Proto-Settameric/Swadesh list

No. English PS Notes
1 I *n- Appears as *-an (1st person transitive subject), *-kan (1st person intransitive subject).
2 you (sg.) *ki- Appears as *-akʷ (1st person transitive subject), *-kəxʷ (1st person intransitive subject).
3 we *mi-
4 this *ɣi Proximal marker, contransted with *jooθə - another proximate marker, the difference between them is not established.
5 that *ət Distal marker, far from both speaker and listener. Contrasts with *da as the medial-distance marker, far from speaker but close to listener.
6 who *kʷarsə Higher animate (used when talking about humans), contrasts with *tʰam, used with nouns of a lower animacy.
7 what *wat
8 not *kää- A prefix, used together with nominals.
9 all *lčus, *nyumʼə
10 many *səłku-(t/s) The Western and the Far Eastern languages show a final *-t, while other languages point towards *-s instead.
11 one *njeem
12 two *meeja
13 big *ɣʷiin
14 long *kił
15 small *iłiiqʰi
16 woman *eełəŋ(kʼə) *kʼ only shows in the Western languages and Šillai (a Southern language).
17 man *jootuqʼee Problematic, as most languages have different words, like *(i)nees, or *ajtax (this word probably originally meant "husband").
18 person *nipeekʰ Derives from *ni- and *weekʰu "people".
19 fish *čʰuu, *qəqoon *qəqoon probably meant "salmon" and kept its original meaning in Western languages.
20 bird All branches show different words for "bird", such as *peeleeš, *lčaŋkłəs, or *cʼisqʷə.
21 horse *ilaar Dogs do not exist on Liifam, a word for "horse" is listed instead.
22 louse *θirxee
23 tree *čʰikʷee
24 seed *θalču(jŋə) The Western languages point to *θalču, while the Eastern languages point towards *θalčiiŋ.
25 leaf *pəlaŋqʼa
26 root *čʼəłəjip
27 bark (n.) *xeerɣʷa
28 skin *ʟuuqʼə, *θərə
29 meat *dääw, *diɣʷ Both *dääw and *diɣʷ gave words for "meat", but *dääw likely meant "cheek".
30 blood Reflexes of three different roots are found among different languages: *arə, *ałkʷə and *cʰooxi.
31 bone *łəqʷ, *xoockʼee
32 grease *woolxə, *njooš *nyooš likely had an adjectival meaning of "containing a lot of fat".
33 egg *tqaalx The root *nyujee, that evolved into words for "egg" in various languages, actually meant "caviar".
34 horn *wiiʟ
35 tail *čʼaakʼee, *ncaak The most common root that gave words for "tail" is *njaɣə (more precisely its doublet *ŋaɣə) "fish tail", while *čʼaakʼee "animal tail" is found only in the Southern branch. The root *ncaak probably meant "back".
36 feather *miixee, *miiqʷee The western languages point towards *miiqʷee, while the Southern show reflexes of *miixee. Various Eastern languages have reflexes of *iłoop-čə instead.
37 hair *ʟʼeepe
38 head *tʼuqʷ Various languages derive their words for "head" from *qams "face", *oori "forward", *čiiŋqə "forehead".
39 ear *ʟʼaatə, *noo(tə)x The root *noo(t)xə can not be easily reconstructed. It is only found among the Eastern languages and for some it can be reconstructed as *noox, while for others - *notxə. This is very likely a substrate word from an extinct lnguage.
40 eye *qʰałee
41 nose *łəqʼaw
42 mouth *qʷeeθ, *ooł The Far Eastern and the Southern langauges derive their word for "mouth" from *ʟʼeeqʷθə "throat".
43 tooth Various languages show reflexes of different roots: *qiɣee, *xecas, *əlʼəwnux ("tip", "blade"). *xecas often has the meaning of "fangs", while *qiɣee gives words for "needle".
44 tongue *qʰiił, *mqiił The root *mqiił looks like an old derivation of *qʰiił and likely meant "chewing". The meaning of "speaking" probably appeared from the contamination of a similar root *mqal "language".
45 fingernail Problematic, as various languages point to two roots *kʼwitʼə and *toonxə, both of which meant something related to animals, like"claws" or "scales".
46 foot *θitʼeeł
47 knee *pʼiqee, *aqeet Both roots could have meant "knee", based on the data from modern descendants.
48 hand *diim Most languages derive their words for "hand" from *-nulkʼ- ("carrying in hands"), or *-iq ("by" or "with").
49 belly *tʼaaka, *kʰis The root *kʰis likely meant "body". The Western languages derive their words from *wulun "round" instead.
50 neck *qʷaj The Eastern languages point to *səkʷeen "the rotating one".
51 breast *ipee
52 heart *tʼiŋqee, *łəmcas The Southern languages evolve their words for heart from *łəmcas, which meant "middle".
53 liver *(r,ł)aaqʷa, The Western languages show initial *r-, while the Eastern ones show . The Southern branch derives their words from *łiqʷ "meat", or *tʰištə "spleen".
54 drink *mɣoor
55 eat *qʼancə The Plain Eastern languages have *miis or *moos instead, the exact vowel can not be determined because of the sound change *oo>*ii in those languages. likely a substrate word.
56 bite *łəθkoo
57 see *noonʼə, *njən Likely old imperfective and perfective roots respectively. Most languages derive their words from both roots.
58 hear *meeʟʼ, *mi Likely old imperfective and perfective roots respectively.
59 know *qʰoom The Western languages derive their words from *fis "understand" instead.
60 sleep *kʼʷooł, *iłkʼʷə The root *iłkʼʷə is likely a later derivation of *kʼʷooł, and meant "to dream".
61 die *njapʰee, *likumʼə The root *njapʰee probably meant "dying of unnatural causes", while *likumʼə was likely "dying of old age".
62 kill *əłxəmʼa
63 swim *moor, *ool
64 fly (v.)
65 go
66 come
67 lie
68 sit
69 stand
70 give
71
72
73 moon
74 star
75 water
76 rain
77 stone
78 sand
79 land
80 cloud
81 smoke
82 fire
83 ashes
84 burn
85 path
86 mountain
87 red
88 green
89 yellow
90 white
91 black
92 night
93 warm
94 cold
95 full
96 new
97 good
98 round
99 dry
100 name