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Kämpya: Difference between revisions
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Pronouns are not marked for singular or plural, but there are two words for "we" depending on whether the listener is included [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusivity]. The pronouns that do not include the listener are also used to only talk about the speaker. Another way of looking at this is that Kämpya makes no distinction between "us not including you" and "me", but uses different forms for "us including you". | Pronouns are not marked for singular or plural, but there are two words for "we" depending on whether the listener is included [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusivity]. The pronouns that do not include the listener are also used to only talk about the speaker. Another way of looking at this is that Kämpya makes no distinction between "us not including you" and "me", but uses different forms for "us including you". | ||
Tenses and aspects are marked on the pronoun rather than the verb (like Hausa). A sentence without a pronoun can thus be ambiguous as to when it happened. The 4 tenses are: Present Progressive (used for actions that are happening right now), Past Imperfect (also used for present habitual actions, or that are true in general), Perfect, and Future. | Tenses and aspects are marked on the (subject) pronoun rather than the verb (like Hausa). A sentence without a pronoun can thus be ambiguous as to when it happened. The 4 tenses are: Present Progressive (used for actions that are happening right now), Past Imperfect (also used for present habitual actions, or that are true in general), Perfect, and Future. | ||
In each case, there is a different form of the word depending on whether they are immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel. There is also an "emphatic" form, which is used to emphasise the subject. The emphatic form does not depend on whether the following word starts with a vowel or not. Each form is listed below, with the normal form listed first, the form before a vowel second, and the emphatic form last: | In each case, there is a different form of the word depending on whether they are immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel. There is also an "emphatic" form, which is used to emphasise the subject. The emphatic form does not depend on whether the following word starts with a vowel or not. Each form is listed below, with the normal form listed first, the form before a vowel second, and the emphatic form last: | ||
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====Aspirated Consonants==== | ====Aspirated Consonants==== | ||
For intransitive verbs where the stressed syllable begins with an aspirated consonant, the consonant loses its aspiration and < | For intransitive verbs where the stressed syllable begins with an aspirated consonant, the consonant loses its aspiration and <Vh> (where V is a high toned reduplication of the next vowel, except that only the first element of a diphthong is copied) is infixed immediately after it (and before any second consonant in the cluster). So from /pʰláuʔt/ - "float (intransitive)", we can derive /páˈhláuʔt/ - "to float (transitive)". | ||
====Voiceless Nasals==== | ====Voiceless Nasals==== | ||
If the stressed syllable begins with a voiceless nasal, then they behave similar to the aspirated consonants, losing their voicelessness and take the infix / | If the stressed syllable begins with a voiceless nasal, then they behave similar to the aspirated consonants, losing their voicelessness and take the infix /Vh/ immediately after them e.g. /m̥â̰n/ - "to be correct" -> /máˈhâ̰n/ - "to make something correct". | ||
====Unaspirated Obstruents==== | ====Unaspirated Obstruents==== | ||
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====Clusters of /h/ + Approximant==== | ====Clusters of /h/ + Approximant==== | ||
If the stressed syllable begins with /h/ followed by /l/, /w/ or /j/, then they rearrange to become sequences of Approximant + / | If the stressed syllable begins with /h/ followed by /l/, /w/ or /j/, then they rearrange to become sequences of Approximant + /Vh/ e.g. /hwéʔg/ - "to be fun" -> /wéˈhéʔg/ - "to make fun", or /hljḭ̂ŋ/ - "to be possible" -> /líˈhjḭ̂ŋ/ - "to make possible". | ||
====Approximants==== | ====Approximants==== | ||
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====Other cases==== | ====Other cases==== | ||
In other cases, / | In other cases, /Vh/ is infixed immediately after the first consonant of the stressed syllable e.g. /ˈdò̤mì/ - "to rest (intransitive)" -> /dóˈhò̤mì/ - "to rest (transitive)". | ||
===Reciprocal Voice=== | |||
This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb e.g. /ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak" -> /dé ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak to each other". | |||
However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /kâḭŋ/ - "to hold" -> /ká kâḭŋ/ - "to hold each other". | |||
Also if the onset of the first syllable contains an aspirated consonant, the aspiration is lost in the reduplication e.g. /sʰwè̤/ - "to pull" -> /sé sʰwè̤/ - "to pull each other". | |||
If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. /ˈm̥wéʔɾè/ - "to kill" -> /méˈm̥wéʔɾè/ - "to kill each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make laugh" -> /lá ˈhlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make each other laugh". | |||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
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Note that intransitive sentences are not marked for TAM. | Note that intransitive sentences are not marked for TAM. | ||
====Constituent Deletion==== | |||
However, constituents of phrases can be freely deleted, so it is perfectly possible to have one word sentences e.g. | |||
/áˈlôṵn/ | |||
alone | |||
He / She / It / They is / are / was / were / will be alone. | |||
====With Postpositional Phrases==== | ====With Postpositional Phrases==== | ||
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However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */kúʔn jó/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jó ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ is ungrammatical (unlike sentences such as /ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ which are grammatical). It is only grammatical to say: | However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */kúʔn jó/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jó ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ is ungrammatical (unlike sentences such as /ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ which are grammatical). It is only grammatical to say: | ||
/ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à jó kúʔn/ | /ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à jó kúʔn/ | ||
ˈkʰóʔnàt from 2PS.PROG depart | ˈkʰóʔnàt=from 2PS.PROG depart | ||
You are setting off from ˈkʰóʔnàt. | You are setting off from ˈkʰóʔnàt. | ||
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or | or | ||
/jó kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à/ | /jó kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à/ | ||
2PS.PROG depart ˈkʰóʔnàt from | 2PS.PROG depart ˈkʰóʔnàt=from | ||
You are departing from ˈkʰóʔnàt. | You are departing from ˈkʰóʔnàt. | ||
===Transitive Sentences=== | |||
In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-ja/ e.g. | |||
/ˈḛ̂nèmì=jà ˈm̥wéʔɾè ˈsíʔtà/ | |||
enemy=ERG kill guardian | |||
It was the enemy that killed the guardians. | |||
====Topicalisation==== | |||
However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g. | |||
/ˈsíʔtà ˈḛ̂nèmì jà ˈm̥wéʔɾè/ | |||
guardian enemy=ERG kill | |||
The guardians were killed by the enemy. | |||
The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g. | |||
/ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈm̥wéʔɾè ˈsíʔtà/ | |||
enemy kill guardian | |||
The enemy killed the guardians. | |||
The difference between this and /ˈḛ̂nèmì jà ˈm̥wéʔɾè ˈsíʔtà/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the enemy that did the killing. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the enemy, and the new information is that they killed the guardians. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese. | |||
Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */ˈsíʔtà ˈênèmì ˈm̥wéɾè/ or anything like that. | |||
====Subject Pronouns==== | |||
The tensed pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs, with no restrictions other than the time of the action must be made clear (on the pronoun) e.g. | |||
/jó=ˈm̥wéʔɾè ˈsíʔtà/ | |||
2PS.PROG.NOM=kill guardian | |||
You are killing the guardian. | |||
As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g. | |||
/ˈsíʔtà jó=ˈm̥wéʔɾè/ | |||
guardian 2PS.PROG.NOM=kill | |||
However, the subject pronoun still come immediately before the verb, so sentences like */jó ˈsíʔtà ˈm̥wéʔɾè/ are ungrammatical. | |||
====Object Pronouns==== | |||
There are a special set of object (accusative) pronouns that are used in transitive sentences. They also come immediately before the verb, but are not marked for tense or number. Here is a list of them: | |||
1PS Exclusive ("me" and "us not including you"): /mi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /mj-/ (before a word starting with a vowel) | |||
1PS Inclusive ("us including you"): /lan-/ | |||
2PS (Singular or Plural): /bwo-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /bwos-/ (before a word starting with a vowel) | |||
3PS: /swi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /siw-/ (before a word starting with a vowel) | |||
Reflexive: /se-/ | |||
However, using one of these pronouns makes the verb intransitive i.e. the subject will be unmarked (in the absolutive case) and can come either before or after the verb e.g. | |||
/ˈḛ̂nèmì bwó ˈm̥wéʔɾè/ | |||
enemy 2PS.ACC kill | |||
The enemy will kill you. | |||
or | |||
/bwó ˈm̥wéʔɾè ˈḛ̂nèmì/ | |||
2PS.ACC kill enemy | |||
You will be killed by the enemy. | |||
====Subject Deletion==== | |||
It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g. | |||
/ˈm̥wéʔɾè ˈsíʔtà/ | |||
kill guardian | |||
He / She / It / They killed the guardian. | |||
/ˈsíʔtà ˈm̥wéʔɾè/ | |||
guardian kill | |||
The guardian was killed. | |||
This carries no ambiguity, because the guardian is always in the absolutive case. | |||