a verb, noun or another adjective.  


The ergative markers agree with the subject of a transitive verb. Since inanimate nouns cannot be the agent of a verb, by definintion, there are no inanimate ergative markers.
''neguyak gisul'' "the feminine man", ''Karakin keru'' "the Carrackish ruler".  


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
''gisul neguyakad'' "the man is feminine", ''keru Karakinad'' "the ruler is Carrackish".
|+ '''Ergative Markers'''
|-
! width="50;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''-u'' || ''-an''
|-
! 2
| ''-isk'' || ''-enk''
|-
! 3an
| ''-et'' || ''-af''
|}


Examples:
=Derivation=
* ''reeykinu'' "I love you"
* ''kekeykiran'' "we saw them"
* ''faalad'' "they are sleeping"
* ''yuyurut'' "he/she ran"


=Syntax=
=Syntax=
=Vocabulary=
=Vocabulary=
Psammead
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