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Scellan/Syntax: Difference between revisions
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A mostly-analytic language, Eevo ( | A mostly-analytic language, Eevo (Scellan) is focus-prominent and strongly head-initial (with exceptions in poetry), like Salishan and Polynesian languages. | ||
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==Topic-prominence== | ==Topic-prominence== | ||
Fundamental to Skellan syntax is its topic- | Fundamental to Skellan syntax is its topic-prominent V2 word order, a unique feature among Talman languages. Sentences usually, but not always, use the following word order in main clauses: | ||
topic [preverbs] verb subject ... | topic [preverbs] verb subject ... | ||
The subject that follows the verb will be a pronoun if the topic is also the subject. | The subject that follows the verb will be a pronoun referring to the subject, if the topic is also the subject. | ||
Subordinate clauses, which have no topic of their own, use verb-initial word order. | Subordinate clauses, which have no topic of their own, use verb-initial word order. | ||
A direct object pronoun is not needed when it refers to the topic: | |||
:'''''A duvwñ mol a tehd.''''' | |||
:SPEC.SG teacher thank SPEC.SG child | |||
:''The child thanks the teacher.'' | |||
Topic-prominent sentences can have different syntaxes from English: | |||
:'''''Berð leð ind þyb orð.''''' | |||
:palm be_in_state 3PL.POSS.PL leaf big | |||
:''Palms have big leaves.'' [lit. palms-in-general, their leaves are big] | |||
===Exceptions=== | |||
Sentences that are typically ''not'' topic prominent include: | |||
*Focused sentences: when a noun is specific and its existence or relevance is new information (e.g. is focused), it is not topicalized. Such a noun will commonly, but not necessarily, be indefinite in English. | |||
*Topic-focused comment: Some component might be focused within the comment clause for the topic, and that focused constituent may be fronted within the comment clause. This sometimes makes sentences SOV. This construction is usually used for contrasting two (or more) topics. | |||
** ''Fiar þyl a leeð ais, naw jyçár a leeð ain.'' (thou sword CLEFT be_located with-thee, I machine_gun CLEFT be_located with-me) 'You have a sword, and I have a machine gun.' | |||
** In colloquial speech, pronouns referring to the topic can be omitted whenever the relation and the topic are clear: ''Fiar þyl a leeð, naw jyçár a leeð.'' | |||
*Weather: ''Dy tøøh ñwi.'' = It's raining. | |||
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==Noun phrase== | ==Noun phrase== | ||
Scellan uses an unusual article system from the perspective of other Talman languages. It has a specific article (like Windermere) but no definite article (unlike Windermere and other Talmic languages), and number is only marked for specific nouns. | |||
*no article for non-specific or collective (number neutral) | *no article for non-specific or collective (number neutral) | ||
*''a(ð)'' for specific singular | *''a(ð)'' for specific singular | ||
*''na'' for specific plural | *''na'' for specific plural | ||
Singulative and plurative (called "singular" and "plural" below for convenience) refer to one resp. more than one specific instances of the noun. A noun in the collective form refers to "[noun] in general" or "the set of all [noun]". This distinction also applies to abstract nouns (which often use unmarked collectives). A non-specific abstract noun refers to the quality in general, and the singulative and plurative refer to one or more specific instances or manifestations of the abstract noun. For example, the collective ''fosgu'' means 'valor (in general)'; the singulative ''a fosgu'' means 'a/the valiant deed'; the plurative ''na fosgu'' means '(the) valiant deeds'. | Singulative and plurative (called "singular" and "plural" below for convenience) refer to one resp. more than one specific instances of the noun. A noun in the collective form refers to "[noun] in general" or "the set of all [noun]". This distinction also applies to abstract nouns (which often use unmarked collectives). A non-specific abstract noun refers to the quality in general, and the singulative and plurative refer to one or more specific instances or manifestations of the abstract noun. For example, the collective ''fosgu'' means 'valor (in general)'; the singulative ''a fosgu'' means 'a/the (specific) valiant deed'; the plurative ''na fosgu'' means '(the) valiant deeds'. | ||
Non-specific nouns are referred to with plural pronouns. | Non-specific nouns are referred to with plural pronouns. | ||
===Modifiers=== | |||
Genitives, adjectives, and relative clauses all come after the head noun, but numerals and most determiners precede it. | |||
When the article of a genitive NP is omitted, speakers may parse it as an attributive noun (serving a similar purpose to English attributive nouns and compounding). | |||
TODO: The canonical order of modifiers | |||
==Faulty accusative== | ==Faulty accusative== | ||
The faulty accusative particle is ''ym'', which etymologically was a filler word like "um..." It is not a case marker; it comes before a constituent noun phrase X in phrases of the form HEAD Y X, when X is not a prepositional phrase or an adjunct. | The faulty accusative particle is ''ym'', which etymologically was a filler word like "um...". It is not a case marker; it comes before a constituent noun phrase X in phrases of the form HEAD Y X, when X is not a prepositional phrase or an adjunct. | ||
:'''''A duvwñ mol a tehd ym ob.''''' | :'''''A duvwñ mol a tehd ym ob.''''' | ||
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:''The child thanks the teacher.'' (lit. 'The teacher, the child thanks him.') | :''The child thanks the teacher.'' (lit. 'The teacher, the child thanks him.') | ||
:'''''Room llyn ym þail | :'''''Room llyn ym þail byðai!''''' (also ''Room þail byðai llyn'', with no ''ym'') | ||
:exist DAT-1SG FA milk blue | :exist DAT-1SG FA milk blue | ||
:''I have blue milk!'' | :''I have blue milk!'' | ||
''ym'' is | ''ym'' is optional when the subject is a pronoun: | ||
:'''''A tehd mol | :'''''A tehd mol o'm a duvwñ.''''' | ||
:SPEC child thank 3SG.M SPEC teacher | :SPEC child thank 3SG.M FA SPEC teacher | ||
:''The child thanks the teacher.'' (lit. 'The child, he thanks the teacher.') | :''The child thanks the teacher.'' (lit. 'The child, he thanks the teacher.') | ||
''ym'' is | ''ym'' is not used when the constituent that would get the ''ym'' contains a content question: | ||
:'''''A tehd mol ob (*ym) tua?''''' | :'''''A tehd mol ob (*ym) tua?''''' | ||
:SPEC child thank 3SG.M who | :SPEC child thank 3SG.M who | ||
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*''vwa'' = 'yes' to a ''negative'' question; also used to contradict a negative statement | *''vwa'' = 'yes' to a ''negative'' question; also used to contradict a negative statement | ||
*''ter'' = 'no' to a ''negative'' question: also used to agree with a negative statement | *''ter'' = 'no' to a ''negative'' question: also used to agree with a negative statement | ||
These four words will be glossed | These four words will be glossed with their Early Modern English translations, "yea", "nay", "yes", and "no" respectively. | ||
===Content questions=== | ===Content questions=== | ||
As a consequence of topic-first verb-second word order, Skellan is wh-in-situ unlike English: | As a consequence of topic-first verb-second word order, Skellan is wh-in-situ unlike English: | ||
:'''''Iar | :'''''Iar casin iar taw lly bløgin dia tarsiad rreem?''''' | ||
:2SG eat.PERF 2SG what for lunch today | :2SG eat.PERF 2SG what for lunch LOC-SPEC school today | ||
:''What did you have for lunch today?'' | :''What did you have for lunch in school today?'' | ||
==Negation== | ==Negation== | ||
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:''Everything changed.'' (literally 'Nothing did not change.') | :''Everything changed.'' (literally 'Nothing did not change.') | ||
:'''''Twm ñorn dia tarsíad a twm | :'''''Twm ñorn dia tarsíad a twm hlawb o gyl ee.''''' | ||
:NEG girl in-SPEC school A NEG good 3SG.M from 3SG.F | :NEG girl in-SPEC school A NEG good 3SG.M from 3SG.F | ||
:''Every girl in school likes him.'' ('There's no girl in school that doesn't like him.') | :''Every girl in school likes him.'' ('There's no girl in school that doesn't like him.') | ||
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*''sder'' = negative interrogative | *''sder'' = negative interrogative | ||
:'''''Sder bo croð | :'''''Sder bo croð hniañt dyb çuþ?''''' | ||
:NEG.INTERR COL human also in-COL animal | :NEG.INTERR COL human also in-COL animal | ||
:''Are humans, too, not animals?'' | :''Are humans, too, not animals?'' | ||
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#:That was the year in which they entered. | #:That was the year in which they entered. | ||
#''Membership'' is expressed using ''X COP dyb Y (PRON)'' (etym. "X is in all Y's"). This asserts "X is-a Y", i.e. "X is in the set of all Y's". | #''Membership'' is expressed using ''X COP dyb Y (PRON)'' (etym. "X is in all Y's"). This asserts "X is-a Y", i.e. "X is in the set of all Y's". | ||
#:''''' | #:'''''Dyb croð Soocrátees, dyb baryçtá bo croð. Ceeda dyb paryçta Soocrátee..''''' | ||
#: | #: is_a human Socrates, is_a mortal COL human. therefore is_a mortal Socrates. | ||
#:Socrates is human; humans are mortal. Hence Socrates is mortal. | #:Socrates is human; humans are mortal. Hence Socrates is mortal. | ||
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When fronting of a noun occurs, the remaining verb phrase becomes a noun phrase, thus a determiner must be used. | When fronting of a noun occurs, the remaining verb phrase becomes a noun phrase, thus a determiner must be used. | ||
:''Twm ziráð syrñ bo [toxrorégin] '''a''' go þarcǿma | :''Twm ziráð syrñ bo [toxrorégin] '''a''' go þarcǿma a hmøøh bo sbenopats.'' | ||
:NEG only new COL evolve-PASS.PART DET PST.IPFV inhabit SG world COL dinosaur | :NEG only new COL evolve-PASS.PART DET PST.IPFV inhabit SG world COL dinosaur | ||
:The world of the dinosaurs was not solely occupied by the newly-evolved. | :The world of the dinosaurs was not solely occupied by the newly-evolved. | ||
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''Balanced'' time clauses can be formed with the conjunctions ''tev'' 'when', ''ñal'' 'before', ''tynd'' 'after', or ''hiañ'' 'while'. Balanced clauses use finite verb forms, hence always mark tense. | ''Balanced'' time clauses can be formed with the conjunctions ''tev'' 'when', ''ñal'' 'before', ''tynd'' 'after', or ''hiañ'' 'while'. Balanced clauses use finite verb forms, hence always mark tense. | ||
''Deranked'' time clauses can be formed by using a preposition, most commonly ''dy'' 'when', ''ñal'' 'before', and ''tynd'' 'after'. The subject of the time clause is marked with a genitive construction, either by the preposition ''ry'' or by using a possessive pronoun. Deranked time clauses have no inherent tense. | ''Deranked'' time clauses can be formed by using a preposition, most commonly ''dy'' 'when', ''jwiva'' 'until', ''ñal'' 'before', and ''tynd'' 'after'. The subject of the time clause is marked with a genitive construction, either by the preposition ''ry'' or by using a possessive pronoun. Deranked time clauses have no inherent tense. Similar deranked clause constructions can be found in Irish and Hebrew. Deranked clauses are somewhat higher-register than balanced clauses (but in other Talmic languages such as [[Anbirese]] they're less marked). | ||
Ex: | Ex: | ||
*''dy | *''dy cri rib'' (LOC walk.VN of-1EX) 'when we walk' | ||
When there is no possessor the subject is assumed to be an impersonal subject: ''dy cri'' 'when one walks'. | |||
===Relative clauses=== | ===Relative clauses=== | ||
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**This came about because the older resumptive pronominal affixes on prepositions elided and the emphatic pronoun remained optional. | **This came about because the older resumptive pronominal affixes on prepositions elided and the emphatic pronoun remained optional. | ||
**when oblique, the resumptive pronoun may replace the relativizer, as in Modern Hebrew | **when oblique, the resumptive pronoun may replace the relativizer, as in Modern Hebrew | ||
*for places, ''cah'' 'there' can be used as a resumptive pronoun | :'''''Mes na dlïah yryñéel ry twm go orr awb sovl ber (awr)!''''' (or: '''''...ber awr twm go orr awb sovl''''') | ||
:this_PRON SPEC.PL event terrible REL NEG IPFV should 1EX hear about (3PL) | |||
:''These are terrible events that we should not have heard of!'' | |||
*for places and locations, ''cah'' 'there' can be used as a resumptive pronoun instead of a preposition | |||
*in formal writing, to eliminate ambiguity ''mes'' 'this' may be used as a resumptive pronoun | *in formal writing, to eliminate ambiguity ''mes'' 'this' may be used as a resumptive pronoun | ||
*for relativizing sentences or statements, the relativizer ''taw'' 'what' is used | *for relativizing sentences or statements, the relativizer ''taw'' 'what' is used | ||
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:what confirm COMP equal SPEC.PL two as desire | :what confirm COMP equal SPEC.PL two as desire | ||
:''...which confirms that the two are equal, as desired.'' | :''...which confirms that the two are equal, as desired.'' | ||
*Non-restrictive relative clauses | *Non-restrictive relative clauses (more precisely, those relative clauses that ''cannot'' be restrictive) are indicated by simple appositi | ||
===Complement clauses=== | ===Complement clauses=== | ||
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===Conditional clauses=== | ===Conditional clauses=== | ||
====Gnomic conditionals==== | |||
Conditional clauses that express a general truth use ''i'' + a verb in the present tense in the protasis. The form of ''i'' used with copular sentences with a zero copula is ''il''. | Conditional clauses that express a general truth use ''i'' + a verb in the present tense in the protasis. The form of ''i'' used with copular sentences with a zero copula is ''il''. | ||
:'''''I tøøh | :'''''I tøøh ñwi, (coþ) gias a cnoo.''''' | ||
:if | :if precipitate rain (then) wet SPEC grass | ||
:''If it rains, (then) the grass is wet.'' | :''If it rains, (then) the grass is wet.'' | ||
Also found in literary contexts with the same meaning: ''Tøøhor a barah, ...'' lit. 'Let it rain...' | |||
====Future conditionals==== | |||
Clauses describing something conditional on a possible future event use ''i'' + future tense: | Clauses describing something conditional on a possible future event use ''i'' + future tense: | ||
:'''''I tøøht | :'''''I tøøht ñwi, faht gias a cnoo.''''' | ||
:if | :if precipitate-FUT rain be.FUT wet SPEC grass | ||
:''If it rains [lit. if it will rain] the grass will be wet.'' | :''If it rains [lit. if it will rain] the grass will be wet.'' | ||
Time clauses (when, while, before, after) work similarly to non-counterfactual conditional clauses. | |||
:'''''Criht naw tahd iañt breñt iar.''''' | |||
:go-FUT 1SG whither also say-FUT 2SG | |||
:''I'll go wherever you tell me.'' | |||
Counterfactual suppositions use a different conjunction '' | ====Counterfactual conditionals==== | ||
:''''' | Counterfactual suppositions use a different conjunction ''gab'', plus the present tense, and the apodosis uses a verb in the conditional tense: | ||
:if_counterfactual | :'''''Gab tøøh a ñwi, liað gias a cnoo.''''' | ||
: | :if_counterfactual precipitate SPEC rain be.COND wet SPEC grass | ||
:If it rained, the grass would be wet. | |||
===Method clauses=== | ===Method clauses=== | ||
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==="Whatever" clauses=== | ==="Whatever" clauses=== | ||
"whatever" is translated as interrogative + iañt | |||
==Modal expressions== | ==Modal expressions== | ||
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**The possessive pronoun can be omitted in casual speech. | **The possessive pronoun can be omitted in casual speech. | ||
*''Ulyn naw...'' = I might... (probabilistic) | *''Ulyn naw...'' = I might... (probabilistic) | ||
===Evidentials or epistemics=== | |||
==Telic verbs== | ==Telic verbs== | ||
*''asliþda'' = to fake one's way, to cheat one's way < ''liþda'' = to cheat | *''asliþda'' = to fake one's way, to cheat one's way < ''liþda'' = to cheat | ||
*''asmiþgwñ'' = to seduce successfully < ''miþgwñ'' = to seduce | *''asmiþgwñ'' = to seduce successfully < ''miþgwñ'' = to seduce or attempt to | ||
==Infinitive absolute== | ==Infinitive absolute== | ||