Proto-Zanahic: Difference between revisions

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Derivational morphology
Derivational morphology
-->
-->
'''(IN PROGRESS)'''
===Nominals===
====Pronouns====
====='''Personal pronouns'''=====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Proto-Zanahi reconstructed personal pronouns
! Person/<br />Number !! Independent !! Dependent
|-
! 1S
| ’ammā || -mā
|-
! 2SM
| ’antā || -tā/-ṯā
|-
! 2SF
| ’antī || -tī/ṯī
|-
! 3SM
| hattā || -hā
|-
! 3SF
| hattī || -hī
|-
! 1P
| ’annā || -nā
|-
! 2PM
| ’antān || -tān/ṯān
|-
! 2PF
| ’antīn || -tīn/ṯīn
|-
! 3PM
| hattān || -hān
|-
! 3PF
| hattīn || -hīn
|-
|}
-->
====='''Demonstrative pronouns'''=====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Zanahi demonstratives
! rowspan="2"| Distance !! colspan="2"| Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
! masc. !! fem. !! masc. !! fem.
|-
! Near
| sā || sī || sān || sīn
|-
! Far
| tā || tī || tān || tīn
|-
|}
--
====Nouns and adjectives====
<!--
Nouns do not decline for case.
-
Consonant-final singular nouns have a construct state formed by adding a final ''-a''. If the noun ends in a vowel, it does not change. Plural nouns also do not change unless they are broken plurals<!--However, plural nouns instead change their ending (see the table below).-->
-
There are two genders: masculine and feminine.The feminine is most often marked with the ending ''-ā''<!-- (which becomes ''-at'' in the construct case)-->.
<!--
There are two numbers: singular and plural.
<!--There are three numbers: singular, dual, and plural. However, the dual is most often used for nouns that usually come in pairs; in other cases, it can optionally be replaced with the plural.-->
<!--
Adjectives agree with the noun they modify in gender and definiteness.
-
The definite article is ''han-'', which is prefixed to the noun/adjective. Before a non-guttural consonant (i.e. any consonant besides ''’, h, ‘, ḥ, ġ, ḫ, ḡ, ḵ''), the ''-n-'' is dropped and the first consonant of the noun/verb is geminated. After a prefix, the ''ha-'' is dropped. After a preposition, ''ha-'' or ''h-'' is dropped if the preposition ends in a vowel or consonant respectively.
-
There is no indefinite article.
-
Below is an example declension for the adjective ''bān'' "clear":
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of ''bān'' "clear"
! rowspan="2"| Gender !! rowspan="2"| State !! colspan="2"| Singular !! colspan="2"|Plural
|-
! indef. !! def. !! indef. !! def.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Masculine
! Absolute
| bān || hab-bān || rowspan="2"| bānīn || rowspan="2"| hab-bānīn
|-
! Construct
| bāna || hab-bāna
|-
! rowspan="2"| Feminine
! Absolute
| rowspan="2"| bānā || rowspan="2"| hab-bānā || rowspan="2"| bānān || rowspan="2"| hab-bānān
|-
! Construct
|-
|}
<!--
Many adjectives and some nouns have a feminine in ''-ē'' instead of expected ''-ā''. Adjectives ending in ''-ō'' generally have a feminine in ''-(a)wē'' (with the same stem in the plural). Examples of irregular adjectives are shown below:
-
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of ''maṣ'' "big"
! rowspan="2"| Gender !! colspan="2"| Singular !! colspan="2"|Plural
|-
! indef. !! def. !! indef. !! def.
|-
! Masculine
| maṣ || ham-maṣ || maṣīn || ham-maṣīn
|-
! Feminine
| maṣē || ham-maṣē || maṣēn || ham-maṣēn
|-
|}
-
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of ''palō'' "much"
! rowspan="2"| Gender !! colspan="2"| Singular !! colspan="2"|Plural
|-
! indef. !! def. !! indef. !! def.
|-
! Masculine
| palō || hap-palō || palwīn || hap-palwīn
|-
! Feminine
| palwē || hap-palwē || palwēn || hap-palwēn
|-
|}
-->
<!--
====Adverbs====
Adverbs of manner can be formed from adjectives or nouns with the suffix ''-ā''.
-->
====Numerals====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Zanahi numerals
! rowspan="2"| Symbol !! colspan="2"|Cardinal number !! rowspan="2"| Stem
|-
! masc. !! fem.
|-
! 0
| colspan="2"| ṣifr || ṣifr-
|-
! 1
| ‘ayn || ‘aynā || ‘ayn-
|-
! 2
| colspan="2" | ṭuwā || ṭuw-
|-
! 3
| tarayā || tarē || taray-
|-
! 4
| kaṯurā || kaṯur || kaṯur-
|-
! 5
| pankā || pank || pank-
|-
! 6
| šaššā || šašš || šašš-
|-
! 7
| haftā || haft || haft-
|-
! 8
| ‘aṣṭā || ‘aṣṭ || ‘aṣṭ-
|-
! 9
| nawā || nō || naw-
|-
! 10
| ṭasā || ṭas || ṭas-
|-
! 11
| ‘ayn ṭas || ‘aynā ṭasā || ‘ayn- ṭas
|-
! 12
| ṭuwā ṭas || ṭuwā ṭasā || ṭuw- ṭas
|-
! 13
| tarayā ṭas || tarē ṭasā || taray- ṭas
|-
! 14
| kaṯurā ṭas || kaṯur ṭasā || kaṯur- ṭas
|-
! 15
| pankā ṭas || pank ṭasā || pank- ṭas
|-
! 16
| šaššā ṭas || šašš ṭasā || šašš- ṭas
|-
! 17
| haftā ṭas || haft ṭasā || haft- ṭas
|-
! 18
| ‘aṣṭā ṭas || ‘aṣṭ ṭasā || ‘aṣṭ- ṭas
|-
! 19
| nawā ṭas || nō ṭasā || naw- ṭas
|-
! 20
| colspan="2"| ṭasīn || ṭasīn-
|-
! 21
| ‘ayn wa-ṭasīn || ‘aynā wa-ṭasīn || ‘ayn- wa-ṭasīn
|-
! 30
| colspan="2"| tarayīn || tarayīn-
|-
! 40
| colspan="2"| kaṯurīn || kaṯurīn-
|-
! 50
| colspan="2"| pankīn || pankīn-
|-
! 60
| colspan="2"| šaššīn || šaššīn-
|-
! 70
| colspan="2"| haftīn || haftīn-
|-
! 80
| colspan="2"| ‘aṣṭīn || ‘aṣṭīn-
|-
! 90
| colspan="2"| nawīn || nawīn-
|-
! 100
| colspan="2"| sint || sint-
|-
! 200
| colspan="2"| ṭuwā sintīn || ṭuwā sint-
|-
! 1000
| colspan="2"| ’alf || ’alf-
|-
! 2000
| colspan="2"| ṭuwā ’alfīn || ṭuwā ’alf-
|-
|}
Ordinal numbers are formed with the nisba suffix ''-iyy'' (feminine: ''-iyyā'') added to the number's stem, with the following exceptions:
*The ordinal equivalent of ''‘ayn'' "one" is ''partam'' "first". Its opposite is ''aftam'' "last".
*Adding the nisba suffix to numbers ending in ''-īn'' is proscribed, with the ordinal numbers being identical to the cardinal numbers. However, it is common to use the suffix in colloquial language.
<!--
===Verbs===
====Types of verbs====
There are 5 main types of verbs:
#'''Biliteral root verbs''' - have 2 root consonants
#'''Triliteral root verbs''' - have 3 root consonants
#'''Quadriliteral root verbs''' - have 4 root consonants
#'''Derived root verbs''' - verbs derived from the above with a certain pattern
#'''Suffixed verbs''' - verbs formed with an unchanging stem followed by a suffix
====Stems====
Verbs have two finite stems: perfect and imperfect. Additionally, there is a nominal stem used to form some derived nouns and adjectives.
The formation of the stems depends on the type of verb.
The table below summarizes the formation for regular primary root verbs. For derived root verbs and suffixed verbs, see the relevant sections below.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Zanahi verb stem formation
! No. !! Type !! Perfect stem !! Imperfect stem !! Nominal stem
|-
! 1 !! Biliteral root verbs
| 1a2- || -1i2-; -1u2-; -1a2- || ''Same as imperfect stem''
|-
! 2 !! Triliteral root verb
| 1a2a3- || -12i3-; -12u3-; -12a3- || 1a2i3-; 1a2u3-; 1a2a3- (''same vowel as imperfect stem'')
|-
! 3 !! Quadriliteral root verbs
| 1a23a4- || -1a23i4- ||  ''Same as imperfect stem''
|-
<!--
! 4 !! Derived root verbs
| colspan="2"| Depends on the formation
|-
! 5 !! Suffixed verbs
| S-ay- || -S-ē-
|-
-
|}
'''Notes:'''
# Legend:
#*1, 2, 3, 4: represent the root consonants
<!--
#*S: represents the stem
# If a consonant is ''y'' or ''w'', any non-stem-initial occurance of expected ''Ci'', ''Cu'', ''iC'' or ''uC'' is replaced by the corresponding long vowel (''ī'' and ''ū'' respectively for ''y'' and ''w''). Stem-initially, the vowel is instead dropped. As for expected ''aCa'' and (stem-finally in the imperfect and nominal stems) ''-aC'', it becomes ''ē'' or ''ō'' for ''y'' and ''w'' respectively.
#It is possible for an underlying archphoneme /A/ (from original laryngeals) to take the place of any of the root consonants except the first. In such a case, that consonant and its adjacent vowel(s) are combined into ''-ā-'' in all cases.
====Simple tenses====
There are three simple tenses: the perfect, imperfect, and imperative (which use the perfect, imperfect, and imperfect stems respectively). The imperative only exists in the second person.
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Zanahi verb conjugation
! Person/<br />Number !! Perfect !! Imperfect<small><sup>1</sup></small> !! Imperative<small><sup>2</sup></small>
|-
! 1S
| -mā || ma- ||
|-
! 2SM
| -tā/ṯā || ta- || (i)-
|-
! 2SF
| -tī/ṯī || ta-(n)ī || (i)-(n)ī
|-
! 3SM
| -(h)ā || ya- ||
|-
! 3SF
| -(h)ī || ya-(n)ī ||
|-
! 1P
| -nā || na- ||
|-
! 2PM
| -tān/ṯān || ta-(n)ān || (i)-(n)ān
|-
! 2PF
| -tīn/ṯīn || ta-(n)īn || (i)-(n)īn
|-
! 3PM
| -(h)ān || ya-(n)ān ||
|-
! 3PF
| -(h)īn || ya-(n)īn ||
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
<small><sup>1</sup></small> The prefix vowel is changed to ''-u-'' instead of ''-a-'' in Arabic-style passives.
<small><sup>2</sup></small> An epenthetic ''i-'' is inserted when the imperfect stem begins in a consonant cluster.
====Passive====
The passive of a verb is formed by adding the suffix ''-(a)m-'' to the stem. The addition or ommission of the ''-(a)-'' depends on phonotactics: it is added whenever necessary and dropped otherwise (which may vary even between forms with the same stem).
====Participles====
The active participle of a verb is formed with the suffix ''-ant'' (feminine: ''-antā'') added to the perfect stem.
The passive participle is formed with the suffix ''-taḵ/ṯaḵ'' (feminine: ''-taḵā/ṯaḵā'') added to the nominal stem.
There is also a rare future passive participle formed with the suffix ''-(a)mant'' (feminine: ''-(a)mantā'') added to the perfect stem. However, this ending is more often used to form derived nouns.
====Infinitive====
The infinitive/verbal noun is formed by adding the following ending to the nominal stem: ''-tīḵ/ṯīḵ''.
The feminine of the infinitive suffix, ''-tīḵā/ṯīḵā'', is used to form an "instance noun" - i.e. a noun referring to an instance of the verb.
====Other derived nouns====
*The agent noun is formed with the ending ''-tar/ṯar'' (feminine: ''-tarā/ṯarā'') added to the nominal stem.
*The instrument noun is formed with the ending ''-dar/ḏar'' added to the nominal stem.
====Tenses====
====Derived root verbs====
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|+ Zanahi derived verbs
! rowspan="3"| No. !! rowspan="3"| Form name !! colspan="6"| Usual formation !! rowspan="3"| Usual meaning !! rowspan="3"| Closest Arabic equivalent(s) (for reference)
|-
! colspan="2"| Biliteral !! colspan="2"| Triliteral !! colspan="2"|Quadriliteral
|-
! Perfect !! Imperfect !! Perfect !! Imperfect !! Perfect !! Imperfect
|-
! 1 !! Middle
| ha-1a2- || -ha-1i2-
| ha-12a3- || -ha-12i3-
| ha-1a23a4- || -ha-1a23i3-
| Middle, autobenefactive, reflexive, or anticausative || انفعل؛ افتعل
|-
! 2 !! Intensive
| 1a2-1a2- || -1a2-1i2-
| 1a22a3- || -1a22i3-
| 1a2a33as- || -1a2a33is-
| Intensive || فعّل
|-
! 3 !! Middle intensive
| ha-1a2-1a2- || -ha-1a2-1i2-
| ha-1a22a3- || -ha-1a22i3-
| ha-12a33a4- || -ha-12a33i4-
| Middle, reflexive, or anticausative of above || تفعّل
|-
! 4 !! Associative
| 1a2-ā-1a2- || -1a2-ā-1i2-
| 1ā2a3-|| -1ā2i3-
| 1a2ā3a4- || -12ā3i4-
| Assosiative or adversative || فاعل
|-
! 5 !! Reciprocal
| ha-1a2-ā-1a2- || -ha-1a2-ā-1i2-
| ha-1ā2a3- || -ha-1ā2i3-
| ha-1a2ā3a4- || -ha-12ā3i4-
| Reciprocal or reflexive of above || تفاعل
|-
<!--
! 6 !! Causative
| 1a2-dā/ḏā- || -1i2-dā/ḏā- || 1a2a3-dā/ḏā- || -12i3-dā/ḏā- || 1a23a4-dā/ḏā- || -1a23i4-dā/ḏā- || Causative || أفعل
|-
! 7 !! Middle causative
| ha-1a2-dā/ḏā- || -ha-1i2-dā/ḏā- || ha-1a2a3-dā/ḏā- || -ha-12i3-dā/ḏā- || ha-1a23a4-dā/ḏā- || -ha-1a23i4-dā/ḏā- || Middle, autobenefactive, reflexive, or anticausative of above; requestative || (استفعل)
|-
! 6 !! Causative
| 1a-na-2- || -1-n-i2- || 1a-n-2a3 || -1a-n-2i3- || 1a2a-n-3a4- || -1a2a-n-3i4- || Causative || أفعل
|-
! 7 !! Middle causative
| ha-1a-na-2- || -ha-1-n-i2- || ha-1a-n-2a3 || -ha-1a-n-2i3- || ha-12a-n-3a4- || -ha12a-n-3i4- || Middle, autobenefactive, reflexive, or anticausative of above; requestative |استفعل
|-
|}
In all cases, the nominal stem is identical to the imperfect stem unless the imperfect stem begins in a consonant cluster that is not present in the perfect stem, in which case the cluster is broken up in accordance with the perfect stem.
====Suffixed verbs====
Suffixed verbs are usually formed by adding a suffix to a nominal or (rarely) a particle. They are also used to form loan verbs. Like root verbs, they have basic and derived forms.
Suffixed verbs always have identical imperfect and nominal stems.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|+ Zanahi suffixed verb formations
! No. !! Type !! Perfect Stem !! Imperfect/Nominal Stem
|-
! 0 !! Basic
| S-ay- || -S-ē-
|-
! 1 !! Middle
| ha-S-ay- || -ha-S-ē-
|-
! 2 !! Intensive
| S-iss-ay- ||  -S-iss-ē-
|-
! 3 !! Middle intensive
| ha-S-iss-ay- || -ha-S-iss-ē-
|-
! 4 !! Associative
| S-ās-ay- || -S-ās-ē-
|-
! 5 !! Reciprocal
| ha-S-ās-ay- || -ha-S-ās-ē-
|-
! 6 !! Causative
| colspan="2"| -S-ē-ḏā-
|-
! 7 !! Middle causative
| colspan="2"| -ha-S-ē-ḏā-
|}
'''Notes:'''
# S = base stem (without the suffix)<!--; C = final consonant of the base stem-->
<!--
====Borrowed verbs====
Verbs borrowed from non-Semitic languages usually follow the suffixed conjugation.
Verbs borrowed from Arabic generally conjugate as root verbs keeping their Arabic perfect and imperfect stems (as they occur in the 3rd person masculine singular). However, causative verbs (i.e. those with the form أفعل) keep their initial glottal stop in the imperfect stem and therefore conjugate identically to quadriliteral verbs. Verbs whose perfect stems begin in a ''-w-'' that is dropped in the Arabic also do not drop it in Zanahi.
The nominal stem of such Arabic-derived verbs is identical to the imperfect stem except when the imperfect stem begins in a consonant cluster that is not present in the perfect stem. In such a case, the initial consonant cluster is broken up by inserting the first vowel of the perfect stem<!--an echo of the following vowel. For example ''katab-, -ktub-'' "to write" has the nominal stem ''katub-''.
These Arabic-derived verbs have alternative formations of the passive<!-- and participles: in addition to the regular formations, they can also be formed in the Arabic way. This means that the passive stems are taken from the 3rd person masculine singular, and the prefix vowel is also changed to ''-u-'' (instead of the regular ''-a-'' which always occurs in the active). Like in the active, the stem-initial glottal stop in أفعل verbs is maintained.
<!--** The active and passive participles are formed as they are in Arabic. Non-derived verbs use the patterns ''1ā2i3-'' and ''ma12ūl-'' (and/or their variants) respectively while derived and quadriliteral verbs use the prefix ''mu-'' identically to Arabic (including the dropping of the glottal stop in أفعل verbs).
Some Arabic-derived verbs instead use the suffix conjugation. This is more common in colloquial speech and writing, and usually happens when the verbal noun was originally borrowed from Arabic and the verb was derived from it later on. However, in formal Zanahi, it is considered preferrable to backform the verb from the verbal noun instead of deriving it via the addition of a suffix.
Verbs borrowed from Semitic languages besides Arabic are usually early borrowings that have been fully nativized. This means that they decline identically to native Zanahi verbs.
<!--
===Particles===
====Prefixed particles====
In the Latin transcription, prefixes are separated from the main word and from each other with hyphens.
*''ta-'': "of; that, who, which"
**Attached to nominals: "of (possessive)".
**Attached to verbs: "that, who, which (relative)".
**Becomes ''ṯa-'' when used possessively and immediately preceded by the vowel-final possessed noun.
*''wa-'': "and"
**Does not attach to clitic pronouns. Instead, the full forms are used.
*''ka-'': "like; that"
**Attached to nominals: "like"
**Attached to verbs: "that (forms ''that''-clauses)
*''sa-'': "with, by means of; at"
*''han-'': "the (definite article)"
**''-n-'' assimilates to a following non-guttural consonant.
**After a prefix, ''ha-'' is dropped.
**After a vowel-final preposition, ''ha-'' is dropped.
**After a consonant-final preposition, ''h-'' is dropped.
**Note that in the native script, the ''-n-'' is always written, and the ''h-'' is only dropped after prefixes. However, the Latin transcription is as above.
*''’ā-'': "to, for"
====Independent particles====
*''’aw'': "or"
*''’aṯ'': "even"
====Hybrid particles====
These particles are prefixed to clitic pronouns and independent otherwise.
*''fī'': "on, upon, against"
*''maḏ'': "with, in company with"
*''’an'': "in"
*''par'': "to, towards, until"-->
==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===

Revision as of 08:30, 5 February 2024

Introduction

Proto-Zanahic is the reconstructed ancestor of Zanahi and other Zanahic languages.

Phonology

Consonants

Reconstructed consonant phonemes of Proto-Zanahic
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m /m/ n /n/
Stop voiceless p /p/ t /t/ k /k/ ’ /ʔ/
voiced b /b/ d /d/ g /ɡ/
ejective ṗ /pʼ/ ṭ /tʼ/ ḳ /kʼ/
Affricate voiceless s /ts/
voiced z /dz/
ejective ṣ /tsʼ/
Fricative ś /s/ š /ɕ/ h /h/
Trill r /r/
Approximant l /l/ y /j/ w /w/

Vowels and Syllabics

Reconstructed vowel phonemes of Proto-Zanahic
Short Long
Front Back Front Back
Close i /i/ u /u/ ī /iː/ ū /uː/
Mid e /ɛ/ ē /ɛː/
Open a /a/ o /ɒ/ ā /aː/ ō /ɒː/
Reconstructed diphthongs of Proto-Zanahic
Short Long
/i/ /u/ /i/ /u/
/ɛ/ ey /ɛi/ ew /ɛu/ ēy /ɛːi/ ēw /ɛːu/
/a/ ay /ai/ aw /au/ āy /aːi/ āw /aːu/
/ɒ/ oy /ɒi/ ow /ɒu/ ōy /ɒːi/ ōw /ɒːu/
Reconstructed syllabic consonants of Proto-Zanahic
Consonant Short Long
/m/ m̥ /m̩/ m̥̄ /m̩ː/
/n/ n̥ /n̩/ n̥̄ /n̩ː/
/r/ r̥ /r̩/ r̥̄ /r̩ː/
/l/ l̥ /l̩/ l̥̄ /l̩ː/

Note that *i and *u (and their long forms *ī and *ū) are considered the syllabic counterparts of *y and *w respectively.

Orthography

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Morphology

(IN PROGRESS)

Nominals

Pronouns

Personal pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns

- There are two genders: masculine and feminine.The feminine is most often marked with the ending -ā.

Numerals

Zanahi numerals
Symbol Cardinal number Stem
masc. fem.
0 ṣifr ṣifr-
1 ‘ayn ‘aynā ‘ayn-
2 ṭuwā ṭuw-
3 tarayā tarē taray-
4 kaṯurā kaṯur kaṯur-
5 pankā pank pank-
6 šaššā šašš šašš-
7 haftā haft haft-
8 ‘aṣṭā ‘aṣṭ ‘aṣṭ-
9 nawā nō naw-
10 ṭasā ṭas ṭas-
11 ‘ayn ṭas ‘aynā ṭasā ‘ayn- ṭas
12 ṭuwā ṭas ṭuwā ṭasā ṭuw- ṭas
13 tarayā ṭas tarē ṭasā taray- ṭas
14 kaṯurā ṭas kaṯur ṭasā kaṯur- ṭas
15 pankā ṭas pank ṭasā pank- ṭas
16 šaššā ṭas šašš ṭasā šašš- ṭas
17 haftā ṭas haft ṭasā haft- ṭas
18 ‘aṣṭā ṭas ‘aṣṭ ṭasā ‘aṣṭ- ṭas
19 nawā ṭas nō ṭasā naw- ṭas
20 ṭasīn ṭasīn-
21 ‘ayn wa-ṭasīn ‘aynā wa-ṭasīn ‘ayn- wa-ṭasīn
30 tarayīn tarayīn-
40 kaṯurīn kaṯurīn-
50 pankīn pankīn-
60 šaššīn šaššīn-
70 haftīn haftīn-
80 ‘aṣṭīn ‘aṣṭīn-
90 nawīn nawīn-
100 sint sint-
200 ṭuwā sintīn ṭuwā sint-
1000 ’alf ’alf-
2000 ṭuwā ’alfīn ṭuwā ’alf-

Ordinal numbers are formed with the nisba suffix -iyy (feminine: -iyyā) added to the number's stem, with the following exceptions:

  • The ordinal equivalent of ‘ayn "one" is partam "first". Its opposite is aftam "last".
  • Adding the nisba suffix to numbers ending in -īn is proscribed, with the ordinal numbers being identical to the cardinal numbers. However, it is common to use the suffix in colloquial language.

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Other resources

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