Proto-Tungric

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Proto-Tungric is the hypothetical ancestor of the Tungric languages.

Proto-Tungric
*þaudigą
Pronunciation[ˈθɑuðiɣɑ̃]
Created byShariifka
Indo-European
Early forms

Introduction

Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the PIE to Proto-Germanic sound changes.

The Italic base of Proto-Tungric (known as Pre-Proto-Tungric, or PPT for short) had the following features:

  • PPT lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.
  • The voicing of fricatives in PPT likely differed from what is usually reconstructed for Proto-Italic. In PPT, the fricatives besides /s/ are reconstructed as voiced in all positions (i.e. /ð, ɣʷ, β, ɣ/), while /s/ is reconstructed as unvoiced in most positions.
  • PPT stress rules are constructed to have been similar to those of Classical Latin, however:
    • Word-final syllables took stress if the syllable was super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel or diphthong followed by a coda consonant, or a long diphthong. However, a final *-s was ignored (i.e. it did not cause a preceding long vowel to receive stress) except in verbs.
    • Few vowel contractions had taken place at the PPT stage (note that *-eje- > *-ē- did take place).
    • Some words had analogical or sporadic vowel changes and/or stress shifts.
  • PPT lacked Classical Latin vowel weakenings.

Phonology

Orthography

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.

a-stems

Masculine or neuter.

*akraz m. "field" *juką n. "yoke"
Nominative *akraz *akrōz, -ōs *juką *jukō
Vocative *akr
Accusative *akrą *akranz
Genitive *akrī, -as *akrǭ *jukī, -as *jukǭ
Dative *akrōi *akraiz, -abiz *jukōi *jukaiz, -abiz
Instrumental *akrō *akraiz, -abaz *jukō *jukaiz, -abaz

ō-stems

Usually feminine (but sometimes masculine).

*þaudō f. "people"
Nominative *þaudō *þaudōz
Vocative
Accusative *þaudǭ *þaudōnz
Genitive *þaudōz *þaudōsą
Dative *þaudōi *þaudōbiz, -ōiz
Instrumental *þaudô *þaudōbaz, -ōiz

Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ō-stem nouns known as ī/jō-stems. These nouns took the ending * in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ō-stem endings preceded by *-(i)j- (according to Siever's Law).

i-stems

Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*minþiz f. "mind" *mari n. "sea"
Nominative *minþiz *minþēz *mari *mar
Vocative
Accusative *minþį *minþinz
Genitive *minþīz *minþijǭ *marīz *mar
Dative *minþī *minþibiz *marī *maribiz
Instrumental *minþī *minþibaz *marī *maribaz

Note: The genitive plural and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative plural are subject to Siever's law.

u-stems

Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*farþuz m. "port" *harnu n. "horn"
Nominative *farþuz *farþawiz *harnu *harnuwō
Vocative
Accusative *farþų *farþunz
Genitive *farþauz *farþuwǭ *harnauz *harnuwǭ
Dative *farþawī *farþubiz *harnawī *harnubiz
Instrumental *farþū *farþubaz *harnū *harnubaz

an-stems

Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*gamǭ m. "man" *ardijō m./f. "skilled person" *namǭ n. "name" *ankwǭ n. "fat, grease"
Nominative *gamǭ *gamaniz *ardijǭ *ardīniz *namǭ *nam *ankwǭ *ankwanō
Vocative
Accusative *gamanį *gamaninz *ardīnį *ardīninz
Genitive *gamaniz *gamanǭ *ardīniz *ardīnǭ *namniz *nam *ankwaniz *ankwanǭ
Dative *gamanī *gamambiz *ardīnī *ardīmbiz *nam *namnibiz *ankwanī *ankwambiz
Instrumental *gamani *gamambaz *ardīni *ardīmbaz *namni *namnibaz *ankwani *ankwambiz

Note:

  1. As shown in the case of *namǭ, the expected *-an- in endings was reduced to *-n- in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *-in-.
  2. *ardijǭ is an example of a heavy j-suffixed an-stem, where expected **-ijan/ijin- was contracted to *-īn-. Similarly, in light j-suffixed an-stems, expected **-jan/jin- was contracted to *-in-.
  3. Some an-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending).

ōn-stems

Masculine or feminine.

*fihtijǭ f. "the act of combing"
Nominative *fihtijǭ *fihtijōniz
Vocative
Accusative *fihtijōnį *fihtijōninz
Genitive *fihtijōniz *fihtijōnǭ
Dative *fihtijōnī *fihtijōmbiz
Instrumental *fihtijōni *fihtijōmbaz

r-stems

Masculine or feminine.

*mōþēr f. "mother" *hanþōr m. "singer"
Nominative *mōþēr *mōþriz *hanþōr *hanþriz
Vocative
Accusative *mōþ *mōþrinz *hanþ *hanþrinz
Genitive *mōþriz *mōþ *hanþriz *hanþ
Dative *mōþ *mōþribiz *hanþ *hanþribiz
Instrumental *mōþri *mōþribaz *hanþri *hanþribaz

Note: The nominative singular ended in either *-ēr or *-ōr. Otherwise, the vowel *-ē- or *-ō- was dropped (as shown above) or, in the case of some nouns, shortened to *-e- or *-a- respectively.

z-stems

Any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*amōz m. "love" *þimfaz n. "time"
Nominative *amōz *amaziz *þimfaz *þimfizō
Vocative
Accusative *amazį *amazinz
Genitive *amaziz *amazǭ *þimfiziz *þimfizǭ
Dative *amazī *amazibiz *þimfizī *þimfizibiz
Instrumental *amazi *amazibaz *þimfizi *þimfizibaz

Consonant stems

*feþs m. "foot" *hafud n. "head"
Nominative *feþs *fiþiz *hafud *hafudō
Vocative
Accusative *fiþį *fiþinz
Genitive *fiþiz *feþǭ *hafudiz *hafudǭ
Dative *fiþī *fiþibiz *hafudī *hafudibiz
Instrumental *fiþi *fiþibaz *hafudi *hafudibaz

Note: The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *-s (after unvoiced consonants) or *-z (after voiced consonants), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.

Adjectives

Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin enim) that was reanalyzed as an n-stem ending.

a/ō-stem adjectives

*twenaz "good"
Strong
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative/
Vocative
*twenaz *twenai *twenō *twenōi *tweną, -at *twenō
Accusative *twenan *twenanz *twenǭ *twenōnz
Genitive *twenas *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą *twenōz, *twenazjōz *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą *twenas, *twenazjas *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą
Dative *twenammai *twenabiz *twenōz *twenōbiz *twenammai *twenabiz
Instrumental *twenô *twenabaz *twenô *twenōbaz *twenô *twenabaz
Weak
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative/
Vocative
*twenǭ *twenaniz *twenǭ *twenōniz *twenǭ *twenanō
Accusative *twenanį *twenaninz *twenōnį *twenōniz
Genitive *twenaniz *twenanǭ *twenōniz *twenōnǭ *twenaniz *twenanǭ
Dative *twenanī *twenambiz *twenōnī *twenōmbiz *twenanī *twenambiz
Instrumental *twenani *twenambaz *twenōni *twenōmbaz *twenani *twenambaz

ja/jō-stem adjectives

These were a sub-type of a/ō-stem adjectives with a *-j- or *-ij- (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **-ija- became *-ī- and **-ja- became *-i-.

i-stem adjectives

These were declined identically to ja/jō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *-iz and *-į/it respectively instead of the expected **-(i)jaz and **-(i)ją/(i)jat. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *-in as an alternative to expected *-(i)jan.

The weak forms were identical to those of ja/jō-stems.

Consonant-stem adjectives

These were declined identically to a/ō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *-s/z and * respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **-az and **-ą/at.

The weak forms were identical to those of a/ō-stems.

Pronouns

First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns

First person Second person Reflexive
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *ekō, *ikō *nōs, *nōz *þū *wōs, *wōz
Accusative *mē *þē *sē
Genitive *mīz *nasterą *þīz *wasterą *sīz
Dative *migī *nōbiz *þibī *wōbiz *sibī
Instrumental *met, *mit *nōbaz *þet, *þit *wōbaz *set, *sit
Possessive adj. *mijaz *nasteraz *þawaz *wasteraz *sawaz

Notes:

  1. When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
  2. Possessive adjectives were always strong.

3rd person pronoun

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *iz *ijai *ijō *ijōi *it *ijō
Accusative *in *ijanz *ijǭ *ijōnz
Genitive *izjas *izjōsą *izjōz *izjōsą *izjas *izjōsą
Dative *immai *izjaiz, *izjabiz *izjōi *izjōiz, *izjōbiz *immai *izjaiz, izjabiz
Instrumental *izjō *izjaiz, *izjabaz *izjô *izjōiz, *izjōbiz *izjō *izjaiz, *izjabaz

Reflexive/Intensive pronoun

Strong
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *safsaz *safsai *safsō *safsōi *safsą, *safsat *safsō
Accusative *safsan *safsanz *safsǭ *safsōnz
Genitive *safsas, *safsazjas *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą *safsōz, *safsazjōz *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą *safsas, *safsazjas *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
Dative *safsammai *safsabiz *safsōi *safsōbiz *safsammai *safsabiz
Instrumental *safsō *safsabaz *safsô *safsōbaz *safsō *safsabaz
Weak
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *safsǭ *safsaniz *safsǭ *safsōniz *safsǭ *safsanō
Accusative *safsanį *safsaninz *safsōnį *safsōniz
Genitive *safsaniz *safsanǭ *safsōniz *safsōnǭ *safsaniz *safsanǭ
Dative *safsanī *safsambiz *safsōnī *safsōmbiz *safsanī *safsambiz
Instrumental *safsani *safsambaz *safsōni *safsōmbaz *safsani *safsambaz

Neutral demonstrative

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *saz *sai *sō *sōi *sat *sō
Accusative *san *sanz *sǭ *sōnz
Genitive *sas, *sazjas *sōsą, *sazjōsą *sōz, *sazjōz *sōsą, *sazjōsą *sas, *sazjas *sōsą, *sazjōsą
Dative *sammai *sabiz *sōi *sōbiz *sammai *sabiz
Instrumental *sō *sabaz *sô *sōbaz *sō *sabaz
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *þaz *þai *þō *þōi *þat *þō
Accusative *þan *þanz *þǭ *þōnz
Genitive *þas, *þazjas *þōsą, *þazjōsą *þōz, *þazjōz *þōsą, *þazjōsą *þas, *þazjas *þōsą, *þazjōsą
Dative *þammai *þabiz *þōi *þōbiz *þammai *þabiz
Instrumental *þō *þabaz *þô *þōbaz *þō *þabaz


Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *izaz *izai *izō *izōi *izat *izō
Accusative *izan *izanz *izǭ *izōnz
Genitive *izas, *izazjas *izōsą, *izazjōsą *izōz, *izazjōz *izōsą, *izazjōsą *izas, *izazjas *izōsą, *izazjōsą
Dative *izammai *izabiz *izōi *izōbiz *izammai *izabiz
Instrumental *izō *izabaz *izô *izōbaz *izō *izabaz

Near demonstrative

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *istaz *istai *istō *istōi *istat *istō
Accusative *istan *istanz *istǭ *istōnz
Genitive *istas, *istazjas *istōsą, *istazjōsą *istōz, *istazjōz *istōsą, *istazjōsą *istas, *istazjas *istōsą, *istazjōsą
Dative *istammai *istabiz *istōi *istōbiz *istammai *istabiz
Instrumental *istō *istabaz *istô *istōbaz *istō *istabaz
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *gehaz *gehai *gehō *gehōi *gehat *gehō
Accusative *gehan *gehanz *gehǭ *gehōnz
Genitive *gegas, *gegazjas *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą *gegōz, *gegazjōz *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą *gegas, *gegazjas *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
Dative *gegammai *gegabiz *gegōi *gegōbiz *gegammai *gegabiz
Instrumental *gegō *gegabaz *gegô *gegōbaz *gegō *gegabaz

Far demonstrative

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *allaz *allai *allō *allōi *allat *allō
Accusative *allan *allanz *allǭ *allōnz
Genitive *allas, *allazjas *allōsą, *allazjōsą *allōz, *allazjōz *allōsą, *allazjōsą *allas, *allazjas *allōsą, *allazjōsą
Dative *allammai *allabiz *allōi *allōbiz *allammai *allabiz
Instrumental *allō *allabaz *allô *allōbaz *allō *allabaz

Interrogative pronouns

  • *hwai "what, who"
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *hwai *hwēz *hwōi *hwēz *hwat *hwō
Accusative *hwan *hwanz *hwǭ *hwōnz
Genitive *hwas, *hwazjas *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą *hwōz, *hwazjōz *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą *hwas, *hwazjas *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
Dative *hwammai *hwabiz *hwōi *hwōbiz *hwammai *hwabiz
Instrumental *hwō, *hwī *hwabaz *hwô, *hwī *hwōbaz *hwō, *hwī *hwabaz
  • *hwaþeraz "which, what (of two)"

Other pronouns

Adverbs

Derived manner adverbs

The most common adverb-forming suffixes are *-ē and *-ō.

Numerals

# Cardinal Ordinal
1 *ainaz *frīsimaz, *framaz
2 *twō *alþeraz
3 *þrēz *þriþjǭ
4 *hwettwōr *hwadurþǭ
5 *hwinhw *hwinhtǭ
6 *sehs *sehstǭ
7 *siftį *siftumǭ
8 *ahtō *ahtōwǭ
9 *nawį *naunǭ
10 *tihį *tehumǭ
11 *ainatigį *ainatehumǭ
12 *twatigį *twatehumǭ
13 *þritigį *þritehumǭ
14 *hwettwōrtigį *hwettwōrtehumǭ
15 *hwinhtigį *hwinhtehumǭ
16 *sehstigį *sehstehumǭ
17 *siftintigį *siftintehumǭ
18 *ahtōtigį *ahtōtehumǭ
19 *nawintigį *nawintehumǭ
20 *twīginþī *twīginsimǭ
30 *þrīginþō *þrīginsimǭ
40 *hwetrōginþō *hwetrōginsimǭ
50 *hwinhwōginþō *hwinhwōginsimǭ
60 *sehsōginþō *sehsōginsimǭ
70 *seftumōginþō *seftumōginsimǭ
80 *ahtōginþō *ahtōginsimǭ
90 *naunōginþō *naunōginsimǭ
100 *hinþą *hinsimǭ
1000 *smīgillī *smīgillisimǭ

Notes:

  • *ainaz "one" was declined as an a/ō-stem adjective.
  • *twō "two" was declined as below:
Declension of *twō "two" (pl.)
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative *twō, *twai *twōi *twō
Accusative *twanz *twōnz *twō
Genitive *twōsą
Dative *twōbiz
Instrumental *twōbaz
  • *þrēz "three" was declined as below:
Declension of *þrēz "three" (pl.)
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative *þrēz *þrijō
Accusative *þrinz
Genitive *þrijǭ, *þrēsą
Dative *þribiz, *þrēbiz
Instrumental *þribaz, *þrēbaz
  • Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
  • *hinþą "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
  • *smīgillī "thousand" was declined as an ī/jō-stem feminine noun.
  • Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending *) except for 1st and 2nd.
  • The following adverbial numbers are reconstructed:
    • *ainas, *sims "once"
    • *twis "twice"
    • *þris "thrice"
    • *hwadurs "four times"
  • The following multiplicative numbers are reconstructed:
    • *simflaz, *simflegz, *singlaz "single"
    • *twiflaz, *twiflegz "double"
    • *þriflaz, *þriflegz "triple"
    • *hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz "quadruple"
  • The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
    • *sem/sim- "uni-, mono-, one, once"
    • *twi- "bi-, di-, two, twice"
    • *þri- "tri-, three, thrice"
    • *hwadur- "quadri-, tetra-, four"
    • *sēmi- "semi-, half"
  • The following collective numerals are reconstructed:
    • *ambō (declined as *twō) "both"
    • *twiznaz "pair"
    • *þriznaz "set of three"
    • *hwadurznaz "set of four"

Verbs

Strong verbs

Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:

1S 2S 3S 1P 2P 3P
*-ai *-istai *- *-amaz *-istiz *-ēri

The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *-i-. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).

Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:

  1. Class 1: This class had a present stem vowel of *-i-. It had two subclasses:
    a. The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *-ai- — e.g. *witēō "I see" > *waitai "I saw", *wissaz "seen"
    b. The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *-ī- — e.g. *winhō "I conquer" > *wīhai "I conquered", *wihtaz "conquered"
  2. Class 2: This class had a present stem vowel of *-u- which changed to *-au- in the past stem — e.g. *buk "I flee" > *baukai "I fled", *bukadaz "fled"
  3. Class 3: This class had a present stem vowel *-a-, *-e-, or *-i- that became *-ē- in the past stem — e.g. *dah "I do" > *dēhai "I did", *dahtaz "done"
  4. Class 4: This class had a present stem vowel *-a- that became *-ō- in the past stem — e.g. *skabō "I scratch" > *skōbai "I scratched", *skabadaz "scratched"
  5. Class 5: The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. *fipō "I drink" > *fipai "I drank", *fipadaz "drunk"
  6. Class 6: The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *-s- — e.g. *þragō "I drag" > *þrahsai "I dragged", *þrahtaz "dragged"
  7. Class 7: The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by -e-. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *-e/i- to *-a-) — e.g. *hanō "I sing" > *hehanai "I sang"
  8. Irregular: The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. *stêō "I stand" > *steþai "I stood"

Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:

  1. A j-suffix. Such verbs are said to be j-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
  2. An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
  3. A vowel suffix (usually *-ō- or *-ē-). Such verbs are called ō-presents or ē-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb *stêsi which had the suffix *-ê-.

The past participle of all verbs was formed with the suffix *-þaz which, depending on the environment, could become *-taz, *-daz, or *-saz. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually *-a- (or *-i- in the case of j-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.

The infinitive was formed with the suffix *-mį added to the present stem (including any irregularities). j-presents used a connector vowel of *-i- (light) or *-ī- (heavy). Otherwise, if the present stem did not end in a vowel, the connector vowel *-a- was used.

Example (class 3): *akamį "to do, act"

Infinitive *akamį
Present participle *akinþs
Present participle *ahtaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *ak *akjōr *ak *akjār *ēkai *ēkizǭ
2S *akiz *akizar *akjāz *akjāzar *ēkistai *ēkizēs *ak
3S *akid *akidar *ak *akjādar *ēk *ēkizē *akidō
1P *akjamaz *akiminai *akjāmaz *akjāminai *ēkamaz *ēkizēmaz
2P *akidiz *akjādiz *ēkistiz *ēkizēþiz *akid
3P *akjand *akjān *ēkēri *ēkizēn *akjandō

Example (class 3, light j-present): *dahimį "to do, make"

Infinitive *dahimį
Present participle *daginþs
Present participle *dahtaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *dah *dahjōr *dah *dahjār *dēhai *dēgizǭ
2S *dahiz *dahizar *dahjāz *dagjāzar *dēgistai *dēgizēs *dah
3S *dahid *dahidar *dah *dagjādar *dēh *dēgizē *dahidō
1P *dahjamaz *dagiminai *dagjāmaz *dagjāminai *dēhamaz *dēgizēmaz
2P *dahidiz *dagjādiz *dēgistiz *dēgizēþiz *dahid
3P *dahjand *dahjān *dēgēri *dagizēn *dagjandō

Example: *þragamį (class 6) "to drag"

Infinitive *þragamį
Present participle *þraginþs
Present participle *þrahtaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *þragō *þragōr *þragǭ *þragār *þrahsai *þrahsizǭ
2S *þragiz *þragizar *þragāz *þragāzar *þrahsistai *þrahsizēs *þrag
3S *þragid *þragidar *þragā *þragādar *þrahs *þrahsizē *þragidō
1P *þragamaz *þragiminai *þragāmaz *þragāminai *þrahsamaz *þrahsizēmaz
2P *þragidiz *þragādiz *þrahsistiz *þrahsizēþiz *þragid
3P *þragand *þragān *þrahsēri *þrahsizēn *þragandō

Example: *hanamį (class 7) "to sing"

Infinitive *hanamį
Present participle *haninþs
Present participle *hanþaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *hanō *hanōr *hanǭ *hanār *hehanai *heganizǭ
2S *haniz *hanizar *hanāz *hanāzar *heganistai *heganizēs *han
3S *hanid *hanidar *hanā *hanādar *hehan *heganizē *hanidō
1P *hanamaz *haniminai *hanāmaz *hanāminai *heganamaz *heganizēmaz
2P *hanidiz *hanādiz *heganistiz *heganizēþiz *hanid
3P *hanand *hanān *heganēri *heganizēn *hanandō

Example (class 7, heavy j-present): *bargīmį "to stuff"

Infinitive *bargīmį
Present participle *bargīnþs
Present participle *barhtaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *barhijō *barhijōr *barhijǭ *barhijār *bebarhai *bebargizǭ
2S *barhīz *bargīzar *barhijāz *bargijāzar *bebargistai *bebargizēs *barh
3S *barhīd *bargīdar *barhijā *bargijādar *bebarh *bebargizē *barhīdō
1P *bargijamaz *bargīminai *bargijāmaz *bargijāminai *bebarhamaz *bebargizēmaz
2P *bargīdiz *bargijādiz *bebargistiz *bebargizēþiz *bargīþ
3P *barhijand *barhijān *bebargēri *bebargizēn *bargijandō

Example: *stêmį (irregular, present suffix -ê-) "to stand"

Infinitive *stêmį
Present participle *stênþs
Present participle *staþaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *stêō *stêōr *stêǭ *stêār *steþai *stidizǭ
2S *stês *stêsar *stêāz *stêāzar *stidistai *stidizēs *stê
3S *stêþ *stêþar *stêā *stêādar *steþ *stidizē *stêdō
1P *stêmaz *stêminai *stêāmaz *stêāminai *steþamaz *stidizēmaz
2P *stêþiz *stêādiz *stidistiz *stidizēþiz *stêd
3P *stênþ *stêān *stedēri *stidizēn *stêndō

Weak verbs

Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:

1S 2S 3S 1P 2P 3P
*-bǭ *-bōs *-bō *-bōmaz *-bōþiz *-bōn

The *-b- was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the verb's class. The same connector vowel was also used to form the infinitive.

The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.

Class 1

Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to j-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.

The past indicative had a connector vowel *-(i)ja-, while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *-i/ī-. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.

Class 2

Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:

  • The present stem ended in *-ō-, which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *-ō- to *-ô-. In the present subjunctive, expected **-ōǭ contracted to *-ǫ̂, while expected **-ōā- became *-ōē-.
  • The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *-ō-, as in the present stem.
Class 3

There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.

The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *-ē-, which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *-ō- of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle dropped the *-ē- suffix and instead had the connector vowel *-a-.

The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *-ē- and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *-i-.

Class 4

Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-j-stem strong verbs.

The past indicative had a connector vowel *-a-, and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *-i-. The past participle had no connector vowel.

Preterite-present verbs

Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.

For example:

  • *menamį "to remember", *memanai "I remember", *menabǭ "I remembered", *minþaz "remembered"
  • *ōtamį "to hate", *ōtai "I hate", *ōtabǭ "I hated", *ōsaz "hated"
  • *(ga)knōmį "to know, be familiar (with)", *(ga)knōai "I know, am familiar (with)", *(ga)knōbǭ "I knew, was familiar (with)", *(ga)knōþaz "known"
  • *(ga)swedamį "to be used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedai "I am used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedabǭ "I was used/accustomed to", *(ga)swessaz "accustomed"
  • *emamį "to have, own", *ēmai "I have, own", *emabǭ "I had, owned", *imþaz "had, owned"
  • *simį "to be allowed", *sisai "I am allowed", *sibǭ "I was allowed", *siþaz "allowed"
  • *hrimį "to be determined", *hrisai "I am determined", *hribǭ "I was determined", *hriþaz "determined"
  • *(ga)flēmį "to suffice, be enough", *(ga)flēai "I suffice, am enough", *(ga)flēþaz "sufficed, enough"
  • *þelamį "to owe, have to", *þeþalai "I owe, have to", *þelabǭ "I owe, had to", *þelþaz "owed, had to"
  • *afamį "to be necessary/suitable", *ēfai "I am necessary/suitable", *afabǭ "I was necessary/suitable", *aftaz "necessary/suitable"

The verb "to be"

The verb "to be" had two stems *(i)s- and *beu/bus-. They were in fact two verbs, *immį "to be" and *biumį "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).

Infinitive *immį *biumį
Present participle *beunþs
Past participle *beudaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
*immį *biumį 1 *biumį 2 *immį *biumį *biumį *immį *biumį
1S *izą *bewō *buzą *sijǭ *buzǭ *bebewai *issǭ *bebeuzǭ
2S *iz *beuz *buz *sijēz *buzāz *bebeustai *issēz *bebeuzēz *beu
3S *ist *beud *bust *sijē *buzā *bebeu *issē *bebeuzē *beudō
1P *samaz *beumaz *buzamaz *sīmaz *buzāmaz *bebeumaz *issēmaz *bebeuzēmaz
2P *istiz *beudiz *bustiz *sīþiz *buzāþiz *bebiustiz *issēþiz *bebeuzēþiz *beud
3P *sind *beund *buzind *sīn *buzān *bebewēri *issēn *bebeuzēn *beundō

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Vocabulary

Time - *þimfaz

Seasons -
English Proto-Tungric
spring
summer *aisōþs (f., cons.-stem)
fall
winter *gijamz (*giam-; f., cons.-stem)
Parts of the day -
English Proto-Tungric
day *tijauz (m., u-stem1)
dawn *ausōz (f., z-stem)
morning
noon
afternoon
evening *wesperaz (m., a-stem)
dusk
night *nahts (f., cons.-stem)
midnight

Notes:

1 Expected **-aa- was simplified to *-a- (e.g. nominative plural was *tijawiz rather than *tijaawiz).

Units of time -
English Proto-Tungric
month
season
year *aþnaz (m., a-stem); *jōraz (m., a-stem)
Time adverbs -
English Proto-Tungric
now *nu, *nū
then
recently, a short time ago
earlier
soon, shortly
later
always
often
sometimes
rarely
never
ever
still, yet
already
today
tonight
yesterday
last night
tomorrow
before yesterday
two nights ago
after tomorrow
this week
last week
next week

Colours - *helaziz

Colours - *helaziz
English Proto-Tungric
white *albaz
grey *hasnaz
black *ōþraz
red *raudaz, *rausaz
brown *patjaz, *duswaz
yellow *gelwaz, *blāwaz
green *wīsidaz
blue *hilizijaz

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri.

Translation: All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.

PPT: Opnēs ɣomones louðeroi co(m)-plānoi-kʷe com deknotāti jowesi-kʷe co(m)-tlātai sent. Sois addōnātāi sent ratjō co(m)skijentijā-kʷe, et alterois anamām βrātrālim prōðomen tetolēri.

Classical Latin cognates: Omnēs hominēs līberī *complānīque cum dignitāte iūreque collātī sunt. *Sīs *addōnātae sunt ratiō cōnscientiaque, et alterīs animam *frātrālem *prōdimen tetulēre.

Other resources