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| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; font-size:2em;" | '''Wistanian'''<br />[[File:Anigalilaun.png|350px]]<br />[əˈniɡəˌlilɑn]
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; font-size:2em;" | '''Wistanian'''<br />[[File:Aningali.png|350px]]<br />[ən̻iːn̻ɡəl̻i]
|-
|-
| '''Spoken in:''' || Wistania
| '''Spoken in:''' || Wistania
|-
|-
| '''Conworld:''' || Vale
| '''Conworld:''' || Vaal
|-
|-
| '''Total Speakers:''' || ~ 50,000,000
| '''Total Speakers:''' || ~ 50,000,000
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| Taliv<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Taliv-Nati Pidgin<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''''- Wistanian'''''
| Taliv<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Taliv-Nati Pidgin<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''''- Wistanian'''''
|-
|-
| '''Basic word order:''' || Verb-Subject-Object
| '''Writing System:''' || Taliv Alphabet<br/>Bwolotil Alphabet<br/>Nati Abugida
|-
| '''Morphological Type:''' || Analytical/Agglutinative
|-
| '''Morphosyntactic Alignment:''' || Nominative-Accusative
|-
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; font-size:18px;" | '''Created by:'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; font-size:18px;" | '''Created by:'''
|-
|-
| Paul A. Daly || Began: January 2017<br/>Published: January 2018
| Paul A. Daly || Began: 10 August 2016<br/>Status: Mostly Fuctional
|-
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background color:#ffffff; font-size:18px;" | '''Further Resources'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background color:#ffffff; font-size:18px;" | '''Further Resources'''
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|}
|}


'''Wistanian''' (IPA: /wɪsˈteɪni.ən/), natively known as '''''anigalilaun''''' (IPA: /əˈniɡəˌlilɑn/), is the first [[w: Constructed_language|constructed language]] (conlang) by world-builder, writer, and professional amateur Paul A. Daly, written in 2017 and 2018. The language was created for a novel series. The first novel is near completion, but will likely remain unpublished until the author finishes his education.
<big><span style="color:red;">'''This page is currently outdated. Updates to come... eventually.'''</span></big>
 
The language is spoken on the fictional planet Vale, on a large yet isolated island called Wistania. The language belongs to the Talivian sub-family, which evolved steadily throughout the Taliv's existence. After having been settled on by the Taliv for several hundred years, the island became the new home for the Bwolotil people, who had fled to the island to hide a large collection of magical and extremely dangerous ajmastones. The Bwolitil were originally apathetic toward the Taliv until they discovered that the Taliv held one such ajmastone as a central symbol of their culture. The Bwolotil, therefore, engaged in war with the Taliv to apprehend their ajmastone. Three separate people groups also inhabited the island during this war, one of which was the Nati people who allied with the Taliv to win the war. This alliance led to the formation of the Taliv-Nati [[w: Pidgin|pidgin]], which was later named ''anigalilaun'', meaning "the language of peace". During the events of the novel series (about 300 years after the end of the war) Wistanian is the majority language of the island. The language also has a number of influences from the Katapu (sister peoples to the Nati and known for their religious traditionalism), the Uzin (a people distantly related to the Bwolotil who settled the island shortly after the beginning of the war), and the Bwolotil.
 
Wistanian is typologically an [[w: Analytic_language|analytic language]] with elements of [[w: Agglutinative_language|agglutination]]. Its grammar is initially simple to grasp, lacking noun gender and case, and possessing few verbal conjugations, although most of its difficulty is syntactic and lexical. Despite having a rather regular morphology due to pidginization, there are several groups of words within the same lexical category which operate differently from each other. Wistanian is primarily written using the Talivian Alphabet, but some alternate scripts do exist, namely the Diwa Alphabet and Nati [[w: Abugida|Abugida]].
 
==Introduction==
[[File:WistaniaMap.png|thumb|left|The island of Wistania]]
 
===Setting===
 
Wistanian is spoken on the fictional island nation of Wistania. The language stems from a pidgin created between the Nati and Taliv languages during The Wistanian War. After the peace treaty was signed, the Katapu, who were allied with Nati and Taliv but inactive in the war, documented and refined the Nati-Taliv Pidgin for use in the newly established government. Wistanian features mostly Taliv grammar, Nati vocabulary, Katapu influences, many Bwolotil loan words, and scientific terms, mathematics, and the [[w: Lunar_calendar|lunar calendar]] derived from the work of the Uzin. Wistanian's native name, ''anigalilaun'', is a compound of ''ani'' (language) and ''galilaun'' (peace). It is translated literally as "Peace Language."


The five different people groups of Wistania remained isolated from each other for part of the post-war era. However, trade and intermarriage became more commonplace, requiring a competent ''lingua franca''. This is followed by religious evangelism by the Katapu, engineering from the Uzin, and entertainment from the Nati, all of which Wistanian was the primary language for distribution and promotion. Eventually, the language became taught as a mandatory subject in school. After only a couple centuries, Wistanian advanced from a government-only auxiliary language into the national language of the island, natively and fluently spoken by most of its citizens.  
<span style="color:red;">'''Update update (27/8/2019): A brand new grammar sketch is currently in the works. Soon after that gets written, I plan for this page to be officially updated. I'm keeping it as is for now, however, because I am still using it as a reference. It's not completely obsolete, just a couple things have changed (e.g., re-labels, more details, plus there are conjunctions now). I hope to update this here very very soon. Thanks for your patience.'''</span>


As a result, Wistanian is mostly regular, with a moderately small phonological inventory and vast dialectal variation. It is the most spoken and embraced by the Taliv and Nati people groups, and the least spoken by the Bwolotil people group, who often protest the language's difficulty. The other five languages are still spoken, especially the Bwolotil language which still has a number of monolingual non-Wistanian speakers. Both the Uzin and Katapu have important texts written in their languages, while Taliv and Nati have shifted into archaism, although they are still taught in school.  
<span style="color:red;">'''Update update update (20/3/2020): Updates to this page have begun, but they are not finished. Do not trust everything you read here.</span>


===Goals===
<span style="color:red;">Headers that are currently correct: Intro, Phonology, Consonants, Vowels, Syllable Structure, Prosody, Romanization . . .</span>


Wistanian was created with three goals in mind:
'''Wistanian''' (IPA: /wɪˈsteɪniən/), natively known as '''aningali''' (IPA:[ən̻iːn̻ɡəl̻i]) and often nicknamed '''Wisto''', is an ''a priori'' artistic constructed language . Its development began in August 2016 for use in a WIP novel series by prominent characters who are monolingual or bilingual in the language. It is currently on "Version 9.1," having received several edits, updates, and an occasional total rehaul during its development.


# '''To be naturalistic, yet unique.''' It should have its own unique phonology, grammar, and lexicon, not identical to any natural language on earth, but still naturalistic and sensible.
In-universe, Wistanian is spoken by groups of fictional peoples on a large tropical island on a planet called Vaal (IPA: [veːl̻]). It is a descendant of the Taliv language after having merged with the Nati language during the Wistanian War. These two language communities worked together against the Bwolotil people who were seeking complete possession of the land. This war eventually ended with the signing of a peace treaty between four people groups, the Taliv, Nati, Bwolotil, and the Katapu who remained mostly separated from much of the fighting. About half a decade later, a fifth people group, the Uzin, joined the Wistanian union. The creole that arose from the Taliv-Nati alliance grew in popularity and loaned a large number of terms from the other languages. During the time of the novels, Wistanian has become the ''lingua franca'' of the island. It is considered the language of government, economy, and education, and it is mandatorily taught in most schools. There are approximately 50 million speakers, comprising 95% of the island's population. Of that number, 60% are native in the language and 20% speak it monolingually.
# '''To represent the Wistanian culture.''' This language was designed for songs and speeches, bedtime stories and battle cries, gentle wisdom and fierce ambition, hope and struggle. This language is designed for the Wistanians: their personality, their history, and their heart.
# '''To be novel-friendly.''' Crazy letters and long words will confuse and alienate most readers, which is why Wistanian was designed to have short, easily readable words that readers can enjoy, one small sentence at a time.


===Inspiration===
Dialects of Wistanian are broadly split into three categories: the Standard Dialect, spoken in the central mountains, major cities, and among the Taliv and Nati people groups; The Western Dialect, spoken by a majority of Bwolotil and many Uzin speakers; and The Northern Dialect, spoken by the Katapu and some Uzin. Each dialect is mutually intelligible, although some variations have diverged enough to be confusing to the standard listener. These dialects vary in pronunciation, lexicon, and sometimes syntax. Aulwin Wistanian is a mostly unintelligible variety spoken on a small island off Wistania's northwest shore.


Like most first conlangs, Wistanian started as an English [[w: Relexification|relex]] (but without tense and articles). However, after nearly six mass revisions over two years, Wistanian has become its own unique language. It's influenced by several languages, especially [[w: Spanish_language|Spanish]] and [[w: Tamil_language|Tamil]], but their influence is mostly found in the lexicon while contributing only minimally to the grammar.  
Typologically, Wistanian is a verb-initial and heavily isolating language with around 1.2 morphemes per phonological word. Its phonology is fairly small including an entirely voiced fricative set and no round vowels. Verbs conjugate for perfective, imperfective, and stative aspects with an additional irrealis form for each. Count nouns are declined for plural number only if its number is higher than five. Wistanian has a large collection of grammatical particles, honorifics, and conjunctions (which are sensitive to switch-reference), but no distinctive lexical category for adpositions, adjectives, or adverbs. The language is primarily written using the Talivian Alphabet (which has horizontal RtL and vertical UtD variants). Some alternate scripts do exist, namely the Diwa Alphabet and Nati Abugida.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==


===Inventory===
Derived from the Taliv language, trimmed down by Nati influence, Wistanian has 16 consonants and 5 vowel phonemes. All vowels are almost completely unrounded in the standard dialect, and there's a heavy trend toward voiced fricatives and plosives. Allophony is rather sparse in standard speech, however, it becomes more common in certain dialects. Syllable structure is CCVC, although onsets are restricted to single consonants or fricative-semivowel clusters and codas do not include /w/, /j/, or /ɦ/. There are three varieties of stress that are defined by vowel quality and volume. Despite clear trends, stress is irregular and lexical.  
====Consonants====
 
[[File:WistanianZoratinFlower gold.png|thumb|right|The Wistanian symbol of peace, modelled after the ''zoraddin'' flower.]]


===Consonants===
The consonants are as follows (allophones are in [brackets]):
The consonants are as follows (allophones are in [brackets]):


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# ɦ > ɣ / #_, [stress]_
# ɦ > ɣ / #_, [stress]_
# /w/ is spoken in emphasized or slow speech, while /βʷ/ is spoken in quick speech. Whenever immediately following a consonant, this is always pronounced as /w/. In the Western Dialect, it is always pronounced as /w/.
# /w/ is spoken in emphasized or slow speech, while /βʷ/ is spoken in quick speech. Whenever immediately following a consonant, this is always pronounced as /w/. In the Western Dialect, it is always pronounced as /w/.
# /r/ is spoken in emphasized or slow speech, while /ɾ/ is spoken in quick speech. In some words, the trilled is preferred even in quick speech; for example, '''''ggarauni''''' (large) is almost always pronounced [kəˈrɑni].
# /r/ is spoken in emphasized or slow speech, while /ɾ/ is spoken in quick speech. In some words, the trilled is preferred even in quick speech; for example, '''ggarauni''' (large) is almost always pronounced [kərɑni].


====Vowels====
===Vowels===


The vowels are as follows (allophones in [brackets]):
The following table features the five distinct monophthongs of Wistanian, /i e a ɑ ɯ/, in each form of phonological stress. With primary stress, they are long and tense; with secondary stress, they are short and tense; with tertiary stress, they are short and lax (/e/ and /ɑ/ never receive tertiary stress). Wistanian's one diphthong /a͡i/ has no lax form, therefore only taking on primary or secondary stress. (Secondary stress is only observed in polysyllabic perfective verbs).


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | PRIMARY
! rowspan="5" style="text-align: center;" |
! colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | SECONDARY
! rowspan="5" style="text-align: center;" |
! colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | TERTIARY (LAX)
|-
! style="text-align: center;" |  
! style="text-align: center;" |  
! style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;" | Front
! style="text-align: center;" | Front
! style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;" | Central
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;" | Back
! style="text-align: center;" | Back
! style="text-align: center;" |
! style="text-align: center;" | Front
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Central
! style="text-align: center;" | Back
! style="text-align: center;" |  
! style="text-align: center;" | Front
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Central
! style="text-align: center;" | Back
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;" | High
! style="text-align: center;" | High
| style="text-align: center;" | i [ɪ]<sup>1</sup>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | iː
| style="text-align: center;" |  
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ɯː
| style="text-align: center;" | ɯ [u]<sup>2</sup>
! style="text-align: center;" | High
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | i
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ɯ
! style="text-align: center;" | High
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ɪ
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ʊ
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;" | Mid
! style="text-align: center;" | Mid
| style="text-align: center;" | e
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | eː
| style="text-align: center;" | [ə]<sup>1</sup>
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ɑː
| style="text-align: center;" |  
! style="text-align: center;" | Mid
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | e
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ɑ
! style="text-align: center;" | Mid
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" |  
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" |  
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;" | Low
! style="text-align: center;" | Low
| style="text-align: center;" |  
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | aː
| style="text-align: center;" | a
! style="text-align: center;" | Low
| style="text-align: center;" | ɑ [ɒ]<sup>2</sup>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | a
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Low
| colspan="4" | '''Diphthong''': ai̯
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ə
|}
|}


* All vowels lengthen when stressed.
* All vowels become breathy after /ɦ/.
* All vowels become breathy after /ɦ/.
* /ɯ/ > [ʊ] / #_
* /ɯ/ and /ɑ/ shift to [u] and [ɒ] after /w~βʷ/.
# /i/ and /a/ shift to [ɪ] and [ə] whenever unstressed. The only exception is when /i/ follows /j/, /w/, or /l/ or is at the end of a word.
# /ɯ/ and /ɑ/ shift to [u] and [ɒ] after /w~βʷ/.
 
===Phonotactics===


====Syllable Structure====
===Syllable Structure===


Wistanian has a (C/Fj/Fw)V(N) syllable structure where C represents any consonant, F represents any fricative, V represents any vowel, and N represents any consonant that is not /j/, /w/, or /ɦ/.  
Wistanian has a (C<sub>1</sub>/FA)V(C<sub>2</sub>) syllable structure. (C<sub>1</sub>) can be any phoneme that is a consonant, (FA) can be any fricative (/v/, /z/, /ʒ/, or [ɣ]) immediately followed by an approximate (/w/ or /j/), V is any vowel, and (C<sub>2</sub>) is any consonant that is not an approximate (/w/ or /j/) or /ɦ/.


Syllable onsets may be any consonant or any fricative followed by /j/ or /w/:
(C/FA) refers to the optional syllable onset which can either be any consonant or a fricative/approximate cluster (/vj/, /vw/, /zj/, /zw/, /ʒj/, /ʒw/, [ɣj], [ɣw]). V refers to the required syllable nucleus which must be any vowel. (N) is an optional coda, which can be any consonant except /j/, /w ~ βʷ/, or /ɦ/. For example, legal syllables are /vjan/, /pe/, /ai̯l/, and /ɑ/, but syllables like /bjaw/, /zpe/, /ild/ and /r/ are not legal.
 
* m, n, p, b, t, d, k, ɡ, v, vj, vw, z, zj, zw, ʒ, ʒj, ʒw, ɦ, ɦj, ɦw, w, r, j, l.
 
Syllable nuclei may be any vowel:
 
* i, e, a, ɑ, ɯ, ai̯
 
Syllable coda may be any consonant that is not /j/, /w/, or /ɦ/.
 
* m, n, p, t, k, b, d, ɡ, v, z, ʒ, ɾ, l
 
====Stress====
 
Stress usually falls on the first non-lax vowel (/ai̯/, /i/, /e/, /a/, /ɯ/, or /ɑ/). But there are many exceptions, especially where the vowels /i/ and /a/ come into place since you must know whether or not those sounds are the stressed /i/ or /a/ or the lax [ɪ] or [ə]. A prime example is between the words '''''viman''''' and '''''viman''''', which are spelled identically. When stress is on the /i/ as in [ˈvimən], the word means “sugar”, but when stress is on the /a/ as in [vɪˈman], the word means “sky.” /ai̯/ and /e/ are always stressed. /ɯ/ is always stressed unless it's word-initial (in which case it will usually shift to [ʊ]). /ɑ/ is usually stressed unless non-lax /a/ or /i/ are present. Secondary stress is also lexical, but rare. Many particles and common monosyllabic words are not stressed unless the feature the /e/ or /ai̯/ vowels. (E.g.,'''va''' is normally [və], and '''zi''' is normally [zɪ]; but '''aa''' is normally [ˈe].)
 
Stress is realized through vowel lengthening and sometimes a higher intonation.


===Prosody===
===Prosody===


In Wistanian culture, speaking loudly is considered rude. Therefore, Wistanian language is typically spoken softly and clearly. It is arguably a stress-timed language that realizes stressed syllables and stressed words by lengthening vowel duration.
Wistanian speakers are usually soft and clear, as politeness and simplicity are important values in many of their cultures. In most Talivian villages, speaking loudly is considered rude and is, therefore, looked down upon. In the Southwest, the volume is typically louder. Speed also varies as the Northeast prefers slow and careful speech while the Northwest prefers fast-paced speech.


===Orthography===
===Orthography===
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====Romanization====
====Romanization====


Wistanian employs its own script, but it is romanized with a system that reflects the script and its spellings. The romanization rules are as follows:
Wistanian employs its own script, but it is romanized for Earthlings with a system that reflects the script and its spellings. The romanization rules are as follows:


* /m/, /n/, /b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /v/, /z/, and /l/ are represented with the corresponding IPA symbol.
* /m/, /n/, /b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /v/, /z/, and /l/ are represented with the corresponding IPA symbol.
Line 199: Line 185:
* /ai̯/ is represented by ⟨ai⟩.
* /ai̯/ is represented by ⟨ai⟩.
* /e/ is represented by ⟨aa⟩.
* /e/ is represented by ⟨aa⟩.
* /ɑ/ and [ɒ] is represetned by ⟨au⟩.
* /ɑ/ and [ɒ] is represented by ⟨au⟩.


Wistanian employs a number of peculiar digraphs: ⟨bb⟩ = /p/, ⟨dd⟩ = /t/, ⟨gg⟩ = /k/, ⟨aa⟩ = /e/, and ⟨au⟩ = /ɑ/, .
===Script===


When Wistanian writing was developed, /p t k/ only existed allophonically, and /e, ɑ/ did not exist at all. Therefore, glyphs were not made for those sounds. As the language changed and came into contact with other languages, /p t k/ became distinct sounds. Rather than making new glyphs, spellers decided to double up ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, and ⟨g⟩. /e/ is only present in loan words, and the emergence of /ɑ/ is not yet decided, although it's likely due to some conditional /a/ shifting and substrate influence. Since there are only three vowel glyphs, they combined ⟨a⟩ with ⟨u⟩ to represent /ɑ/ as ⟨au⟩, doubled up ⟨a⟩ to represent /e/ as ⟨aa⟩, and kept ⟨ai⟩ as the digraph for the language's only diphthong, /ai/. ⟨ii, ia, iu, ui, ua, uu⟩ are respelled as ⟨yi, ya, yu, wi, wa, wu⟩.
<big><span style="color:red;">'''ACURATE INFORMATION ENDS HERE.'''</span></big>
 
[[File:Slide1.PNG|thumbnail|left|250px|The Wistanian script.]]


====Script====
====Script====
Wistanian has an alphabet which represents the different sounds in Wistanian. The alphabet was inspired by Latin, IPA, and Greek, but is often described as Armenian-looking. The font, based on [[w: Cambria_(typeface)|Cambria]], was created using [https://sketchbook.com/ Autodesk Sketchbook] for the iPad and converted into a font using [https://www.calligraphr.com/en/ Calligraphr] and [https://www.cr8software.net/typelight.html TypeLight].
Wistanian has an alphabet which represents the different sounds in Wistanian. The alphabet was inspired by Latin, IPA, and Greek, but is often described as Armenian-looking. The font, based on [[w: Cambria_(typeface)|Cambria]], was created using [https://sketchbook.com/ Autodesk Sketchbook] for the iPad and converted into a font using [https://www.calligraphr.com/en/ Calligraphr] and [https://www.cr8software.net/typelight.html TypeLight].


The script, often referred to as '''araman taliv auzanigza''' (lit. "dishes of the Taliv") began its evolution during the Diwa oppression when the Taliv people were secretly plotting escape by setting their dishes outside their homes in certain orders to convey messages. After their escape and resettlement on the Wistanian island, the dishes gave form to the written language.
The script, often referred to as '''araman taliv''' (lit. "Talivian dishes") began its evolution during the Diwa oppression when the Taliv people were secretly plotting escape by setting their dishes outside their homes in certain orders to convey messages. After their escape and resettlement on the Wistanian island, the dishes gave form to the written language.


Another interesting feature of the script is "compound glyphs." They are /k/, /t/, /p/, /e/, and /ɑ/, and they are made by doubling or combining two different glyphs together. This is why the romanization of Wistanian uses ⟨gg⟩ for /k/, ⟨au⟩ for /ɑ/, as well as the other digraphs.
Another interesting feature of the script is "compound glyphs." They are /k/, /t/, /p/, /e/, and /ɑ/, and they are made by doubling or combining two different glyphs together. This is why the romanization of Wistanian uses ⟨gg⟩ for /k/, ⟨au⟩ for /ɑ/, as well as the other digraphs. The letter for ⟨i⟩ is also normally connected to the consonant before it.


Like the lexicon and grammar, Daly redesigned the Wistanian script multiple times - three, to be exact. The original script was an alphabet, but it did not capture the "spirit" of Wistanian, so it was scrapped for an abugida. The abugida, which was beautiful, was also difficult to learn and write, prompting yet another redesign. The original design is now considered as the old Diwa alphabet, while the abugida is an alternative script used by the Nati.
Like the lexicon and grammar, the Wistanian script has been redesigned multiple times - three, to be exact. The original script was an alphabet, but it did not capture the "spirit" of Wistanian, so it was scrapped for an abugida. The abugida, which was beautiful, was also difficult to learn and write, prompting yet another redesign. The original design is now considered as the old Diwa alphabet, while the abugida is an alternative script used by the Nati.
 
===Dialectal Variation===
 
Wistanian has three main dialects: Standard (Central), Western, and Northern.
 
The Standard dialect is explained as above and is required to be spoken by all government officials, messengers, and professional educators. This dialect is influenced heavily by the Taliv and Nati languages, and as a result is spoken predominately and naturally by those two people groups in addition to the Uzin in the northwest. However, some variation is still present, primarily in regards to word-final plosive dropping (e.g. '''alaudd''' (tall, high) <code>[əˈlɑt] > [əˈlɑ]</code>), a habit present in most children and domestic laborers. Uzin speakers have a similar shift, <code> {p t k} > [ʔ] / _#</code>, including <code>a > æ</code> and <code>j > ʎ / V_V</code>. Regardless, this is only considered a "variation" of the Standard Dialect that government officials and messengers ought to train against.
 
The Western Dialect, spoken predominately by the Bwolotil, has several distinguishing factors, specifically the complete rounding of /ɯ ɑ/ to /u ɒ/ and the rounding of /i e/ to /y ø/ after /w/. Schwas are commonly dropped in between consonants, and /n/ is dropped before /ɡ k/. This dialect also has several lexical differences, such as different kinship terms, specialized vocabulary, unique figures of speech, and the lack of honorifics. This dialect also features a formal register, spoken among Bwolotil strangers, where VSO word order is replaced with SOV word order.
 
The Northern Dialect, spoken by many Katapu, is primarily distinguished through extensive devoicing in both fricatives and plosives so that words such as '''vigaz''' /viɡaz/ are pronounced [fikas]. Standard /p t k/ are ejectivized as /p' t' k'/. This dialect also tends to put nasals and voiced plosives as interchangeable so that '''ani''' could be pronounced as [ani] or [adi]. Vowels also undergo a number of shifts, such as <code>ɯ, ɑ > ʊ, o</code>. Like the Western Dialect, the Northern dialect features different kinship terms, specialized vocabulary, unique figures of speech, and a formal register. In contrast, the Katapu has a large collection of honorifics which are based on age, sex, and occupation.
 
One sound change that varies among the dialects is the qualities of the /a/ and /ɑ/ vowels. In the standard accent, they are supposed to be distinctly [a] and [ɑ], however some speakers broaden the distinction by realizing /a/ as [æ]. Speakers of the Northern Dialect shift /ɑ/ to [o], and speakers of the Western Dialect recognize /ɑ/ as its rounded variant [ɒ]. In the Northeast and scattered regions of the central mountains, /a/ and /ɑ/ tend to merge into [a], making some minimal pairs such as '''bani''' (to make) and '''bauni''' (game) homonyms.


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
''needs expansion''


Wistanian follows a fairly rigid syntax and tight grammar for a number of historical reasons. Firstly, due to its pidginization with the Nati language, Taliv lost most of its irregularities and exceptions. Secondly, as the Katapu began to teach Wistanian, they had spread false information to "make more sense" of the language, which resulted in further simplification that was later adopted as standard. In Wistanian's infancy, it was almost engineered to be as efficient as possible. However, learners were still able to incorporate features from their native language into Wistanian, providing it with several of its current syntactical quirks (e.g., imperative word order was introduced by the Taliv learners).  
Wistanian follows a fairly rigid syntax due to its recent creolization and standardization at its in-universe conception. In almost all cases, Wistanian is verb-initial, followed by the nominative, accusative, instrumental, then purposive noun phrases.


===Lexical Categories===
===Lexical Categories===


Wistanian has five traditional lexical categories (parts of speech): the noun ('''davagg'''), the verb ('''anai'''), the modifier ('''yigbizaun'''), the particle ('''mauvaldul'''), and the honorofics ('''jili''').  
Wistanian has six lexical categories, the noun, verb, particle, coordinator, honorific, and interjection.  


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! style="text-align: center;" | Nouns
! style="text-align: center;" | Nouns
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | davagg
| Any word that can act as a subject or object the verb and is able to be either the head or attributive in a compound.
| Any word that takes on nominal morphology and can act as a subject or object the verb.
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Verbs
! style="text-align: center;" | Verbs
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | anai
| Any word that takes on verbal morphology and describes a state or action.
| Any word that takes on verbal morphology.
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Modifiers
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yigbizaun
| Any word that describes or specifies another word.
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Particles
! style="text-align: center;" | Particles
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | mauvaldul
| Any word that has a grammatical role and cannot take on any additional morphemes.
| Any word that has a grammatical role and cannot take on any additional morphemes.
|-
! Coordinator
| Any word that connects two or more words of a similar lexical category or two or more clauses.
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Honorifics
! style="text-align: center;" | Honorifics
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jili
| A polite title used with many proper nouns.
| A polite title used with many proper nouns.
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Interjection
| Any word that can stand alone and expresses a feeling or platitude.
|}
|}


Some scholars argue that there are more parts of speech. For example,'''wi''' and '''igza''' are arguably more semantically fit to be postpositions. However, they are treated like modifiers morphologically, and therefore labeled as such. Relativizers '''va''', '''na''', '''ggaun''', and '''ddal''' could possibly constitute their own part of speech since they do act slightly differently than most particles and carry both a semantic and grammatical meaning.  
===Word Order===
 
Wistanian is predominately head-initial and verb-initial. This is manifested in that particles are always expressed first in a particle phrase (PartP), head verbs are expressed first in a verb phrase (VP), and head nouns are expressed first in a noun phrase (NP).  


Nouns include colors, numbers, and possessive pronouns, therefore they are never treated as modifiers. In order to use them to modify a noun, one must use the relativizer particle '''va'''.  
'''viga dari aa garauda bi.'''
vig-a    dari aa  garauda+bi.
eat-IPV  boy  ACC food+good
"The boy is eating good food."


'''alalyi dari va din.'''
This sentence is made up of the following phrases, the heads in '''bold''':
alali-i  dari '''va din'''.
run  -TEL boy  '''COP.REL three'''.
"The three boys ran (to something)."


===Word Order===
* VP: '''viga'''... garauda
* NP: '''dari'''; '''garauda''' bi
* PartP: '''aa''' garauda


Wistanian has predominant [[w: Verb–subject–object|Verb-Subject-Object]] word order, modifiers that follow their head, post-positional suffixes, and particles that come before their head. Modifier phrases will usually come at the beginning or end of the sentence.
Most of time, declarative and interrogative sentences will be expressed as verb-subject-object (VSO). However, imperative sentences use verb-object-subject (VOS). In the formal register of the Western Dialect, the word order changes dramatically into subject-object-verb (SOV), due to the SOV word order of the Bwolotil language spoken in those areas.  


  '''azavyi ravu miram wi daz ilam aa naulam ggarauni va din ggaun maumu va zi.'''
  '''auv bimaj daridd, auzunwaj aa ujadi va jin, lu.'''
  azavi-i   ravu miram wi  daz ilam aa  naulam ggarauni va  din   ggaun maumu  va  zi.
  auv  bima-a  -j   daridd, auzunu-a -j  aa  ujadi va  jin,   lu.
  carry-TEL fast store ADE man young ACC melon  large    COP three BEN  mother COP 3Sa.POSS.
  TEMP fall-DUR-IRR rain,  arrive-DUR-IRR ACC house COP green, 2S.NOM.  
  "The young man quickly carried large melons that are three to the store for his mother."
  "When the rain falls, come into the house that is green."
*carried fast store to man young melons which.is three large for mother who.is his.


===Questions===
===Questions===
Line 272: Line 268:
====Polar====
====Polar====


Typically, Yes/No questions will consist of a statement followed by '''''zau'''''/'''''baun''''' (Yes/No).
Typically, Yes/No questions will consist of a statement followed by '''zau'''/'''baun''' (Yes/No).


  '''magin va raul, zau a?'''
  '''magin va raul, zau a?'''
Line 290: Line 286:
  '''yigai auzi aa a?'''
  '''yigai auzi aa a?'''
  yiga -i  auzi    '''aa  a'''?
  yiga -i  auzi    '''aa  a'''?
  speak-TEL 3Sa.NOM '''ACC Q'''.
  speak-PRF 3Sa.NOM '''ACC Q'''.
  "What did he say?" (Lit. "He said...?")
  "What did he say?" (Lit. "He said...?")


  '''ddaij yaun auv a?'''
  '''ddaj yaun auv a?'''
  dda-i -j  yaun  '''auv  a'''?
  dda-a -j  yaun  '''auv  a'''?
  go -TEL-IRR 1P.NOM '''when Q'''?
  go -DUR-IRR 1P.NOM '''when Q'''?
  "When will we go?" (Lit. "We will go when/during...?)
  "When will we go?" (Lit. "We will go when/during...?)


  '''yi luj ddal a?'''
  '''luj va yi ddal a?'''
  yi      luj  '''ddal a?'''
luj  va yi      '''ddal a?'''
  1S.POSS boat '''LOC  Q'''?
  boat COP 1s.POSS '''LOC  Q'''?
  "Where is my boat?" (Lit. "My boat is located in...?)
  "Where is my boat?" (Lit. "My boat is located in...?)


Line 313: Line 309:


  '''vigaj aa garauda baul.'''
  '''vigaj aa garauda baul.'''
  viga-a   '''-j'''  aa  garauda '''baul'''.
  viga-a   '''-j'''  aa  garauda '''baul'''.
  eat -ATEL '''-IRR''' ACC food    '''HON'''.
  eat -DUR '''-IRR''' ACC food    '''HON'''.
  "Please, eat the food, sir."
  "Please, eat the food, sir."


  '''viga aa garauda.'''
  '''viga aa garauda.'''
  viga-a   '''-∅''' aa  garauda '''∅'''
  viga-a   '''-∅''' aa  garauda '''∅'''
  eat -ATEL   ACC food  
  eat -DUR   ACC food  
  "Eat the food (as a rude demand)."
  "Eat the food (as a rude demand)."


Line 372: Line 368:


  '''mala yaun gaun vizaniya aa ujadi.'''
  '''mala yaun gaun vizaniya aa ujadi.'''
  mala -a   yaun  gaun '''vizana-iya''' aa  ujadi.
  mala -a   yaun  gaun '''vizana-iya''' aa  ujadi.
  fight-ATEL 1P.NOM ACT  '''come  -STA''' ACC house.
  fight-DUR 1P.NOM ACT  '''come  -STA''' ACC house.
  "We fight inside the house."  
  "We fight inside the house."  
  * "fight we who have come into the house"
  * "fight we who have come into the house"
Line 379: Line 375:
  '''yaun vizaniya aa ujadi.'''
  '''yaun vizaniya aa ujadi.'''
  yaun  '''vizana-iya''' aa  ujadi.
  yaun  '''vizana-iya''' aa  ujadi.
  1P.NOM '''come -STA''' ACC house.
  1P.NOM '''come -STA''' ACC house.
  "We are in the house."
  "We are in the house."
  * "We have come into the house."
  * "We have come into the house."


Locative clauses do not modify verbs directly, but rather modify the subject. This includes sentences that use verbs like "go."
Many verbs do not need a directional adposition or modifier, since direction is already encoded in many verbs when they are transitive. For example, '''dda''' means "to go to", and '''buda''' means "to walk to".
 
'''dda yau aa luj.'''
dda  -a  yau    aa  luj.
go.to-DUR 1S.NOM ACC boat
"I am going to the boat."
 
'''nada yau aa luj wi.'''
nada-a      yau    aa  luj  wi.
walk.to-DUR 1S.NOM ACC boat ADE.
"I am walking near the boat."
 
'''nada yau aa luj igza.'''
nada  -a  yau    aa  luj  igza.
walk.to-DUR 1S.NOM ACC boat DSTV.
"I am walking away from the boat."
 
===Modification and Description===
 
Wistanian does not have a separate lexical category for determiners, adjectives, or adverbs. Rather these roles are replaced entirely by stative verbs, subordinate nouns, and other processes such as productive reduplication.
 
Since stative verbs describe a state, identity, or condition of a verb, many of them can be used instransitively as 'to be X. For example, '''bimiya''' (<code>fall-STA</code>) means 'to be fallen'; '''haayiya''' (<code>live-STA</code>) means 'to be alive'; '''iyiniya''' (<code>finish-STA</code>) means 'to be done.' This takes care of many phrases that English would use a predicate adjective for.
 
'''dajiya yau.'''
'''daji-iya''' yau.
'''hide-STA''' 1S.NOM.
"I am hidden"
 
'''zahuniya yau.'''
'''zahuna-iya''' yau
'''hunger-STA''' 1S.nom
"I am hungry."
 
In the cases when the stative verb is not the main VP within a sentence, it is attached to its head with the active relativizer particle '''gaun'''.
 
'''ihilya lima gaun dajiya.'''
ihili-a  lima '''gaun''' daji-iya
laugh-DUR girl '''ACT'''  hide-STA.
"The hidden girl is laughing."
/"laughing girl who hides."
 
'''viga dari gaun zahuniya aa garauda.'''
viga-a  dari '''gaun''' zahuna-iya aa  garauda.
eat -DUR boy  '''ACT'''  hunger-STA ACC food.
"The hungry boy is eating food"
/"eating boy who hungers (ACC) food."
 
Wistanian nouns compound often and productively. Compounds are always head initial, followed by the subordinate noun. For example:
 
'''ariyau garauvi'''
basket water
"water basket"
'''ariz  mauddan'''
brush hair
"hairbrush"
 
(SIDENOTE: Some of the most common compounds are represented orthographically as one word, however this is of little consequence in spoken Wistanian.)
 
Colors, possessives, numbers, and determiners act as nouns, and therefore can be featured after a noun to be its subordinate.
 
'''jiyag bayaari''' '''jiyag yi'''
leaf  brown leaf  mine
"brown leaf "my leaf"
'''jiyag din'''         '''jiyag id'''
leaf  three leaf  this
"three leaves" "this leaf"
 
Because colors, possessives, numbers, and determiners are nouns, they can effectively act as agents and patients within a sentence, fulfilling any and every role as a normal noun can.
 
'''duliya yau aa bayaari.'''
dula  -iya yau    aa  '''bayaari.'''
put.on-STA 1S.NOM ACC '''brown.'''
"I am wearing the brown thing."
 
'''umaadai yi.'''
umaad-ai  '''yi'''
sink -PRF '''mine'''
"Mine sank."
 
'''alalya din aa ujadi.'''
alali -a  '''din'''  aa  ujadi
run.to-DUR '''three''' ACC house.
"The three are running to the house."
 
'''dajiya id.'''
daji-iya '''id'''.
hide-STA '''this'''.
"This is hidden."
 
A final option is to use a relativizer particle. This method is favorable is formal contexts. In most cases, the possessive '''na''' is used, but colors, numbers, and possessives can also use the copulative particle '''va'''. This is slightly different than using a subordinate noun, since subordinate nouns help identify the head, whereas ''na'' and ''va'' phrases add new information to the head.
 
'''magin na lizai.'''
magin '''na  lizai'''.
table '''POSS great'''.
"The table is great."
/"The table has greatness."
 
'''magin va bayaari.'''
magin '''va  bayaari'''.
table '''COP brown'''.
"The table is brown"


  '''ddai yau ujadi wi.'''
  '''magin na bayaari.'''
  dda-i  yau    ujadi wi.
  magin '''na bayaari'''.
  go -TEL 1S.NOM house ADE.
  table '''POSS brown'''.
  "I go to the house."
  "The table is brown."
  * "go I house near."
  /"The table has brown."


  '''nada lu luj igza.'''
  '''jwai yau aa garauda ddal magin na bayaari.'''
  nada-a lu luj igza.
  ju -ai  yau    aa  garauda ddal magin '''na bayaari'''.
  walk-ATEL 2S.NOM boat DSTV.
set-PRF 1S.NOM ACC food    LOC  table '''POSS brown'''.
  "You walk away from the boat."
"I put the food on the table, which is brown."
  * "walk you boat away."
 
In some instances, nouns refer to a quality such as "loveliness", "peacefulness", "quietness", or "loudness".
 
'''yigai dari urabaa.'''
yiga -ai  dari '''urabaa'''
speak-PRF boy  '''loudness'''
"The loud boy spoke."
/"The loudness boy spoke."
 
  '''yigai urabba.'''
yiga -ai  '''urabaa'''.
speak-PRF '''loudness'''.
"The loud one spoke."
/"The loudness spoke."
 
'''yigai dari aa urabaa.'''
yiga -ai  dari aa  '''urabaa'''.
speak-PRF boy  ACC '''loudness'''.
"The boy spoke something loud."
/"The boy spoke loudness."
 
There are also no adverbs, such as the word "loudly" in "the boy spoke loudly." Since this is a description of how or with what the verb was accomplished, the Wistanian speaker will use the instrumental particle '''il'''.
 
'''yigai dari il urabaa.'''
yiga -ai  dari '''il  urabaa'''.
speak-PRF boy  '''INST loudness'''.
"The boy spoke loudly."
/"The boy spoke with loudness."
 
Reduplication is another form of intensifying a verb or indicating a repeated action. To intensify a verb, simply reduplicate the entire verb (favored in formal contexts) or just the final syllable (favored in informal contexts).
 
'''hadiya hadiya yau.'''
'''hadu-iya hadu-iya''' yau.
'''know-STA know-STA''' 1S.NOM.
  "I know very well." (Formal)
 
'''hadiyaya yau.'''
'''hadu-iya~ya'''  yau
'''know-STA~AUG''' 1S.NOM
"I know very well." (Informal)
 
To indicate a repeated action, reduplicate the verb including the coordinating particles '''ya'''. The reduplicated verbs are often marked the same.
 
'''ya yiga ya yiga auzi.'''
'''ya yiga-a  ya yiga-a'''  auzi.
'''CO talk-DUR CO talk-DUR''' 3Sa.NOM.
"He keeps talking."
/"He is talking and is talking."
 
'''ya yigai ya yigai auzi.'''
'''ya yiga-ai  ya yiga-ai'''  auzi.
'''CO talk-PRF CO talk-PRF''' 3Sa.NOM
"He kept talking."
  /"He talked and talked."


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
Line 413: Line 564:
====Pronouns====
====Pronouns====


Pronouns come in five persons: first, second, third animate, third inanimate, and third person spiritual. These four persons are split into three grammatical categories:
''currently being rehauled''
 
====Compounding====
[[File:Auvinauj.png|350px|thumb|right|'''auvinauj''', the name a nocturnal and bioluminescent bird native to Wistania, is a product of productive noun compounding. The head root for "bird" ('''auvi''') is followed by the subordinate root for "night" ('''nauj''').]]
 
Both improper nouns and pronouns can undergo compounding. Improper nouns undergo subordinative compounding, while pronouns undergo coordinating compounding. Proper nouns are never compounded.
 
Subordinative compounds consist of two improper nouns, one is the subject noun, and the other is the modifying noun. Consider the compound “toothbrush.” “Brush” is what the noun is actually referring to, and “tooth” specifies what type of brush it is. Wistanian compounds are head-initial so that the main noun comes first as if one were to say “brushtooth.”


* '''Nominative''' (<code>NOM</code>) Used as the subject of the sentence.
vindi  -gin
* '''Accusative''' (<code>ACC</code>) Used as the object of the sentence.
partner-road
* '''Possessive''' (<code>POSS</code>) Used for possession.
"Road partner" (One who travels with another)


=====1st Person=====
Coordinating compounds are formed of two pronouns and can expand the semantic reach of a pronoun.


First person singular (<code>1S</code>) pronouns are used to refer to the speaker. First person plural (<code>1P</code>) is used to refer to the speaker and an indeterminate number of others.
yaulu
1S.NOM-2S.NOM
"Me and you / You and I"
 
In this instance, the pronouns have dropped the "and" conjunctions and joined together. This would be similar to saying "Meyou are eating dinner together." rather than "Me ''and'' you are eating dinner together." This joining cannot be random, however. The terms must be ordered as such: 1st > 2nd > 3rd An. > 3rd Inan. > 3rd Sp.
 
GOOD                BAD
luhauzi              auzilu
lu    -(h)auzi      auzi  -lu
2S.NOM-3Sa.NOM      3Sa.NOM-2S.NOM
"You and he."        "He and you."
 
===Verbs===
 
''needs expansion''
 
Verbs, which tend to be expressed at the beginning of a sentence, are defined as any state or action applied to or applied by the subject. Wistanian verbs conjugate between the stative aspect, durative aspect, durative/perfect aspect, and irrealis mood. There are also a number of verbal particles (featured at the beginning of a VP) that denote conditional, telic, gnomic, permissive, obligative, and potential moods. There are a number of suffixes that can derive nouns from verbs. Tense is not marked but rather implied through context.
 
All verbs possess either an ⟨-a⟩, ⟨-i⟩, or ⟨-u⟩ stem. Nouns or loan words that are added to the Wistanian lexicon are typically given the ⟨-a⟩ stem. Therefore ⟨-i⟩ and ⟨-u⟩ stems are usually attributed to verbs from Taliv unless a non-Talivian verb already ended with ⟨-i⟩ or ⟨-u⟩ (or a similar sound). These stems influence the conjugation paradigms of a verb, mainly by shifting to ⟨y⟩ if the stem is ⟨-i⟩ or ⟨w⟩ if the stem is ⟨-u⟩. Unconjugated, the verb acts as a gerund.
 
All Wistanian verbs are ambitransitive, meaning that they can be either intransitive or transitive. This is accomplished by assuming a directional semantic role upon a verb. For example, '''buda''' means "walk" as an intransitive durative verb and means "walk to" as a transitive durative verb. '''aadi''' can mean "sit" as an intransitive stative verb or "sit on" as a transitive stative verb. This can also be achieved by allowing phrases such as "I sleep a nap," and "It rained a storm."
 
====Aspect====
 
Aspect is chiefly lexical in Wistanian, conjugating verbs as either stative, which indicated a state of the subject noun, or durative, which indicates the action of a subject. For example, the verb '''hadu''' means "know" in the stative and "learn" in the durative. The verb '''dula''' means "wear" in the stative and "put on" in the durative. The verb '''vaiza''' means "need" in the stative and "run out of" in the durative.
 
The durative verb can also take on an additional suffix, the perfect ⟨-i⟩, which reacts to the durative ⟨-a⟩, becoming ⟨-ai⟩.
 
The conjugation paradigm of Wistanian is mostly regular due to pidginization, although some irregularities exist. Typically, the ⟨-a⟩ stem with be replaced with durative ⟨-a⟩, perfect ⟨-ai⟩, and stative ⟨-iya⟩. The ⟨-i⟩ and ⟨-u⟩ stems will shift in ⟨y⟩ and ⟨w⟩ respective before taking on the aspect markers. However, monosyllabic verbs that begin with a non-fricative consonant undergo epenthesis (the addition of a sound). When with the ⟨-a⟩ stem, it will be replaced with durative ⟨-aha⟩, perfect ⟨-ai⟩, and stative ⟨-ahiya⟩. When with the ⟨-i⟩ stem, it is replaced with durative ⟨-aya⟩, perfect ⟨-ayai⟩, and stative ⟨-iya⟩. When with the ⟨-u⟩ stem, it is replaced with durative ⟨-awa⟩, perfect ⟨-awai⟩, and stative ⟨-awiya⟩. Verbs ending in ⟨-iya⟩ also take on an irregular conjugation in which ⟨-iya⟩ is replaced with durative ⟨-a⟩, perfect ⟨-ai⟩, stative ⟨-iya⟩ rather that just the ⟨-a⟩ stem.
 
The only single vowel verb is '''u''' (to drink) and is conjugated as durative '''wa''', perfect '''wai''', and stative '''wiya'''.  


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!  
! style="text-align: center;" |
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Nominative
! style="text-align: center;" | Stative
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Accusative
! style="text-align: center;" | Durative
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Possessive
! style="text-align: center;" | Perfect
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | dula
| style="text-align: center;" | ''duliya''<br />(to be wearing)
| style="text-align: center;" | ''dula''<br />(to be putting on)
| style="text-align: center;" | ''dulai''<br />(to have put on)
|-
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Singular
! style="text-align: center;" | aadi
| style="font-style:italic;" | yau
| style="text-align: center;" | ''aadiya''<br />(to be sitting)
| style="font-style:italic;" | dau
| style="text-align: center;" | ''aadya''<br />(to be sitting down)
| style="font-style:italic;" | yi
| style="text-align: center;" | ''aadyai''<br />(to have sat down)
|-
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Plural
! style="text-align: center;" | hadu
| style="font-style:italic;" | yaun
| style="text-align: center;" | ''hadiya''<br />(to be knowing)
| style="font-style:italic;" | daun
| style="text-align: center;" | ''hadwa''<br />(to be learning)
| style="font-style:italic;" | yin
| style="text-align: center;" | ''hadwai''<br />(to have learned)
|}
|}


=====2nd Person=====
=====Stative=====


2nd person singular (<code>2S</code>) pronouns are used to refer to the listener/reader. 2nd person plural (<code>2P</code>) is used to refer to two or more listeners/readers.
Stative verbs (<code>STA</code>) describe a situation or action that is unchanging over a long period of time. Stative verbs do not describe temporary actions, but rather the result of a temporary action or a series of temporary actions that identify the subject. They are marked on a verb by dropping the stem and adding ⟨-iya⟩.
  '''yigiya yau anigalilaun.'''
  yiga '''-iya''' yau    ani    -galilaun
  speak'''-STA''' 1S.NOM language-peace.
  "I speak Wistanian." / "I am a speaker of Wistanian"


{| class="wikitable"
The verb in the above sentence informs the listener (or reader) that the subject, the speaker, speaks Wistanian, and does so homogenously and for a long period of time. It is a state that identifies the subject; i.e., it can easily be translated into "I am a speaker of Wistanian." A more dynamic conjugation would likely infer that the speaker is only speaking temporarily.
!
 
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Nominative
This can also refer to something called the ''resultative'', which applies to verbs that do not inherently express a stative act. For example, '''bima''' describes the motion from a high place to a low place. This involves movement and change, which the stative conjugation does not mess with. Instead, '''bima''' in the stative means "to be fallen (i.e., lying on the ground after a fall)". Lying on the ground is a stative action, which is also a result of a previous non-stative action. Another example for this is the verb '''dula''', "to put on, clothe", which, in the stative, translates as "to wear" (or in a more roundabout way: "to have put on").
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Accusative
 
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Possessive
=====Durative=====
|-
 
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Singular
The durative aspect (<code>DUR</code>) is a dynamic aspect which indicates that an action is in progress from one state to another.
| style="font-style:italic;" | lu
 
| style="font-style:italic;" | liv
  '''yiga yau anigalilaun.'''
| style="font-style:italic;" | luhi
  yiga '''-a'''  yau    ani    -galilaun.
|-
  speak'''-DUR''' 1S.NOM language-peace.
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Plural
  "I am speaking Wistanian."
| style="font-style:italic;" | lun
 
| style="font-style:italic;" | livan
This sentence informs the listener that the speaker is in the process of speaking Wistanian. Unlike in the stative example, which simply indicated that the speaker knows and has the ability to speak Wistanian, the durative is indicating that the speaker is actually speaking it at the present moment. This aspect strongly implies the verb is present and imperfect, grammatically, although context could give more precise details.
| style="font-style:italic;" | luhin
 
|}
Durative verbs specifically describe the process of going from one state to the other, usually opposite, state. For example, '''yiga''' in the durative describe the process from the beginning of a statement to the end of a statement. The word '''ja''', which means "want" in the stative but "falling in love" in the durative, describes the process from a state of apathy to a state of obsession. This is especially notable with '''hadu'''. In the stative, it means "to know", but in the durative, it describes the process from being ignorant to being informed: "learning."
 
=====Perfect=====
 
The Perfect Aspect (<code>PRF</code>) is applied to a dynamic verb that views the action as a completed whole, strongly implying the past tense in the realis and future tense in the irrealis. Although the perfect is formed by adding ⟨-i⟩ to the durative ⟨-a⟩, becoming ⟨-ai⟩, it is glossed only as <code>PRF</code> rather than <code>DUR-PRF</code> for the sake of saving space.
 
  '''yigai yau anigalilaun.'''
  yiga '''-ai'''  yau    ani    -galilaun.
  speak'''-PRF''' 1S.NOM language-peace.
  "I spoke (in) Wistanian."
 
As perfect, the verb '''yiga''' suggests a specific event that is a completed whole. It is important to understand the difference between the perfect and stative aspects since many stative verbs can be roughly translated as "has been X". Stative verbs are states, while perfect verbs are actions. Stative verbs are also usually still applicable in the moment of utterance while perfect verbs are usually not.
 
====Mood and Additional Aspects====
 
Mood describes the speaker's feelings or motivations toward a verb. Only one mood, the irrealis, is conjugated onto the verb stem, while others are expressed through particles that begin a verb phrase.
 
Additional aspects refer to aspects that are denoted with particles rather than conjugations.
 
=====Irrealis=====
 
Irrealis verbs describe an action that has not occurred. This mood is applied to verbs that refer to a future state or action, interrogative and polite imperative sentences, and conditional, obligative, and potential moods. Irrealis verbs are conjugated with the suffix ⟨-j⟩, which follows after the aspect marking. It is not applied to negated verbs.
 
Whenever the irrealis is used on a verb without an aspect marker, it is assumed to be indicative of a future action (in most cases). In the following example, the verb "walk" has not literally happened yet, which is why it is in the irrealis. However, the speaker is sure that the action will occur at some time in the future, which is why it is in the unmarked indicative.
 
  '''nadaij yau miram.'''
  nada  -ai '''-j'''  yau    miram.
  walk.to-PRF'''-IRR''' 1S.NOM store.
  "I will walk to the store."
 
=====Gnomic and Habitual=====
 
The gnomic and habitual are aspects that denote that the verb refers to a general fact or recurring action related to the subject. Both of these aspects use the particle '''gaun''', which is synonymous with the active relative particle. When the aspect particle is applied to a stative verb, it is gnomic. When applied to a durative, the verb it is habitual.


=====3rd Person Animate=====
  '''gaun duliya daz aa nibaz.'''
  '''gaun''' dula'''-iya''' daz aa  nibaz.
  '''GNO'''  wear'''-STA''' man ACC shirt.
  "The man wears shirts."


3rd person animate pronouns are used to refer to people and some animals, especially pets and birds. They come as both singular (<code>3Sa</code>) and plural (<code>3Pa</code>).
  '''gaun dula daz aa nibaz.'''
  '''gaun''' dula  '''-a'''  daz aa  nibaz.
  '''HAB'''  put.on'''-DUR''' man ACC shirt.
  "The man usually puts on shirts."


{| class="wikitable"
When applied to a perfect verb, the sentence is translated that the subject has done the action before.
!
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Nominative
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Accusative
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Possessive
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Singular
| style="font-style:italic;" | auzi
| style="font-style:italic;" | auzi
| style="font-style:italic;" | zi
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Plural
| style="font-style:italic;" | auzin
| style="font-style:italic;" | auzin
| style="font-style:italic;" | zin
|}


=====3rd Person Inanimate=====
  '''gaun dulai daz aa nibaz.'''
  '''gaun''' dula  '''-ai'''  daz aa  nibaz.
  '''GNO'''  put.on'''-PRF''' man ACC shirt.
  "The man has put on a shirt before."


3rd person inanimate pronouns are used to refer to wild animals, objects, events, noun clauses, and even entire sentences. They come as both singular (<code>3Si</code>) and plural (<code>3Pi</code>).
=====Conditional=====


{| class="wikitable"
The conditional mood (<code>COND</code>) is used to form "if" clauses, such as "if she sings" and "if we go", etc. This is homonymous with the question particle, and they are often considered the same word. The verb head of the conditional particle is always conjugated for the irrealis mood.
!
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Nominative
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Accusative
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Possessive
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Singular
| style="font-style:italic;" | vi
| style="font-style:italic;" | vai
| style="font-style:italic;" | vi
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Plural
| style="font-style:italic;" | vin
| style="font-style:italic;" | vain
| style="font-style:italic;" | vin
|}


=====3rd Person Spiritual=====
  '''a murwij ya, junaij lu ddal dim dau.'''
  '''a'''    muru-i  '''-j'''  yau,    juna-i  -j  lu    ddal dim  dau.
  '''COND''' die -PRF '''-IRR''' 1S.NOM, bury-PRF-IRR 2S.NOM LOC  hill 1S.ACC.
  "If I die, you will bury me on the hill."


3rd person animate pronouns are used to refer to spirits, sacred objects and places, and the dead. They come as both singular (<code>3Ss</code>) and plural (<code>3Ps</code>).
=====Permissive=====


{| class="wikitable"
The permissive mood (<code>PRM</code>) denotes the permission or ability to do an action, corresponding with English "can" and "may". To denote prohibition or incapability, the speaker will attach the negation prefix to the verb. The permissive mood uses the particle '''yaj''', and the irrealis conjugation is not applied to the head verb.
!
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Nominative
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Accusative
! style="font-weight:bold;" | Possessive
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Singular
| style="font-style:italic;" | ja
| style="font-style:italic;" | ja
| style="font-style:italic;" | ji
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Plural
| style="font-style:italic;" | jan
| style="font-style:italic;" | jan
| style="font-style:italic;" | jin
|}


====Datives====
  '''yaj laumwa garauda va yi.'''
  '''yaj''' laumu-a  garauda va  yi.
  '''PRM''' take -DUR food    COP 1S.POSS
  "You can take my food."


''coming soon''
  '''yaj baulaumwa garauda va yi.'''
  '''yaj bau-'''laumu-a  garauda va  yi.
  '''POT NEG-'''take -DUR food    COP 1S.POSS
  "You cannot take my food."


====Genitives====
=====Obligative=====


''coming soon''
The obligative mood (<code>OBL</code>) denotes an action that should happen, whether by obligation or logical progression. The verb head of an obligative particle is always conjugated for the irrealis mood. The obligative uses the particle '''daaya'''.


===Verbs===
  '''auv zij, daaya bimaj daridd. diri va luvi va au.'''
  auv  zij,        '''daaya''' bima-a  '''-j'''  daridd. diri va  luvi      va  au.
  TEMP near.future, '''OBL'''  fall-DUR'''-IRR''' rain.  CAU  COP cloud(PL) COP gray.
  "Soon, the rain should fall because the clouds are gray."


Verbs only conjugate four lexical aspects. There is no tense, but it is rather expressed through context and other modifier phrases. Only the irrealis mood is conjugated to the verb, while other moods are expressed through modifiers and context. Verbs do not compound with any other part of speech.
=====Potential=====


====Aspect====
The potential mood (<code>POT</code>) denotes an action that could occur but doesn't, such as "I could go" or even "I could have gone". The verb head of a potential particle is always conjugated for the irrealis mood. The potential mood uses the particle '''zaggu'''.
''needs polishing''


The Wistanian understanding of aspect is different than what one will find in most natural languages. Rather than conjugating for grammatical aspect, Wistanian conjugates for ''lexical aspect''. In other words, the very definition of a verb may change based on its conjugation.
  '''zaggu umaadaij yi luj, a hiyaj yaadd vaddal.'''
  '''zaggu''' umaada-i  '''-j'''  yi      luj,   a    hi  -iya-j  yaadd ddal.
  '''HYP'''   sink  -PRF'''-IRR''' 1S.POSS boat, COND exist-STA-IRR hole  LOC.
  "My boat could sink if there is a hole in it."


The four lexical aspects are: ''stative'', ''durative'', ''telic'', and ''atelic''.
The potential can also be translated as "would" or "would like to" in contexts without a conditional VP.  


* '''Stative verbs''' (<code>STA</code>) describe a situation or action that is unchanging over a long period of time. Stative verbs do not describe temporary actions, but rather the result of a temporary action or a series of temporary actions that identify the subject.
zaggu jigani-a -j  yau    aa  liv    il    zauv.
* '''Durative verbs''' (<code>DUR</code>) are dynamic and indicate that an action is in progress from one state to another.
POT  order -DUR-IRR 1S.NOM ACC 2S.ACC INSTR soup.
* '''Telic verbs''' (<code>TEL</code>) are dynamic and punctual, describing an action with an endpoint. More specifically, it refers to any action that has been completed as intended. In most situations, it strongly implies the past or future tense and the perfective grammatical aspect.
"I would like to order the soup from you."
* '''Atelic verbs''' (<code>ATEL</code>) are dynamic and punctual, describing an action that does not have an intended endpoint. Like the telic, this aspect strongly implies the past or future tense, but is often grammatically imperfective.
(Lit. "I could order you with soup.")


      ASPECT
=====Atelic=====
      /    \
'''STATIVE''' DYNAMIC
        /    \
  '''DURATIVE'''    PUNCTUAL
              /      \
          '''TELIC'''      '''ATELIC'''


For example, the verb '''''bima''''' means to "fall" in the telic, "precipitate" in the atelic, "descend" in the durative, and "to be fallen (i.e., lying on the ground after a fall)" in the stative. '''''bima''''' still expresses the same basic meaning — "the subject goes downward" — but its implications change based on its conjugations. This is also true of the verb '''''ja''''', which means "like" in the stative, "fall in love" in the durative, "achieve or accomplish" in the telic, and "want" in the atelic. Again, the basic meaning remains — "the subject has a desire" — but the differing conjugations further explain what ''kind'' of desire is being had: an unchanging desire (stative), a growing desire (durative), a satisfied desire (telic), or an unsatisfied desire (atelic).
The atelic aspect (<code>ATEL</code>) refers to a verb that does not have an intended endpoint, whether because the action failed or was directionless. The atelic is denoted with the particle '''in''' and can only be applied to durative or perfect verbs.


These aspects also imply certain grammatical features. Indeed, these aspects originally did refer to grammatical aspects a thousand years within Wistanian's history. The stative was once the [[w: Gnomic_aspect|gnomic aspect]], the durative was once the [[w: Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous aspect]], and the telic and atelic were once the [[w: Perfective_aspect|perfective]] and [[w: Imperfective_aspect|imperfective aspects]], respectively. This shift was slow, however, but it picked up mightily during the pidginization with the Nati, since lexical aspect could allow them to communicate using fewer verb roots, so words such to "to put on" were replaced with the durative conjugation for the stative "to wear".
  '''in budai yau miram, auv nu va din.'''
  '''in'''  buda  -ai  yau    miram, auv  nu    va  din.
  '''ATEL''' walk.to-PRF 1S.NOM store, TEMP minute COP three.
  "I walked toward the store for three minutes."


====Mood====
Without the atelic particle, that sentence would translate as, "I walked to the store in three minutes."


Verbs are conjugated for the [[w: Irrealis_mood|irrealis mood]], which is used in polite requests, questions, and in conjunction with epistemic or deontic particles. This is done with the suffix ⟨-j⟩. Indicative negative verbs are not conjugated as irrealis.
====Gerunds====


{| class="wikitable"
''under construction''
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | NOMINAL
! colspan="8" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | VERBAL
|-
! rowspan="4" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" |
! rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | STATIVE
! colspan="6" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | DYNAMIC
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | DURATIVE
! colspan="4" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | PUNCTUAL
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | TELIC
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | ATELIC
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | realis
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | irrealis
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | realis
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | irrealis
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | realis
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | irrealis
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | realis
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | irrealis
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic;" | viga
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | vigiya
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | vigiyaj
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | viga
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | vigaj
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | vigai
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | vigaij
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | viga
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | vigaj
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic;" | zani
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | zaniya
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | zaniyaj
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | zana
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | zanaj
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | zanyi
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | zanyij
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | zanya
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | zanyaj
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic;" | hadu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hadiya
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hadiyaj
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hada
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hadaj
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hadwi
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hadwij
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hadwa
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hadwaj
|}


===Modifiers===
====Derivational Suffixes====


Modifiers immediately follow their head. Morphologically, there is no difference between an adjective and an adverb, since they rely on word order. Modifier phrases can be expressed either at the beginning or end of a sentence or after the verb, if it modifies it. Temporal phrases prefer the beginning of the sentence.
Root + ⟨-zaun⟩ = Agentive (one who does X)


====Negation====
viga > vigazaun
eat  > eater


Nouns, verbs, and modifiers can be [[w: Affirmation_and_negation|negated]] using the prefix '''''bau(n)-'''''.
Root + ⟨-huz⟩ or ⟨-hani⟩ = Place of X


  '''baudaiziya yau.'''
  viga > vigahuz
  '''bau-'''daizi-iya yau.
  eat > dining room
'''NEG-'''sing -STA 1S.NOM.
  "I do not sing."


'''haaggiya bauzaun aa audi va zi.'''
Root - stem + ⟨-aun⟩ = Act/Idea of X
haaggi-iya '''bau-'''zaun  aa  audi        va  zi.
insult-STA '''NEG-'''person ACC grandfather COP 3Sa.POSS.
"No one insults their grandfather."


  '''luj id na baubi.'''
  viga > vigaun
  luj id  na  '''bau-'''bi.
  eat > the act of eating
boat PROX POSS '''NEG-'''good.
"This boat is not good."


===Particles===
===Particles===
Line 647: Line 794:
====Object Particles====
====Object Particles====


All non-subject, non-locative nouns are considered as objects in Wistanian grammar and are therefore featured at the end of the sentence, and are required an object particle. Object order depends on the following hierarchy.
In Wistanian grammar, any noun that does not act as a subject is considered an object and are not exclusive to the patient of the verb. As an object, the noun comes after the subject and inherits an object particle (unless it is an accusative pronoun.) 


ACC > INST > BEN/CAU
The object particles are:
 
The noun particles are:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 657: Line 802:
| style="text-align: center;" | <code>ACC</code>
| style="text-align: center;" | <code>ACC</code>
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | aa
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | aa
| Marks the object of the sentence.
| Marks the patient of the sentence.
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Instrumental
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Instrumental
Line 674: Line 819:
| Marks the reason for which something is done involitionally.
| Marks the reason for which something is done involitionally.
|}
|}
It is possible to have a sentence that uses several objects, although none of them are required in a sentence. When multiple objects are present in a sentence, they are usually ordered in a sentence as <code>ACC > INSTR > BEN/CAU</code>.


  '''ila yau aa ujadi il divu ggaun jyaman va yi.'''
  '''ila yau aa ujadi il divu ggaun jyaman va yi.'''
Line 681: Line 828:


=====Accusative=====
=====Accusative=====
''under construction'''
 
The accusative particle marks the patient of a transitive verb.
 
  '''maniyai ami aa umbu va zi.'''
  mayiya-i  ami    '''aa'''  umbu va  zi.
  break -PRF friend '''ACC''' bone COP 3S.POSS
  "The friend broke their bone."
 
When the patient is a pronoun, the accusative particle is normally dropped, since some pronouns have their own accusative forms. The accusative can also double as a reflexive.
 
  '''vigai dari vai.'''
  viga-i  dari '''vai'''.
  eat -PRF boy  '''3Si.ACC'''.
  "The boy ate it."
 
  '''yiga yau dau.'''
  yiga    -a  yau    '''dau'''.
  speak.to-DUR 1S.NOM '''1S.ACC'''.
  "I speak to myself."
 
The accusative form of the third person animate and spiritual pronouns are identical to their nominative counterparts. The accusative particle is added if the patient is different than the agent, but is omitted if used as a reflexive.
 
  '''dduwi auzi auzi'''
  ddu-(w)i auzi    '''auzi'''.
  hit-PRF  3Sa.NOM '''3Sa.ACC'''
  "He hit himself."
 
  '''dduwi auzi aa auzi.'''
  ddu-(w)i auzi    '''aa auzi'''.
  hit-PRF  3Sa.NOM '''ACC 3Sa.ACC'''.
  "He hit him."
 
After instrumental, benefactive, or causative particles, pronouns are still conjugated as accusatives.
 
  gaun zariya dari '''vai'''.
  gaun zariya dari '''il vai'''.
  gaun zariya dari '''ggaun vai'''.
  gaun zariya dari '''diri vai'''.
  The boy plays it.
  The boy plays with it.
  The boy plays for it.
  The boy plays because of it.


=====Instrumental=====
=====Instrumental=====
Line 692: Line 880:
  "I work with a hammer."
  "I work with a hammer."


The instrumental particle is also used to mark the theme of a ditransitive verb, doubling as a sort of dative marker.  
The instrumental particle is also used to mark the theme of the verbs '''dazji''' (to give), '''viru''' (to send), and '''azavi''' (to carry), that is the item that is being given, sent, or carried. The goal is marked as accusative (i.e., what or who the theme is being given, sent, or carried to). Wistanian does not employ a dative marker.


  '''dazjyi yau liv il jauni.'''
  '''dazjyi yau liv il jauni.'''
  dazji-i  yau    liv    '''il'''    jauni.
  dazji-i  yau    liv    '''il'''    jauni.
  give-TEL 1S.NOM 2S.ACC '''INSTR''' flower.
  give-PRF 1S.NOM 2S.ACC '''INSTR''' flower.
  "I gave you a flower." (Lit. "I give you with a flower.")
  "I gave you a flower." (Lit. "I give you with a flower.")


=====Benefactive=====
'''azavyi yau aa miram il naulam id.'''
''under construction''
azavi-i  yau    aa  miram '''il'''   maulam id.
 
carry-DUR 1S.NOM ACC store '''INSTR''' melon  PROX.
=====Causative=====
"I am carrying this melon to the store." (Lit. "I carry (to) the store with this melon.")
''under construction''
 
====Modal Particles====
''needs polishing''
 
These particles are featured before the verb and indicate [[w:linguistic modality|verbal modality]].  
 
{| class="wikitable"
! style="text-align: center;" | Conditional
| style="text-align: center;" | <code>COND</code>
| style="text-align: center;" | ''a''
| Denotes "if" the verb will occur.
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Capable
| style="text-align: center;" | <code>CAP</code>
| style="text-align: center;" | ''yaj''
| Denotes that the subject "can" do something.
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Hypothetical
| style="text-align: center;" | <code>HYP</code>
| style="text-align: center;" | ''zaggu''
| Denotes something that might happen, but does not.
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Deontic
| style="text-align: center;" | <code>DEO</code>
| style="text-align: center;" | ''daaya''
| Denotes something that ought to happen.
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Epistemic
| style="text-align: center;" | <code>EPIS</code>
| style="text-align: center;" | ''ibiz''
| Denotes something that might have happened.
|}
 
The conditional mood (<code>COND</code>) is used to form "if" clauses, such as "if she sings" and "if we go", etc. This is homonymous with the question particle, and they are often considered the same word. The verb head of the conditional particle is always conjugated for the irrealis mood.


'''''a murwij ya, junaij lu ddal dim dau.'''''
The instrumental particle is used for emphatic reflexives by complimenting the accusative form of the subject pronoun.
'''a'''    muru-i  -j  yau,    juna-i  -j  lu    ddal dim  dau.
'''COND''' die -TEL-IRR 1S.NOM, bury-TEL-IRR 2S.NOM LOC  hill 1S.ACC.
"If I die, you will bury me on the hill."


The capable mood (<code>CAP</code>) is used to form "can" verbs, such as "she can sing" and "we can go". It is often used as not only an indicator of ability, but also permissiveness. To denote incapability, the speaker will attach the negation prefix to the verb.
'''rainaij yau aa duvij il dau.'''
raina-i  -j  yau    aa  duvij '''il'''    dau.
dig  -DUR-IRR 1S.NOM ACC hole  '''INSTR''' 1S.ACC
"I will dig the hole myself."


'''''yaj iliya yau aa maliya.'''''
=====Benefactive and Causative=====
'''yaj''' ilu-iya  yau    aa  maliya.
'''CAP''' see-STA  1S.NOM ACC mountain.
"I can see the mountains."


The hypothetical mood (<code>HYP</code>) denotes an action that could occur but doesn't, such as "I could go" or even "I could have gone". The verb head of a hypothetical particle is always conjugated for the irrealis mood.
The benefactive and causative object particles perform similar functions, yet carry different connotations. Benefactives rely primarily on the reason for which something was done volitionally (i.e., on purpose), while causatives marked the reason something is done involitionally (i.e., not on purpose). These two particles are not exchangeable and they cannot both be present to compliment the same verb.


'''''zaggu umaadaij yi luj, a hiyaj yaadd vaddal.'''''
  '''murwi auzi ggaun liv.'''
'''zaggu''' umaada-i '''-j'''  yi      luj,  a    hi  -iya-j  yaadd ddal.
  muru-i   auzi  '''ggaun''' liv.
'''HYP'''  sink  -TEL'''-IRR''' 1S.POSS boat,  COND exist-STA-IRR hole  LOC.
   die -PRF 3S.NOM '''BEN'''  2S.ACC.
"My boat could sink if there is a hole in it."  
  "He died for you." / "He died for your benefit."


The deontic mood (<code>DEO</code>) denotes an action that should happen, whether by obligation or logical progression. It's like a stronger hypothetical particle. The verb head of a deontic particle is always conjugated for the irrealis mood.
  '''murwi auzi diri liv.'''
  muru-i  auzi  '''diri''' liv.
  die -PRF 3S.NOM '''CAU''' 2S.ACC.
  "He died because of you." / "It was your fault he died."


'''''auv zij, daaya bimaj daridd. diri va luvi va au.'''''
In the above sentences, the benefactive particle tells us that the subject "he" willingly died or sacrificed his life for the object "you". The causative particle suggests that the subject "he" was killed, rather by accident or by premeditated murder, because of the existence or actions of the object "you".  
auv  zij,         '''daaya''' bima-a  '''-j'''  daridd. diri va  luvi      va  au.
TEMP near.future, '''DEO'''  fall-ATEL'''-IRR''' rain.  CAU  COP cloud(PL) COP gray.
"Soon, the rain should fall because the clouds are gray."


The epistemic mood (<code>EPIS</code>) denotes an action or state that might have happened, however, the speaker is unsure due to lack of evidence. It can also be used as a weaker hypothetical marker. Verb heads of the epistemic particle must be in the irrealis mood. This mood marker also accompanies "I think" sentences which are typically constructed as "I think this. I may have a hammer."
The particle '''diri''' is the same word in the clause-initial construction '''diri va''', which translates as "because" or "the reason is".


'''''garya yau vai. ibiz auwiniyaj yanuz guddi.'''''
====Modal Particles====
gari -a    yau    vai.    '''ibiz''' auwina -iya'''-j'''  guddi.
''See [[Wistanian#Mood_and_Additional_Aspects|Mood and Additional Aspects]] for now.''
think-ATEL 1S.NOM 3Si.ACC. '''EPIS''' possess-STA'''-IRR''' hammer.
"I think I have a hammer."


====Relativizer Particles====
====Relativizer Particles====
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  '''wizddaniya ddal vimanbbaggu'''
  '''wizddaniya ddal vimanbbaggu'''
  wizddaniya ddal viman-bbaggu.
  wizddaniya ddal viman-zanju.
  Wistania  LOC  sky  -SUBE.
  Wistania  LOC  sky  -foot.
  "Wistania is under the sky."
  "Wistania is under the sky."
  "Wistania, which is located under the sky,..."
  "Wistania, which is located under the sky,..."


Technically, these are incomplete sentences, indicating only a noun and a relative clause without a compliment. However, they are considered perfectly viable sentences.
Technically, these are incomplete sentences, indicating only a noun and a relative clause without a compliment. However, they are considered perfectly viable and grammatical in Wistanian.


====Coordinating Particles====
====Coordinating Particles====
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Wistanian coordinating particles come in four types: normal coordination, weak coordination, contrastive coordination, and alternative coordination.  
Wistanian coordinating particles come in four types: normal coordination, weak coordination, contrastive coordination, and alternative coordination.  


Normal coordination (<code>CO</code>) is similar to the English "and". However, each item in the list is proceeded by the word '''''ya'''''.  
Normal coordination (<code>CO</code>) is similar to the English "and". However, each item in the list is proceeded by the word '''ya'''.  


  '''dajyi ya dari ya lari.'''
  '''dajyi ya dari ya lari.'''
  daji-i  '''ya''' dari '''ya''' lari.
  daji-i  '''ya''' dari '''ya''' lari.
  hide-TEL '''CO''' boy  '''CO''' girl.
  hide-PRF '''CO''' boy  '''CO''' girl.
  "The boy and the girl hid."
  "The boy and the girl hid."


Weak coordination (<code>WCO</code>) refers to a co-actor in the sentence while keeping the focus on a specific item of the list, which is usually featured at the beginning of the list and without a particle. It is denoted with the word '''vil'''.
Weak coordination (<code>WCO</code>) refers to a co-actor in the sentence while keeping the focus on a specific item of the list, which is usually featured at the beginning of the list and without a particle. It is denoted with the word '''vil''' (from the word '''viluba''': "to touch").


  '''dajyi dari nuz lari.'''
  '''dajyi dari vil lari.'''
  daji-i  dari '''vil''' lari.
  daji-i  dari '''vil''' lari.
  hide-TEL boy  '''WCO''' girl.
  hide-PRF boy  '''WCO''' girl.
  "The boy hid with the girl."
  "The boy hid with the girl."


Contrastive coordination (<code>CCO</code>) is equivalent to the English "but" and is expressed through the particle '''bbal'''.  
Contrastive coordination (<code>CCO</code>) is equivalent to the English "but" and is expressed through the particle '''bbal'''.  


  '''auvin vaun liyiya, bbal gaunun vaun bauliyiya.'''
  '''gaun liyiya auvi, bbal gaun bauliyiya gaunun.'''
  auvi-n  vaun liya-iya, '''bbal''' gaunu-n vaun bau-liya-iya.
  gaun liya-iya auvi-n, '''bbal''' gaun bau-liya-iya gaunu-n.
  bird-PL GNO  fly-STA, '''CCO'''  fish-PL GNO  NEG-fly -STA
  GNO  fly -STA bird-PL, '''CCO'''  GNO  NEG-fly -STA fish -PL
  "Birds fly, but fish do not fly."
  "Birds fly, but fish do not fly."


Alternative coordination (<code>ALTCO</code>) denotes a choice or alternative among a group of items in a list, equivalent to the English "or", and denoted with the word '''''i'''''. Like the normal coordinating particle '''''ya''''', this particle is featured before each item in a list.  
Alternative coordination (<code>ALTCO</code>) denotes a choice or alternative among a group of items in a list, equivalent to the English "or", and denoted with the word '''i'''. Like the normal coordinating particle '''ya''', this particle is featured before each item in a list.  


  '''ja lu aa i garauvi i diyan a.'''
  '''ja lu aa i garauvi i diyan a.'''
  ja  -a   lu    aa  '''i'''    garauvi '''i'''    diyan a.
  ja  -a   lu    aa  '''i'''    garauvi '''i'''    diyan a.
  want-ATEL 2S.NOM ACC '''ALTCO''' water  '''ALTCO''' juice Q.
  want-DUR 2S.NOM ACC '''ALTCO''' water  '''ALTCO''' juice Q.
  "Do you want water or juice?"
  "Do you want water or juice?"


This alternative coordinating particle is also used to answer a multiple choice question.
This alternative coordinating particle is also used to answer a multiple choice question. Parentheses indicate an optional expression.


  '''(ja yau) i diyan.'''
  '''(ja yau) i diyan.'''
  ja  -a   yau    i    diyan.
  (ja  -a   yau)   i    diyan.
  want-ATEL 1S.NOM ALTCO juice.
  (want-DUR 1S.NOM) ALTCO juice.
  "I want the juice."
  "(I want) the juice."


===Honorifics===
===Honorifics===
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|}
|}


Familial honorifics are used among close family members. These honorifics will change depending on culture and sometimes family. Children, in particular, have unique honorifics given by their parents, like a nickname. For example, a boy named Maudu could be given the honorific '''''ravu''''' (fast), and only his parents, aunts/uncles by blood, and grandparents can call him "Maudu Ravu". While his sister Zamara could be Zamara Viyaz (kind) to her parents.
Familial honorifics are used among close family members. These honorifics will change depending on culture and sometimes family. Children, in particular, have unique honorifics given by their parents, like a nickname. For example, a boy named Maudu could be given the honorific '''ravu''' (fast), and only his parents, aunts/uncles by blood, and grandparents can call him "Maudu Ravu". While his sister Zamara could be Zamara Viyaz (kind) to her parents.


The most common Familial Honorifics are included under Kinship Terms below.
The most common Familial Honorifics are included under Kinship Terms below.
Line 896: Line 1,044:
==Semantics==
==Semantics==


The Wistanian Lexicon currently stands at 400 words as of August 2018, with a goal of accomplishing 2,500 words by the end of the year. A link to the lexicon can be found at the bottom of this article, under "Other Resources"
The [[Wistanian/Lexicon|Wistanian Lexicon]] currently stands at 600 words as of October 2018.  


[[File:WistanianFamily.png|thumb|right|A typical Wistanian family]]
[[File:WistanianFamily.png|thumb|right|A typical Wistanian family from the Taliv group]]
===Kinship===
===Kinship===


Wistanian kinship is a modified version of the [[w: Hawaiian_kinship|Hawaiian system]] common in most Malayo-Polynesian languages. In this system, siblings and first cousins share terms with only a gender and age distinction. Mothers are usually given a term of endearment by their children (usually '''''mu'''''), but a child's aunts will also be called "mother" and the father and uncles will share terms as well. Most of Wistanian culture is [[w: Ambilineality|ambilineal]] and [[w: Matrifocal_family|matrifocal]], so that children live and associate closest to their mother and her side of the family. For this reason, a child's mother's brother will often be just as much of a father figure as the child's biological father, who may or may not be involved in the family.  
Wistanian kinship is a modified version of the [[w: Hawaiian_kinship|Hawaiian system]] common in most Malayo-Polynesian languages. In this system, siblings and first cousins share terms with only a gender and age distinction. Mothers are usually given a term of endearment by their children (usually '''mu'''), but a child's aunts will also be called "mother" and the father and uncles will share terms as well. Most of Wistanian culture is [[w: Ambilineality|ambilineal]] and [[w: Matrifocal_family|matrifocal]], so that children live and associate closest to their mother and her side of the family. For this reason, a child's mother's brother will often be just as much of a father figure as the child's biological father, who may or may not be involved in the family. Some parts of Wistania has abandoned the concept of marriage, and rather focus on cohabitation and parenthood. The terms for "husband" and "wife" are semantically light and can refer to a close friendship or a sexual partner. Literally, they mean "my man" and "my woman".  


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|}
|}


The Bwolotil people are more [[w: Nuclear_family|nuclear]], consisting of only a mother, father, and one or two children. They have their own kinship terms from their language. Some Katapu people share the typical family structure and kinship terms. However, most family structures are [[W: Extended_family|extended]] so that families live amongst the mother's extended family, and fathers are usually present in the home. Most of their kinship terms also come from the Katapu language, but some Wistanian terms are borrowed as well.
The Bwolotil people are more [[w: Nuclear_family|nuclear]], consisting of only a mother, father, and one or two children. They have their own kinship terms from their language. Some Katapu people share the typical family structure and kinship terms. However, most family structures in that people group are [[W: Extended_family|extended]] so that families live amongst the mother's extended family, and fathers are usually present in the home. Most of their kinship terms also come from the Katapu language, but some Wistanian terms are borrowed as well.


===Colors===
===Colors===
Line 988: Line 1,136:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#333333; color:#ffffff;" | auzna
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#cb0000; color:#ffffff;" | iraa
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#cb0000; color:#ffffff;" | iraa
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#fe0000; color:#000000;" | raul<br> nidda<br> hagg<br>
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#993300; color:#ffffff;" | zuvil<br /> jaaru
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ffccc9; color:#000000;" | uma
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#990000; color:#ffffff;" | bayaari
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#999900; color:#ffffff;" | zuwi
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:#ffffff;" |
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#006600; color:#ffffff;" | aunya
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#009999; color:#ffffff;" | gazida
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#000099; color:#ffffff;" | ayud
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:#ffffff;" |
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#990066; color:#ffffff;" | aana
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#9b9b9b;" | au<br /> garaji
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#fe0000;" | raul<br /> nidda <br /> hagg
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ff6600;" | aurin
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ff9900;" | auwu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ffff00;" | luz<br /> aubra
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ccff00;" | luamiz
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#33ff33;" | jan<br /> bazu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#00ffcc;" | ddi
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#0033ff;" | zaz<br /> iyad
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#9900ff;" | ivau
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ff0099;" | liwa
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ffffff;" | balan
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ffcccc;" | uma
| colspan="4" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" |
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ccffcc;" | minan
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" |
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#9999ff;" | ainau
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#cc99ff;" | maura
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" |
|}
 
===Numbers===
''needs expansion''
 
Classically, the Taliv only counted up to five, including a single word that meant "more than five" (this term is now obsolete, however, it has fossilized as the plural marker '''-(a)n''') They also had names for sets of five: five was a hand (5), five hands were an arm (25), five arms were a body (125), five bodies were a family (625), five families were a village (3,125), three villages were a city (15,625), and five cities were a nation (78,125). So, for example, the number 20,708 would be explained as "one city, one village, three families, three arms, one hand, and three." Counting that high, however, was not very common in Talivian culture, since resources were normally plentiful and the economy was a basic bartering system of trading goods. The highest a regular person would need to count would be "two hands and four" when reporting to their friends how many fish they caught that day.
 
When the Taliv allied with the Nati during the Wistanian war, the Nati's much more efficient base-10 number system was preferred, especially when counting troops and food rations. Their counting system was that numbers like 20,708 would be described as "two zero seven zero eight."
 
These two methods combined by using the Talivian 1-5, the Nati 6-9, and loaning the words for ten ("one zero"), twenty ("two zero"), and so forth. The Talivian concepts of hands, arms, and like metaphor also persisted. Now, the typical Wistanian will say a number such as 44 as "four-zero with four", however the "four" in "four-zero" will be a Nati word, while the last four is from the Taliv. One through 99 are as thus:
 
{| class="wikitable"
! style="text-align: center;" | 0
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | uj
| style="text-align: center;" | 0
! style="text-align: center;" | 20
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | guyaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 2*, 0*
! style="text-align: center;" | 40
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | bbunaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 4*, 0*
! style="text-align: center;" | 60
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jaayaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 6, 0*
! style="text-align: center;" | 80
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | miyaunaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 8, 0*
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | 1
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | li
| style="text-align: center;" | 1
! style="text-align: center;" | 21
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | guyaa vil li
| style="text-align: center;" | 2*, 0* with 1
! style="text-align: center;" | 41
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | bbunaa vil li
| style="text-align: center;" | 4*, 0* with 1
! style="text-align: center;" | 61
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jaayaa vil li
| style="text-align: center;" | 6, 0* with 1
! style="text-align: center;" | 81
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | miyaunaa vil li
| style="text-align: center;" | 8, 0* with 1
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | 2
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | vai
| style="text-align: center;" | 2
! style="text-align: center;" | 22
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | guyaa vil vai
| style="text-align: center;" | 2*, 0* with 2
! style="text-align: center;" | 42
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | bbunaa vil vai
| style="text-align: center;" | 4*, 0* with 2
! style="text-align: center;" | 62
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jaayaa vil vai
| style="text-align: center;" | 6, 0* with 2
! style="text-align: center;" | 82
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | miyaunaa vil vai
| style="text-align: center;" | 8, 0* with 2
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | 3
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | din
| style="text-align: center;" | 3
! style="text-align: center;" | 23
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | guyaa vil din
| style="text-align: center;" | 2*, 0* with 3
! style="text-align: center;" | 43
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | bbunaa vil din
| style="text-align: center;" | 4*, 0* with 3
! style="text-align: center;" | 63
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jaayaa vil din
| style="text-align: center;" | 6, 0* with 3
! style="text-align: center;" | 83
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | miyaunaa vil din
| style="text-align: center;" | 8, 0* with 3
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | 4
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jiz
| style="text-align: center;" | 4
! style="text-align: center;" | 24
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | guyaa vil jiz
| style="text-align: center;" | 2*, 0* with 4
! style="text-align: center;" | 44
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | bbunaa vil jiz
| style="text-align: center;" | 4*, 0* with 4
! style="text-align: center;" | 64
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jaayaa vil jiz
| style="text-align: center;" | 6, 0* with 4
! style="text-align: center;" | 84
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | miyaunaa vil jiz
| style="text-align: center;" | 8, 0* with 4
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | 5
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | ma
| style="text-align: center;" | 5
! style="text-align: center;" | 25
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | guyaa vil ma
| style="text-align: center;" | 2*, 0* with 5
! style="text-align: center;" | 45
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | bbunaa vil ma
| style="text-align: center;" | 4*, 0* with 5
! style="text-align: center;" | 65
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jaayaa vil ma
| style="text-align: center;" | 6, 0* with 5
! style="text-align: center;" | 85
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | miyaunaa vil ma
| style="text-align: center;" | 8, 0* with 5
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | 6
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 6
! style="text-align: center;" | 26
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | guyaa vil jaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 2*, 0* with 6
! style="text-align: center;" | 46
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | bbunaa vil jaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 4*, 0* with 6
! style="text-align: center;" | 66
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jaayaa vil jaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 6, 0* with 6
! style="text-align: center;" | 86
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | miyaunaa vil jaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 8, 0* with 6
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | 7
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hau
| style="text-align: center;" | 7
! style="text-align: center;" | 27
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | guyaa vil hau
| style="text-align: center;" | 2*, 0* with 7
! style="text-align: center;" | 47
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | bbunaa vil hau
| style="text-align: center;" | 4*, 0* with 7
! style="text-align: center;" | 67
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jaayaa vil hau
| style="text-align: center;" | 6, 0* with 7
! style="text-align: center;" | 87
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | miyaunaa vil hau
| style="text-align: center;" | 8, 0* with 7
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | 8
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | miyaun
| style="text-align: center;" | 8
! style="text-align: center;" | 28
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | guyaa vil miyaun
| style="text-align: center;" | 2*, 0* with 8
! style="text-align: center;" | 48
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | bbunaa vil miyaun
| style="text-align: center;" | 4*, 0* with 8
! style="text-align: center;" | 68
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jaayaa vil miyaun
| style="text-align: center;" | 6, 0* with 8
! style="text-align: center;" | 88
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | miyaunaa vil miyaun
| style="text-align: center;" | 8, 0* with 8
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | 9
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 9
! style="text-align: center;" | 29
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | guyaa vil nuvaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 2*, 0* with 9
! style="text-align: center;" | 49
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | bbunaa vil nuvaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 4*, 0* with 9
! style="text-align: center;" | 69
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jaayaa vil nuvaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 6, 0* with 9
! style="text-align: center;" | 89
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | miyaunaa vil nuvaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 8, 0* with 9
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#852900; color:#ffffff;" | zuvil<br> jaaru
! style="text-align: center;" | 10
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ff7000; color:#000000;" | aurin
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | niyaa
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:#000000;" |  
| style="text-align: center;" | 1*, 0*
! style="text-align: center;" | 30
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | amaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 3*, 0*
! style="text-align: center;" | 50
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yauzaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 5*, 0*
! style="text-align: center;" | 70
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hauyaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 7, 0*
! style="text-align: center;" | 90
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaayaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0*
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#9a0000; color:#ffffff;" | bayaari
! style="text-align: center;" | 11
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#f8a102; color:#000000;" | auwu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | niyaa vil li
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:#000000;" |  
| style="text-align: center;" | 1*, 0* with 1
! style="text-align: center;" | 31
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | amaa vil li
| style="text-align: center;" | 3*, 0* with 1
! style="text-align: center;" | 51
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yauzaa vil li
| style="text-align: center;" | 5*, 0* with 1
! style="text-align: center;" | 71
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hauyaa vil li
| style="text-align: center;" | 7, 0* with 1
! style="text-align: center;" | 91
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaaya vil li
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with 1
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#9d9901; color:#ffffff;" | zuwi
! style="text-align: center;" | 12
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#f8ff00; color:#000000;" | luz<br> aubra
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | niyaa vil vai
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:#000000;" |  
| style="text-align: center;" | 1*, 0* with 2
! style="text-align: center;" | 32
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | amaa vil vai
| style="text-align: center;" | 3*, 0* with 2
! style="text-align: center;" | 52
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yauzaa vil vai
| style="text-align: center;" | 5*, 0* with 2
! style="text-align: center;" | 72
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hauyaa vil vai
| style="text-align: center;" | 7, 0* with 2
! style="text-align: center;" | 92
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaayaa vil vai
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with 2
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:#ffffff;" |  
! style="text-align: center;" | 13
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#c3ff00; color:#000000;" | laumiz
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | niyaa vil din
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:#000000;" |  
| style="text-align: center;" | 1*, 0* with 3
! style="text-align: center;" | 33
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | amaa vil din
| style="text-align: center;" | 3*, 0* with 3
! style="text-align: center;" | 53
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yauzaa vil din
| style="text-align: center;" | 5*, 0* with 3
! style="text-align: center;" | 73
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hauyaa vil din
| style="text-align: center;" | 7, 0* with 3
! style="text-align: center;" | 93
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaayaa vil din
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with 3
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#169200; color:#ffffff;" | aunya
! style="text-align: center;" | 14
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#26ff00; color:#000000;" | jan<br> bazu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | niyaa vil jiz
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#a5fb96; color:#000000;" | minan
| style="text-align: center;" | 1*, 0* with 4
! style="text-align: center;" | 34
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | amaa vil jiz
| style="text-align: center;" | 3*, 0* with 4
! style="text-align: center;" | 53
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yauzaa vil jiz
| style="text-align: center;" | 5*, 0* with 4
! style="text-align: center;" | 74
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hauyaa vil jiz
| style="text-align: center;" | 7, 0* with 4
! style="text-align: center;" | 94
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaayaa vil jiz
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with 4
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#01a38e; color:#ffffff;" | gazida
! style="text-align: center;" | 15
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#00ffdd; color:#000000;" | ddi
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | niyaa vil ma
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:#000000;" |  
| style="text-align: center;" | 1*, 0* with 5
! style="text-align: center;" | 35
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | amaa vil ma
| style="text-align: center;" | 3*, 0* with 5
! style="text-align: center;" | 55
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yauzaa vil ma
| style="text-align: center;" | 5*, 0* with 5
! style="text-align: center;" | 75
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hauyaa vil ma
| style="text-align: center;" | 7, 0* with 5
! style="text-align: center;" | 95
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaayaa vil ma
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with 5
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#001085; color:#ffffff;" | ayud
! style="text-align: center;" | 16
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#001eff; color:#000000;" | zaz<br> iyad
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | niyaa vil jaa
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#a7b2ff; color:#000000;" | ainau
| style="text-align: center;" | 1*, 0* with 6
! style="text-align: center;" | 36
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | amaa vil jaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 3*, 0* with 6
! style="text-align: center;" | 56
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yauzaa vil jaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 5*, 0* with 6
! style="text-align: center;" | 76
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hauyaa vil jaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 7, 0* with 6
! style="text-align: center;" | 96
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaayaa vil jaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with 6
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:#ffffff;" |  
! style="text-align: center;" | 17
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ac00ff; color:#000000;" | ivau
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | niyaa vil hau
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#dc95ff; color:#000000;" | maura
| style="text-align: center;" | 1*, 0* with 7
! style="text-align: center;" | 37
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | amaa vil hau
| style="text-align: center;" | 3*, 0* with 7
! style="text-align: center;" | 57
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yauzaa vil hau
| style="text-align: center;" | 5*, 0* with 7
! style="text-align: center;" | 77
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hauyaa vil hau
| style="text-align: center;" | 7, 0* with 7
! style="text-align: center;" | 97
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaayaa vil hau
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with 7
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#87025a; color:#ffffff;" | aana
! style="text-align: center;" | 18
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ff00a9; color:#000000;" | liwa
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | niyaa vil miyaun
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:#000000;" |  
| style="text-align: center;" | 1*, 0* with 8
! style="text-align: center;" | 38
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | amaa vil miyaun
| style="text-align: center;" | 3*, 0* with 8
! style="text-align: center;" | 58
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yauzaa vil miyaun
| style="text-align: center;" | 5*, 0* with 8
! style="text-align: center;" | 78
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hauyaa vil miyaun
| style="text-align: center;" | 7, 0* with 8
! style="text-align: center;" | 98
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaayaa vil miyaun
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with 8
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#000000; color:#ffffff;" | auzna
! style="text-align: center;" | 19
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#9b9b9b; color:#000000;" | au<br> garaji
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | niyaa vil nuvaa
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ffffff; color:#000000;" | balan
| style="text-align: center;" | 1*, 0* with 9
! style="text-align: center;" | 39
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | amaa vil nuvaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 3*, 0* with 9
! style="text-align: center;" | 59
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yauzaa vil nuvaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 5*, 0* with 9
! style="text-align: center;" | 79
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | hauyaa vil nuvaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 7, 0* with 9
! style="text-align: center;" | 99
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaayaa vil nuvaa
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with 9
|}
|}


===Numbers===
===Seat of Emotion===
 
In Taliv, Nati, and Katapu culture, the seat of emotion is in the liver, meaning that it is believed emotion comes from the liver (as opposed to the English belief that emotion is from the heart). For this reason, a man with "a cold liver" is said to be nervous and a woman with "a light liver" is said to be in love. In Bwolotil culture, the seat of emotion is in the bowels instead, so that a man with "full bowels" is said to be stressed. The Uzin, however, use the brain as the seat for emotion and thought, saying things such as "the brain is on fire" when someone becomes excited. These phrases travel around the Wistanian and borrowed by most people.
 
Contrarily, there is a separate seat for the soul of a person, commonly claimed to be near the liver although the exact place is secret. This "seat of the soul" is known as '''gauya'''. Katapu people are so dedicated to this ideology that if a person is stabbed in the belly, they must be left to die or put to death, believing that their soul has been injured or killed and they no longer "human".
 
===Direction and Time===
 
Direction and Time are closely interrelated in the Wistanian language. They correspond with the terms '''mija''' (rising) and '''hina''' (setting), which describe the rising and setting of the sun. Wistanian has two cardinal directions, the rising east and setting west. Time is likewise measured by the rising past and the setting future. This leads to phrases such as "think east" and "go towards the setting" as opposed to English "think back" and "go west". Wistanian has an intrinsic and relative frame of reference, in that when giving directions, they will use the destination's location as described in relation to another object ("towards the lake", in front of my house") as well as using terms for "front", "back", "left" and "right". There is a limited absolute frame of reference with terms for "east" and "west", but no terms for "north" or "south."
 
===Vulgarity and Taboos===
 
Every culture possesses a strong taboo against slurs, which is partly due to the rocky history of racism during the post-war era of the country. Some slurs include '''baubau''', a diminutive of the word Bwolotil, often used to describe things that are dark and ugly. Holding the '''u''' sound can also get a young Wistanian in trouble for its history as a chant against the Uzin. Terms referring to religion are also taboo when used out of context, especially in the Katapu tribes; for example, calling something '''ggauduvahi''' ("great" or "grand") is considered offensive since that term should only be applied to a place of worship. Terms referring to sex or bodily functions are only taboo in the Katapu and, to a smaller extent, the Bwolotil and Uzin cultures while the Taliv and Nati are rather comfortable with those topics.
 
It is considered vulgar over the entire nation to use the name of a family member in vain, especially if that family member is deceased.
 
===Metaphors===


''under construction''
''under construction''
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[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Conscripts]]
[[Category:Conscripts]]
[[Category:Analytic Languages]]
[[Category:Analytic languages]]
[[Category:Conscripts]]
[[Category:Conscripts]]
[[Category:Nominative-Accusative Languages]]
[[Category:Nominative-accusative languages]]
Upalldayallen
185

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