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Avalonian does show much evidence of borrowing from an unknown Vasconic language although there is little or no evidence of reciprocal ancient Avalonian loans in Aquitanian or Basque. | Avalonian does show much evidence of borrowing from an unknown Vasconic language although there is little or no evidence of reciprocal ancient Avalonian loans in Aquitanian or Basque. | ||
There is also some evidence of borrowing from the putative Goidelic substrate languages. An example of this would be | There is also some evidence of borrowing from the putative Goidelic substrate languages. An example of this would be partaq 'crab'. | ||
==Inspiration== | ==Inspiration== | ||
Line 323: | Line 323: | ||
10) Long vowels may not occur in closed syllables. | 10) Long vowels may not occur in closed syllables. | ||
11) | 11) Long vowels may only occur before /f, s, x, v, z, ɣ, h/ or in morpheme-final position. | ||
12) | 12) Vowel clusters do not occur. | ||
13) Native roots are most often disyllabic. | |||
14) Monosyllabic roots are uncommon and mainly comprise pronouns and certain common nouns and verbs. | |||
15) Roots with more than two syllables are foreign loans and their syllabic templates generally become nativised over time. | |||
16) Monosyllabic suffixes may have a word-final allomorph consisting of a single coda consonant which is employed after a short vowel. | |||
===Morphophonemics=== | ===Morphophonemics=== | ||
Line 389: | Line 357: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|ptr||v̄tr||ktr||ntr||ntr||ntr||ltr||v̄tr||'''TR''' | |ptr||v̄tr||ktr||ntr||ntr||ntr||ltr||v̄tr||'''TR''' | ||
|- | |||
|pkj||tkj||v̄kj||qkj||qkj||qkj||lkj||rkj||'''KJ''' | |||
|- | |||
|pkv||tkv||v̄kv||qkv||qkv||qkv||lkv||rkv||'''KV''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄tl||v̄tl||v̄tl||v̄nl||v̄nl||v̄nl||v̄nl||v̄nl||'''NL''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄tr||v̄tr||v̄tr||v̄nr||v̄nr||v̄nr||v̄nr||v̄nr||'''NR''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄kj||v̄kj||v̄kj||v̄qj||v̄qj||v̄qj||v̄qj||v̄qj||'''QJ''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄kv||v̄kv||v̄kv||v̄qv||v̄qv||v̄qv||v̄qv||v̄qv||'''QV''' | |||
|- | |||
|pp||v̄ph||v̄ph||mph||mph||mph||v̄ph||v̄ph||'''PH''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄th||tt||v̄th||nth||nth||nth||v̄th||v̄th||'''TH''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄kh||v̄kh||kk||qkh||qkh||qkh||v̄kh||v̄kh||'''KH''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄ph||v̄ph||v̄ph||v̄mh||v̄mh||v̄mh||v̄mh||v̄mh||'''MH''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄th||v̄th||v̄th||v̄nh||v̄nh||v̄nh||v̄nh||v̄nh||'''NH''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄kh||v̄kh||v̄kh||v̄qh||v̄qh||v̄qh||v̄qh||v̄qh||'''QH''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| pm || tm|| km||mm||mm|| mm|| lm|| rm||'''M''' | | pm || tm|| km||mm||mm|| mm|| lm|| rm||'''M''' | ||
Line 397: | Line 389: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| v̄lh|| v̄tl|| v̄lh||v̄nl|| v̄nl|| v̄nl|| ll|| ll||'''L''' | | v̄lh|| v̄tl|| v̄lh||v̄nl|| v̄nl|| v̄nl|| ll|| ll||'''L''' | ||
|- | |||
|v̄jh||v̄jh||v̄kj||v̄qj||v̄qj||v̄qj||v̄lj||v̄lj||'''LJ''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄vh||v̄vh||v̄kv||v̄qv||v̄qv||v̄qv||v̄lv||v̄lv||'''LV''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄jh||v̄jh||v̄kj||v̄qj||v̄qj||v̄qj||v̄rj||v̄rj||'''RJ''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄vh||v̄vh||v̄kv||v̄qv||v̄qv||v̄qv||v̄rv||v̄rv||'''RV''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| v̄rh|| v̄tr|| v̄rh|| v̄nr|| v̄nr|| v̄nr|| rr|| rr||'''R''' | | v̄rh|| v̄tr|| v̄rh|| v̄nr|| v̄nr|| v̄nr|| rr|| rr||'''R''' | ||
|- | |||
|v̄lh||v̄tl||v̄lh||nlh||nlh||nlh||v̄lh||v̄lh||'''LH''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄rh||v̄tr||v̄rh||nrh||nrh||nrh||v̄rh||v̄rh||'''RH''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| v̄jh || v̄jh|| v̄kj||v̄qj|| v̄qj|| v̄qj|| lj|| rj||'''J''' | | v̄jh || v̄jh|| v̄kj||v̄qj|| v̄qj|| v̄qj|| lj|| rj||'''J''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| v̄vh|| v̄vh|| v̄vh|| v̄qv|| v̄qv|| v̄qv|| lv|| rv|| '''V''' | | v̄vh|| v̄vh|| v̄vh|| v̄qv|| v̄qv|| v̄qv|| lv|| rv|| '''V''' | ||
|- | |||
|v̄jh||v̄jh||v̄kj||qjh||qjh||qjh||v̄jh||v̄jh||'''JH''' | |||
|- | |||
|v̄vh||v̄vh||v̄kv||qvh||qvh||qvh||v̄vh||v̄vh||'''VH''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
|v̄ph||v̄th||v̄kh||v̄mh||v̄nh||v̄qh||v̄lh||v̄rh||'''H''' | |v̄ph||v̄th||v̄kh||v̄mh||v̄nh||v̄qh||v̄lh||v̄rh||'''H''' | ||
Line 415: | Line 423: | ||
c) The notation v̄ indicates the preceding vowel is lengthened. | c) The notation v̄ indicates the preceding vowel is lengthened. | ||
2) If suffixation results in a consonant cluster with three consonants then an epenthetic /i/ is inserted after the first consonant in that cluster | 2) If suffixation results in a consonant cluster with three consonants before sandhi can be applied then an epenthetic /i/ is inserted after the first consonant in that cluster. | ||
=====Vocalic Sandhi===== | =====Vocalic Sandhi===== | ||
Line 472: | Line 478: | ||
2) External sandhi only occurs between words within the same clause. | 2) External sandhi only occurs between words within the same clause. | ||
3) | 3) Between a word-final consonant and a word-initial consonant, an epenthetic /i/ is inserted. | ||
4) Between a word-final vowel and a word-initial vowel, an epenthetic /ŋ/ is inserted. | |||
==Morphology== | ==Morphology== | ||
Line 526: | Line 530: | ||
====Number==== | ====Number==== | ||
1) Avalonian nouns have | 1) Avalonian nouns have two systems of number: | ||
a) Singular | a) Singular-Plural | ||
b) | b) Collective-Singulative | ||
2) Nouns within the singular-plural class are inherently singular and take the plural suffix to denote multiple instances. | |||
3) Nouns within the collective-singulative class are inherently plural and take the singulative suffix to denote a single instance. | |||
4) Avalonian grammatical numbers are summarised in the table below: | |||
4 | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
Line 548: | Line 548: | ||
| Singular || SG|| -∅ | | Singular || SG|| -∅ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Collective|| COL|| -∅ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Plural || PL|| - | | Plural || PL|| -ra (-r) | ||
|- | |||
|Singulative||SGV||-me (-m) | |||
|} | |} | ||
Line 667: | Line 669: | ||
=====Demonstrative Pronouns===== | =====Demonstrative Pronouns===== | ||
1) Pronominal demonstratives are | 1) Pronominal demonstratives are formed by adding the appropriate demonstrative suffix to the appropriate pronoun. | ||
2) Adnominal demonstratives are | 2) Adnominal demonstratives are suffices. | ||
3) Adnominal demonstrative | 3) Adnominal demonstrative suffices are rarely used with core arguments except for emphasis. | ||
4) The | 4) The adnominal demonstrative suffices are displayed in the table below: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
|'''Distance'''||'''Abbreviation'''||'''Locus Of Application'''||''' | |'''Distance'''||'''Abbreviation'''||'''Locus Of Application'''||'''Adnominal Demonstrative Suffix | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Proximal|| PROX||Near speaker | | Proximal|| PROX||Near speaker|| -in | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Medial||MED||Near hearer | |Medial||MED||Near hearer||-uk | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Distal||DIST||Away from speaker and hearer | |Distal||DIST||Away from speaker and hearer||-at | ||
|} | |} | ||
=====Emphatic Pronouns===== | =====Emphatic Pronouns===== | ||
Avalonian is a pro-drop language so any use of pronouns in the role of A, S or O arguments marks emphasis. | |||
=====Reflexive Pronouns===== | =====Reflexive Pronouns===== | ||
1) Avalonian | 1) Avalonian lacks reflexive pronouns. | ||
2) For reflexivity to be indicated in the case of an O argument, both pronominal markers on the verb must have the same person and number. | |||
3) For reflexivity to be indicated in the case of an X argument, the pronoun must have the same person and number as the ergative pronominal marker in the case of a transitive verb or the absolutive pronominal marker in the case of an intransitive marker | |||
=====Interrogative Pronouns===== | =====Interrogative Pronouns===== | ||
1) There is one interroɡative pronoun: | 1) There is one interroɡative pronoun: je 'who, what' which is undifferentiated for number. | ||
2) All other interrogatives are built from this by adding the appropriate case. Eɡ: | 2) All other interrogatives are built from this by adding the appropriate case. Eɡ: jek 'where?', jekve 'with whom?' | ||
3) There is an interrogative pronominal possessive suffix: - | 3) There is an interrogative pronominal possessive suffix: -jet 'whose?'. | ||
4) Suffixing - | 4) Suffixing -je to a noun gives the sense of 'which?'. | ||
5) The canonical word-order of Avalonian is VSOX. Interrogative pronouns or nouns taking an interrogative suffix violate this by being fronted to before the verb. | 5) The canonical word-order of Avalonian is VSOX. Interrogative pronouns or nouns taking an interrogative suffix violate this by being fronted to before the verb. | ||
6) When an interrogative pronoun is used with a verb, | 6) When an interrogative pronoun is used with a verb, the appropriate pronominal marker takes plural number. | ||
=====Indefinite Pronouns===== | =====Indefinite Pronouns===== | ||
Line 734: | Line 725: | ||
There is one universal pronoun: kal 'everybody, everything'. When placed before a noun in it indicates the concept of 'all' or 'each'. When used with a verb that verb uses plural agreement. | There is one universal pronoun: kal 'everybody, everything'. When placed before a noun in it indicates the concept of 'all' or 'each'. When used with a verb that verb uses plural agreement. | ||
====Possessive Constructions==== | ====Possessive Constructions==== | ||
Line 765: | Line 744: | ||
|0||thera | |0||thera | ||
|- | |- | ||
|1|| | |1||pat | ||
|- | |- | ||
|2|| | |2||pik | ||
|- | |- | ||
|3|| | |3||ilur | ||
|- | |- | ||
|4|| | |4||kvevher | ||
|- | |- | ||
|5||pārha | |5||pārha | ||
|- | |- | ||
|6|| | |6||hi | ||
|- | |- | ||
|7|| | |7||haphi | ||
|- | |- | ||
|8|| | |8||hārhi | ||
|- | |- | ||
|9|| | |9||navan | ||
|- | |- | ||
|10||ampar | |10||ampar | ||
Line 787: | Line 766: | ||
|11||amparpat | |11||amparpat | ||
|- | |- | ||
|12|| | |12||amparpik | ||
|- | |- | ||
|13|| | |13||amparilur | ||
|- | |- | ||
|14|| | |14||ampalkvevher | ||
|- | |- | ||
|15||amparpārha | |15||amparpārha | ||
|- | |- | ||
|16|| | |16||ampārhi | ||
|- | |- | ||
|17|| | |17||ampārhaphi | ||
|- | |- | ||
|18|| | |18||ampārhārhi | ||
|- | |- | ||
|19|| | |19||amparnavan | ||
|- | |- | ||
|20|| | |20||aki | ||
|- | |- | ||
|40|| | |40||pikaki | ||
|- | |- | ||
|60|| | |60||iluraki | ||
|- | |- | ||
|80|| | |80||kvevheraki | ||
|- | |- | ||
|100|| | |100||elun | ||
|- | |- | ||
|200|| | |200|| pik elun | ||
|- | |- | ||
|1.000|| milya | |1.000|| milya | ||
|- | |- | ||
|1.965||milya | |1.965||milya navan elun iluraki pārha | ||
|- | |- | ||
|3.000|| | |3.000||ilur milya | ||
|- | |- | ||
|10.000|| ampar milya | |10.000|| ampar milya | ||
|- | |- | ||
|50.000|| | |50.000|| pikaki ampar milya | ||
|- | |- | ||
|100.000|| | |100.000|| elun milya | ||
|- | |- | ||
|600.000|| | |600.000|| hi elun milya | ||
|- | |- | ||
|1.000.000|| milyan | |1.000.000|| milyan | ||
|- | |- | ||
|7.000.000|| | |7.000.000|| haphi milyan | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 851: | Line 830: | ||
====General Remarks On Verbal Morphology==== | ====General Remarks On Verbal Morphology==== | ||
1) Verbs express actions, processes or states of being. Verbs are inflected for A, S, O | 1) Verbs express actions, processes or states of being. Verbs are inflected for A, S, and O arguments, aspect and mood. | ||
2) Maximal verbal structure: | 2) Maximal verbal structure: | ||
verbal or nominal root + derivational suffix(es) + aspect suffix + mood suffix + | verbal or nominal root + derivational suffix(es) + aspect suffix + mood suffix + ergative pronominal suffix + absolutive pronominal suffix | ||
====Verbal Argument Suffixes==== | ====Verbal Argument Suffixes==== | ||
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{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''' | | '''Person''' ||'''Abbreviation'''|| '''Absolutive Suffix (Allomorph)'''|| '''Ergative Suffix''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | 1st Person Singular|| 1SG || -ni (-n)||-nti | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |2nd Person Singular||2SG||-ki (-k)||-kti | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | 3rd Person Singular|| 3SG||-ti (-t)||-tti | ||
|- | |||
|4th Person Singular||4SG||-pi (-p)||-pti | |||
|- | |||
|1st Person Paucal Exclusive||1PC EXCL||-nuk||-ntuk | |||
|- | |||
|1st Person Paucal Inclusive||1PC INCL||-nikuk||-niktuk | |||
|- | |||
|2nd Person Paucal||2PC||-kuk||-ktuk | |||
|- | |||
|3rd Person Paucal||3PC||-tuk||-ntuk | |||
|- | |||
|4th Person Paucal||4PC||-puk||-ptuk | |||
|- | |||
|1st Person Plural Exclusive||1PL EXCL||-nat||-ntat | |||
|- | |||
|1st Person Plural Inclusive||1PL INCL||-nikat||-niktat | |||
|- | |||
|2nd Person Plural||2PL||-kat||-ktat | |||
|3rd Person Plural||3PL||-tat||-ttat | |||
|- | |||
|4th Person Plural||4PL||-pat||-ptat | |||
|} | |} | ||
NB: Parenthesised forms are word-final allomorphs employed after a short vowel. | NB: Parenthesised forms are word-final allomorphs employed after a short vowel. | ||
==== | ====Topicalisation==== | ||
1) | 1) Avalonian lacks true grammatical voice although it does have a system of topicalisation in lieu. | ||
2) In transitive verbs, topicalisation is indicated by the presence or absence of verbal pronominal suffices as per the table below: | |||
2) | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''' | |'''Prominent Topic'''||'''Ergative Suffix?'''||'''Absolutive Suffix?'''||'''Case Of Topic Argument''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |None||Yes||Yes||ERG or ABS | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |A argument||Yes||No||DAT | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |O argument||No||Yes||INST | ||
|} | |} | ||
4) Topicalised A or O arguments are fronted to before the verb. | |||
5) The S arguments of intransitive verbs never mark topic as they are either the topic or an X argument is elevated to topic. | |||
6) Topicalised X argument phrases are fronted to before the verb. | |||
7) Relativised verbs may not have topicalised arguments. | |||
====Mood and Modality==== | ====Mood and Modality==== | ||
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====The Gerund==== | ====The Gerund==== | ||
1) The gerund uses the suffix -ken which is | 1) The gerund uses the suffix -ken which is added in lieu of pronominal ergative or absolutive suffixes | ||
2) It transforms the verb into a noun which can be used much as any noun can. | 2) It transforms the verb into a noun which can be used much as any noun can. | ||
====Participles==== | |||
Avalonian lacks participles and uses a relativised verb. | |||
====Adverbs==== | ====Adverbs==== | ||
Line 972: | Line 975: | ||
===Other Parts Of Speech=== | ===Other Parts Of Speech=== | ||
====Adjectives==== | |||
1) Avalonian lacks true adjectives. | |||
2) Forms conveying advectival functions occur in three classes: | |||
a) A closed class of nominal suffixes with adjectival meanings. | |||
b) A noun taking the equative case and following the referent. | |||
c) A relativised verb. | |||
====Adpositions==== | ====Adpositions==== | ||
1) Avalonian lacks true adpositions. | 1) Avalonian lacks true adpositions. | ||
Line 1,009: | Line 1,024: | ||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
===Constituent order=== | ===Constituent order=== | ||
1) The canonical word order of Avalonian is VSOX. This is detailed as follows: | |||
verb phrase + agent phrase or subject phrase + object phrase + oblique phrase | |||
2) Topicalisation or wh-fronting may front one of the agent , the subject, the object or the oblique phrases to before the verb. | |||
===Noun phrase=== | ===Noun phrase=== | ||
===Verb phrase=== | ===Verb phrase=== | ||
Line 1,022: | Line 1,044: | ||
|'''English'''||'''Avalonian''' | |'''English'''||'''Avalonian''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|amber || | |amber ||verhu | ||
|- | |- | ||
|apple||hakar | |apple||hakar | ||
|- | |- | ||
|automobile || | |automobile ||karpat | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Avalonian Isles ||Telku | |Avalonian Isles ||Telku | ||
Line 1,032: | Line 1,054: | ||
|Avalonian Penny ||tenar | |Avalonian Penny ||tenar | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Avalonian Pound (currency)|| | |Avalonian Pound (currency)||lirhu | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Avalonians ||kammir | |Avalonians ||kammir | ||
Line 1,080: | Line 1,102: | ||
|cat ||kattu | |cat ||kattu | ||
|- | |- | ||
|cheese || | |cheese ||kathan | ||
|- | |- | ||
|cheetah ||trita | |cheetah ||trita | ||
Line 1,144: | Line 1,166: | ||
|finger-ring||nakha | |finger-ring||nakha | ||
|- | |- | ||
|fire || | |fire, flames ||qhārhu | ||
|- | |- | ||
|flower || | |flower ||lvetta | ||
|- | |- | ||
|foot (anatomy)||īhak | |foot (anatomy)||īhak | ||
Line 1,161: | Line 1,183: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|garden||rhūha | |garden||rhūha | ||
|- | |||
|garlic||rhema | |||
|- | |- | ||
|gay person ||kī | |gay person ||kī | ||
Line 1,293: | Line 1,317: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|road||vige | |road||vige | ||
|- | |||
|rock||karra | |||
|- | |- | ||
|room||kanra | |room||kanra | ||
Line 1,330: | Line 1,356: | ||
|sun||rhahā | |sun||rhahā | ||
|- | |- | ||
|sword || | |sword ||ghiqak | ||
|- | |- | ||
|tavern||pūni | |tavern||pūni | ||
Line 1,400: | Line 1,426: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|be good||iktū | |be good||iktū | ||
|- | |||
|be green||latha | |||
|- | |- | ||
|be important||qaran | |be important||qaran | ||
Line 1,470: | Line 1,498: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|kill||utpa | |kill||utpa | ||
|- | |||
|know||iktē | |||
|- | |- | ||
|laugh||lalha | |laugh||lalha |
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