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=Morphology=
=Morphology=
==Verbs==
Verb forms in Rathmosian are largely agglutinative and the verbal system could be described as active-stative, in which verbs are marked differently according to the degree of agency the subject has. Verbal stems are divided into five classes, according to agency, transitivity and activity. Verb roots may change internally to indicate certain aspects, and derivational prefixes and suffixes may be added to the root to alter its basic meaning. However, the conjugation of the verb is largely carried out with suffixes to indicate aspect, voice, subject and object. The order of elements is fixed in the following ways:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Elements of the Verb'''
|-
| style="width: 100px;" | Derivational <br /> Prefixes || style="width: 100px;" | '''ROOT''' ||style="width: 100px;" | Derivational <br /> Suffixes ||style="width: 100px;" | Aspect <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Voice <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Absolutive <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Ergative <br /> Marker
|}
===Verbal Classes===
Rathmosian verb roots are divided into five classes (I-V) according to whether they are active or stative, and how much agency the subject has. These classes affect the way in which the aspect and voice markers are used.
* '''Class I''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject of the verb is not the agent, and which describe fixed or ongoing states, usually translated into English with 'be' and an adjective, e.g. ''dreh-'' "be red", ''rin-'' "be alive, live".
* '''Class II''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is not the agent and which describe a change of state, e.g. ''mlak-'' "die", ''tum-'' "fall".
* '''Class III''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is not the agent, and which describe a temporary state or an uncontrolled action, e.g. ''fal-'' "sleep", ''kled-'' "stand".
* '''Class IV''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is the active agent of the verb, e.g. ''yur-'' "run", ''met-'' "speak".
* '''Class V''' verbs are transitives.
Some roots may belong to more than one class with a change of meaning, e.g. ''yur-'' "run" may be Class IV when the subject is an animate noun and the sense is "propel oneself quickly" but is Class III when the subject is inanimate and the sense is "flow, move quickly".
===Aspect===
Verbal aspect is marked by altering the form of the root itself or by adding suffixes to the primary root:
* The primary root is '''imperfective''', describing ongoing actions, e.g. ''ker-'' "rules, ruling", ''fal-'' "sleeping, sleeps".
* The lengthened root is '''perfective''', describing completed actions, e.g. ''keer-'' "ruled", ''faal-'' "slept".
* The reduplicated root is '''frequentative''' aspect, describing repetitive events or habitual states e.g. ''kekr-'' "rules (habitually)", ''fafl-'' "sleeps (often)".
* The addition of ''-t-'' to the root creates the '''generic''' or gnomic in aspect, describing states or actions without regard to their state of completeness, e.g. ''kert-'' "rule", ''falt-'' "sleep".
* The addition of ''-n-'' to the root creates the '''inchoative''' aspect, describing the beginning of actions or 'becoming' a state, e.g. ''kern-'' "begin to rule", ''faln-'' "fall asleep".
* The addition of ''-tsat-'' to the root creates the '''intensitive''' aspect, describing more severe forms of the action or state, e.g. ''kertsat-'' "tyrranise, subjugate", ''faltsat-'' "sleep deeply". After plosives, the affix is ''-sat-'', e.g. ''kuksat-'' "gorges".
===Voice===
Voice markers function in different ways for different verbs. They are distinguished primarily for the ways in which they focus the subject or object of the verb.
* '''Patient focus''' is marked with '''''-a-''''' and is mainly used with intransitive verbs in which the subject is the patient of the verb (i.e. Classes I-III), e.g. ''dreha-'' "be red", ''tuma-'' "fall". Used with semantically transitive verbs of Class V, it is effectively a passive marker e.g. ''keyka-'' "is seen". The subject of patient focus verb is in the Abs. case and there can be no direct object.
* '''Dual focus''' is marked with '''''-i-''''' and is used only with Class V (transitive) verbs in which both the subject and direct object are stated, e.g. ''keri-'' "rule". The subject of the verb is in the ergative case and the direct object in the absolutive.
* '''Agent focus''' verbs are marked with '''''-u-''''' and are used with Class IV and V verbs, where the subject is the agent of the verb, but where no direct object is stated e.g. ''kuku-'' "eat", ''yuru-'' "run". The subject is in the ergative case for both transitive and intransitive verbs.
* '''Medial''' verbs are marked with '''''-e-''''' and are used with Class V transitive verbs when the agent and the patient refer to the same entity, creating a reciprocal or reflexive meaning, e.g. ''sape-'' "wash oneself". The subject here is in the ergative case.
* '''Causative''' verbs are marked with '''''-im-''''', which is added to intransitive verbs (Class I-IV) to create a transitive, or to transitive (Class V) verbs to make a ditransitive, e.g. ''mlak-'' "die" > ''mlakim-'' "kill", ''keyk-'' "see" > ''keykim-'' "show, explain". The subject ('causer') of the verb is always in the ergative. The subject of an originally intransitive verb or the direct object of an originally transitive verb remains in the absolutive case. The subject of an originally transitive verb is demoted to the dative.
* '''Patient Causative''' verbs take '''''-am-''''' and are used to describe an action or state which is assumed to be caused, but without reference to the 'causer', creating a passive causative, e.g. ''keyk-'' "see" > ''keykam-'' "is made to see, understands", ''mlak-'' "die" > ''mlakam-'' "is killed"
* '''Autocausative''' verbs take '''''-em''''' and create a causative in which the agent causes the action to itself, e.g. ''mlakem-'' "kill oneself".
===Subject and Object Markers===
The absolutive markers agree with the subject of a intransitive verb or the direct object of an transitive verb. The 3rd person may be animate or inanimate.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Absolutive Markers'''
|-
! width="50;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''-n'' || ''-l''
|-
! 2
| ''-ts'' || ''-h''
|-
! 3an
| ''-d'' || ''-w''
|-
! 3in
| ''-b'' || ''-r''
|}
Where the previous element ends in a consonant, the epenthetic vowel ''ə'' may be inserted, e.g. ''mumubnaməd'' "he was saddened", ''
The ergative markers agree with the subject of a transitive verb. Since inanimate nouns cannot be the agent of a verb, by definintion, there are no inanimate ergative markers.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Ergative Markers'''
|-
! width="50;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''-u'' || ''-an''
|-
! 2
| ''-isk'' || ''-enk''
|-
! 3an
| ''-et'' || ''-af''
|}
Examples:
* ''reeykinu'' "I love you"
* ''kekeykiran'' "we saw them"
* ''faalad'' "they are sleeping"
* ''yuyurut'' "he/she ran"
===Verbals Nouns and Participles===
Each verb has a verbal noun and most have one or two participles, one agent-focussed (active) and another patient-focussed (passive).
Verbal nouns are created from the root of the verb + either ''-a'' or ''-u'':
* '''Class I''' verbs take ''-a'' to create an abstract noun of state, e.g. ''dreha'' "redness (the state of being red)", ''nuka'' "darkness".
* '''Class II''' & '''III''' verbs take ''-a'' to form a simple gerund, e.g. ''tuma'' "falling", ''fala'' "sleeping".
* '''Class IV''' & '''V''' verbs take ''-u'' to form a simple gerund, e.g. ''yuru'' "running", ''kuku'' "eating".
* '''Class V''' verbs can also take ''-a'' to create a passive verbal noun, e.g. ''kuka'' "being eaten".
Verbal nouns can be formed from extended stems, e.g. ''mlagna'' "dying", ''metsatu'' "speaking quickly, babbling".
Participles are formed by adding ''-t'' to the verbal noun.
==Nouns==
==Nouns==
Nouns belong to one of three classes and are declined into eight cases and three numbers.
Nouns belong to one of three classes and are declined into eight cases and three numbers.
Line 446: Line 545:
Note that inanimate nouns do not have ergative forms.
Note that inanimate nouns do not have ergative forms.


==Verbs==
=Derivation=
Verb forms in Rathmosian are largely agglutinative and the verbal system could be described as active-stative, in which verbs are marked differently according to the degree of agency the subject has. Verbal stems are divided into five classes, according to agency, transitivity and activity. Verb roots may change internally to indicate certain aspects, and derivational prefixes and suffixes may be added to the root to alter its basic meaning. However, the conjugation of the verb is largely carried out with suffixes to indicate aspect, voice, subject and object. The order of elements is fixed in the following ways:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Elements of the Verb'''
|-
| style="width: 100px;" | Derivational <br /> Prefixes || style="width: 100px;" | '''ROOT''' ||style="width: 100px;" | Derivational <br /> Suffixes ||style="width: 100px;" | Aspect <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Voice <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Absolutive <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Ergative <br /> Marker
|}
 
===Verbal Classes===
Rathmosian verb roots are divided into five classes (I-V) according to whether they are active or stative, and how much agency the subject has. These classes affect the way in which the aspect and voice markers are used.
 
* '''Class I''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject of the verb is not the agent, and which describe fixed or ongoing states, usually translated into English with 'be' and an adjective, e.g. ''dreh-'' "be red", ''rin-'' "be alive, live".
* '''Class II''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is not the agent and which describe a change of state, e.g. ''mlak-'' "die", ''tum-'' "fall".
* '''Class III''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is not the agent, and which describe a temporary state or an uncontrolled action, e.g. ''fal-'' "sleep", ''kled-'' "stand".
* '''Class IV''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is the active agent of the verb, e.g. ''yur-'' "run", ''met-'' "speak".
* '''Class V''' verbs are transitives.
 
Some roots may belong to more than one class with a change of meaning, e.g. ''yur-'' "run" may be Class IV when the subject is an animate noun and the sense is "propel oneself quickly" but is Class III when the subject is inanimate and the sense is "flow, move quickly".
 
===Aspect===
Verbal aspect is marked by altering the form of the root itself or by adding suffixes to the primary root:
* The primary root is '''imperfective''', describing ongoing actions, e.g. ''ker-'' "rules, ruling", ''fal-'' "sleeping, sleeps".
* The lengthened root is '''perfective''', describing completed actions, e.g. ''keer-'' "ruled", ''faal-'' "slept".
* The reduplicated root is '''frequentative''' aspect, describing repetitive events or habitual states e.g. ''kekr-'' "rules (habitually)", ''fafl-'' "sleeps (often)".
* The addition of ''-t-'' to the root creates the '''generic''' or gnomic in aspect, describing states or actions without regard to their state of completeness, e.g. ''kert-'' "rule", ''falt-'' "sleep".
* The addition of ''-n-'' to the root creates the '''inchoative''' aspect, describing the beginning of actions or 'becoming' a state, e.g. ''kern-'' "begin to rule", ''faln-'' "fall asleep".
* The addition of ''-tsat-'' to the root creates the '''intensitive''' aspect, describing more severe forms of the action or state, e.g. ''kertsat-'' "tyrranise, subjugate", ''faltsat-'' "sleep deeply". After plosives, the affix is ''-sat-'', e.g. ''kuksat-'' "gorges".
 
===Voice===
Voice markers function in different ways for different verbs. They are distinguished primarily for the ways in which they focus the subject or object of the verb.
 
* '''Patient focus''' is marked with '''''-a-''''' and is mainly used with intransitive verbs in which the subject is the patient of the verb (i.e. Classes I-III), e.g. ''dreha-'' "be red", ''tuma-'' "fall". Used with semantically transitive verbs of Class V, it is effectively a passive marker e.g. ''keyka-'' "is seen". The subject of patient focus verb is in the Abs. case and there can be no direct object.
* '''Dual focus''' is marked with '''''-i-''''' and is used only with Class V (transitive) verbs in which both the subject and direct object are stated, e.g. ''keri-'' "rule". The subject of the verb is in the ergative case and the direct object in the absolutive.
* '''Agent focus''' verbs are marked with '''''-u-''''' and are used with Class IV and V verbs, where the subject is the agent of the verb, but where no direct object is stated e.g. ''kuku-'' "eat", ''yuru-'' "run". The subject is in the ergative case for both transitive and intransitive verbs.
* '''Medial''' verbs are marked with '''''-e-''''' and are used with Class V transitive verbs when the agent and the patient refer to the same entity, creating a reciprocal or reflexive meaning, e.g. ''sape-'' "wash oneself". The subject here is in the ergative case.
* '''Causative''' verbs are marked with '''''-im-''''', which is added to intransitive verbs (Class I-IV) to create a transitive, or to transitive (Class V) verbs to make a ditransitive, e.g. ''mlak-'' "die" > ''mlakim-'' "kill", ''keyk-'' "see" > ''keykim-'' "show, explain". The subject ('causer') of the verb is always in the ergative. The subject of an originally intransitive verb or the direct object of an originally transitive verb remains in the absolutive case. The subject of an originally transitive verb is demoted to the dative.
* '''Patient Causative''' verbs take '''''-am-''''' and are used to describe an action or state which is assumed to be caused, but without reference to the 'causer', creating a passive causative, e.g. ''keyk-'' "see" > ''keykam-'' "is made to see, understands", ''mlak-'' "die" > ''mlakam-'' "is killed"
* '''Autocausative''' verbs take '''''-em''''' and create a causative in which the agent causes the action to itself, e.g. ''mlakem-'' "kill oneself".


===Subject and Object Markers===
The absolutive markers agree with the subject of a intransitive verb or the direct object of an transitive verb. The 3rd person may be animate or inanimate.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Absolutive Markers'''
|-
! width="50;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''-n'' || ''-l''
|-
! 2
| ''-ts'' || ''-h''
|-
! 3an
| ''-d'' || ''-w''
|-
! 3in
| ''-b'' || ''-r''
|}
Where the previous element ends in a consonant, the epenthetic vowel ''ə'' may be inserted, e.g. ''mumubnaməd'' "he was saddened", ''
The ergative markers agree with the subject of a transitive verb. Since inanimate nouns cannot be the agent of a verb, by definintion, there are no inanimate ergative markers.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Ergative Markers'''
|-
! width="50;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''-u'' || ''-an''
|-
! 2
| ''-isk'' || ''-enk''
|-
! 3an
| ''-et'' || ''-af''
|}
Examples:
* ''reeykinu'' "I love you"
* ''kekeykiran'' "we saw them"
* ''faalad'' "they are sleeping"
* ''yuyurut'' "he/she ran"


=Syntax=
=Syntax=
=Vocabulary=
=Vocabulary=
Psammead
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