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Tjoc (view source)

Revision as of 20:58, 16 December 2012

228 bytes removed ,  16 December 2012
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|-
|-
|go
|go
|goe
|go (!)
|good
|good
|-
|-
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|-
|-
|glå
|glå
|glåe
|glå (!)
|happy
|happy
|-
|-
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|-
|-
|skjå
|skjå
|skjå
|skjå (!)
|tall / high
|tall / high
|-
|-
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|-
|-
|njå
|njå
|njå
|njå (!)
|near / close
|near / close
|-
|-
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|}
|}


As it can be seen, adjectives ending with '-i' don't take the '-e' ending in the weak forms and in the plural form.
As it can be seen, adjectives ending with a long vowel or '-i' don't take the '-e' ending in the weak forms and in the plural form.
An example of use:
An example of use:


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|-
|-
|jong
|jong
|jenger
|ynger
|jengre
|yngre
|-
|-
|skjå
|skjå
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|-
|-
|jong
|jong
|jengst
|yngst
|jengste
|yngste
|-
|-
|skjå
|skjå
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Usually adverbs in Tjoc are formed by suffixation: many adverbs derive from adjectives, to that the suffix ''-lic'' is added. Some examples:
Usually adverbs in Tjoc are formed by suffixation: many adverbs derive from adjectives, to that the suffix ''-lic'' is added. Some examples:


* ''glåj > glåjlic'' (happy - happily);
* ''glå > glållic'' (!) (happy - happily);
* ''sari > sarilic'' (sad - sadly);
* ''sari > sarilic'' (sad - sadly);
* ''grjat > gr'''y'''llic'' (great - greatly);
* ''grjat > gr'''y'''llic'' (great - greatly);
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{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Lyrnan''' (to learn / to read)
!'''Lyrne''' (to learn / to read)
!'''Wennan''' (to live)
!'''Wenne''' (to live)
!'''Lycan''' (to like)
!'''Lyce''' (to like)
|-
|-
!'''y'''
!'''y'''
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Present indicative is used to express actions that are happening in the moment or around the moment of speaking, to talk about actions that happen habitually, to talk about past actions when telling a story or talking about history to confere more dramatic power to what is being said, to talk about future events that are considered likely or sure, to express universal truths.
Present indicative is used to express actions that are happening in the moment or around the moment of speaking, to talk about actions that happen habitually, to talk about past actions when telling a story or talking about history to confere more dramatic power to what is being said, to talk about future events that are considered likely or sure, to express universal truths.


The verb ''lycan'' functions in a different way than in English, ex.:
The verb ''lyce'' functions in a different way than in English, ex.:


* ''Tů lycet me'' - I like you.
* ''Tů lycet me'' - I like you.
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====Present indicative of irregular verbs====
====Present indicative of irregular verbs====


Some verbs are totally irregular, other partially: the most irregular verb of all is ''bjon'', "to be":
Some verbs are totally irregular, other partially: the most irregular verb of all is ''bjo'', "to be":


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Bjon'''
!'''Bjo'''
|-
|-
!'''y'''
!'''y'''
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* ''Hy sinn djor'' - They are animals.
* ''Hy sinn djor'' - They are animals.


=====Old verbs in ''-jan''=====
=====Old verbs in ''-je''=====


If one observes the conjugation of the verb ''lyrnan'', he will see that in the 2nd and the 3rd person singular the root undergoes a vowel change: ''-y-'' becomes ''-jo-''. This irregularity is found in all the so called '''-jan verbs''', that is verbs that had in Anglo-Saxon a conjugation with ''-i-'' in some endings and without it in others (such as the 2nd and the 3rd person singular of present indicative). This ''-i-'' has disappeared in the endings, but, before, has changed the root vowel; not all the vowels undergo this change though: only ''o'' and ''u'' / ''ů'' undergo this change and become respectively ''e'' and ''i'' / ''y'', the diphthong ''jo'' becomes ''y'' instead.
If one observes the conjugation of the verb ''lyrne'', he will see that in the 2nd and the 3rd person singular the root undergoes a vowel change: ''-y-'' becomes ''-jo-''. This irregularity is found in all the so called '''-je verbs''', that is verbs that had in Anglo-Saxon a conjugation with ''-i-'' in some endings and without it in others (such as the 2nd and the 3rd person singular of present indicative). This ''-i-'' has disappeared in the endings, but, before, has changed the root vowel; not all the vowels undergo this change though: only ''o'' and ''u'' / ''ů'' undergo this change and become respectively ''e'' and ''i'' / ''y'', the diphthong ''jo'' becomes ''y'' instead.


Here are the verbs ''lyrnan'', ''behewan'', "to be necessary", and ''kinnan'', "to experience":
Here are the verbs ''lyrne'', ''behewe'', "to be necessary", and ''kinne'', "to experience":


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Lyrnan'''
!'''Lyrne'''
!'''Behewan'''
!'''Behewe'''
!'''Kinnan'''
!'''Kinne'''
|-
|-
!'''y'''
!'''y'''
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|-
|-
!leorn'''i'''an
!leorn'''i'''an
|l'''y'''rnan
|l'''y'''rne
!behōf'''i'''an
!behōf'''i'''an
|beh'''e'''wan
|beh'''e'''we
!cunn'''i'''an
!cunn'''i'''an
|k'''i'''nnan
|k'''i'''nne
|-
|-
!leornaþ
!leornaþ
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|}
|}


When the root vowel is an 'a', an 'e' or an 'i', this vowel doesn't experience any change, in this case the 'j' appears in the endings of the 1st person singular, of the plurals and of the infinitive, but doesn't in those of the 2nd and the 3rd person singular. An example is the verb ''hatjan'', "to hate":
When the root vowel is an 'a', an 'e' or an 'i', this vowel doesn't experience any change, in this case the 'j' appears in the endings of the 1st person singular, of the plurals and of the infinitive, but doesn't in those of the 2nd and the 3rd person singular. An example is the verb ''hatje'', "to hate":


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Hatjan'''
!'''Hatje'''
|-
|-
!'''y'''
!'''y'''
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During the evolution from Anglo-Saxon, many verbs specialized their meaning, thus these verbs are called '''specialized verbs''' and they are all irregular verbs.
During the evolution from Anglo-Saxon, many verbs specialized their meaning, thus these verbs are called '''specialized verbs''' and they are all irregular verbs.


Here is the present indicative of the verbs ''knåwan'' and ''wytan'', both "to know", ''segan'' and ''hwetan'', both "to say", ''don'' and ''skån'', both "to do":
Here is the present indicative of the verbs ''knåwe'' and ''wyte'', both "to know", ''sege'' and ''hwete'', both "to say", ''do'' and ''skå'', both "to do":


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Knåwan'''
!'''Knåwe'''
!'''Wytan'''
!'''Wyte'''
!'''Segan'''
!'''Sege'''
!'''Hwetan'''
!'''Hwete'''
!'''Don'''
!'''Do'''
!'''Skån'''
!'''Skå'''
|-
|-
!'''y'''
!'''y'''
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|}
|}


The verb ''knåwan'' means "to know someone", whereas ''wytan'' means "to know something". The verbs ''segan'' and ''hwetan'' are almost always interchangeable and mean "to say, to tell", the second is the most used though. ''Hwetan'' means also "to assert, to argue, to allude", while ''segan'' can mean also "to pronounce".
The verb ''knåwe'' means "to know someone", whereas ''wyte'' means "to know something". The verbs ''sege'' and ''hwete'' are almost always interchangeable and mean "to say, to tell", the second is the most used though. ''Hwete'' means also "to assert, to argue, to allude", while ''sege'' can mean also "to pronounce".
The form ''såt'' for ''sagt'' is mostly found in the spoken language.
The form ''såt'' for ''sagt'' is mostly found in the spoken language.


''Don'' and ''skån'' both mean "to do", but they are different just like to do and to make in English. The verb ''skån'' means "to create material things", it is used in such expressions as: ''skån tat bed'', "to make the bed", ''skån an klåwje'', "to make a sandwich", but also ''skån se såmwys'', "to act dumb". ''Don'' refers to a mental or immaterial activity, such as ''don an enhwil'', "to do a research", ''don an skrůting'', "to do an exam", but also ''don an minid'', "to make a gesture".
''Do'' and ''skå'' both mean "to do", but they are different just like to do and to make in English. The verb ''skå'' means "to create material things", it is used in such expressions as: ''skå tat bed'', "to make the bed", ''skå an klåwje'', "to make a sandwich", but also ''skå se såmwys'', "to act dumb". ''Do'' refers to a mental or immaterial activity, such as ''do an enhwil'', "to do a research", ''do an skrůting'', "to do an exam", but also ''do an minid'', "to make a gesture".


Other specialized verbs are:
Other specialized verbs are:
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{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Åwan'''
!'''Åwe'''
!'''Håban'''
!'''Hå'''
!'''Willan'''
!'''Wille'''
!'''Mawan'''
!'''Mawe'''
!'''Kunnan'''
!'''Kunne'''
!'''Motan'''
!'''Mote'''
|-
|-
!'''y'''
!'''y'''
|åg
|åg
|håbe
|hå
|will
|will
|mag
|mag
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!'''we''' / '''je''' / '''hy'''
!'''we''' / '''je''' / '''hy'''
|åwon
|åwon
|håba
|hå
|willa
|willa
|mawon
|mawon
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|}
|}


Both ''åwan'' and ''håban'' mean "to have", but the former is used to mean "to owe" and indicates a rather material possession, even if it can be used also to indicate an immaterial possession, such as feelings, ideas, and so forth. Moreover ''åwan'' cannot ever be used as auxiliary verb. ''Håban'' indicates an immaterial possession, but it is not compulsory and it can indicate also a material possession, such as things, animals, etc. The greatest difference between ''åwan'' and ''håban'' is that the latter is the only one that can function as auxiliary.
Both ''åwe'' and ''hå'' mean "to have", but the former is used to mean "to owe" and indicates a rather material possession, even if it can be used also to indicate an immaterial possession, such as feelings, ideas, and so forth. Moreover ''åwe'' cannot ever be used as auxiliary verb. ''Hå'' indicates an immaterial possession, but it is not compulsory and it can indicate also a material possession, such as things, animals, etc. The greatest difference between ''åwe'' and ''hå'' is that the latter is the only one that can function as auxiliary.


''Willan'' and ''mawan'' both have the meaning of "to want, to desire", but the former is more peremptory in his meaning and has a nuance of pretension. ''Mawan'' is closer to the English to wish and is considered more polite. Note the expressions ''y will tek'', "I love you, I hanker after you" (it has a carnal nuance) and ''y mag tek'', "I like you, I heart you".
''Wille'' and ''mawe'' both have the meaning of "to want, to desire", but the former is more peremptory in his meaning and has a nuance of pretension. ''Mawe'' is closer to the English to wish and is considered more polite. Note the expressions ''y will tek'', "I love you, I hanker after you" (it has a carnal nuance) and ''y mag tek'', "I like you, I heart you".


''Kunnan'' and ''motan'' are quite differentiated, because the former means "can, to be able to do something", and the latter means "to be allowed to do something, to have the permission to do something".
''Kunne'' and ''mote'' are quite differentiated, because the former means "can, to be able to do something", and the latter means "to be allowed to do something, to have the permission to do something".


Two very important specialized verbs are ''gån'' and ''waran''. They both mean "to go", but the first is used when the act of going is done on foot; ''waran'' is used when the act of going is done by a mean of transport, such as bike, car, train, and so forth.
Two very important specialized verbs are ''gå'' and ''ware''. They both mean "to go", but the first is used when the act of going is done on foot; ''ware'' is used when the act of going is done by a mean of transport, such as bike, car, train, and so forth.


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Gån'''
!'''Gå'''
!'''Waran'''
!'''Ware'''
|-
|-
!'''y'''
!'''y'''
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{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Lyrnan'''
!'''Lyrne'''
!'''Wennan'''
!'''Wenne'''
!'''Lycan'''
!'''Lyce'''
|-
|-
!'''y''' / '''tů''' / '''he'''
!'''y''' / '''tů''' / '''he'''
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====Past indicative of irregular verbs====
====Past indicative of irregular verbs====


The verb ''bjon'' has got an irregular past:
The verb ''bjo'' has got an irregular past:


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Bjon'''
!'''Bjo'''
|-
|-
!'''y''' / '''tů''' / '''he'''
!'''y''' / '''tů''' / '''he'''
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As it can be seen, the three persons singular of past tense have got the same root and the three persons plural have got another one. It is important to keep this in mind, because this is true for all the irregular verbs.
As it can be seen, the three persons singular of past tense have got the same root and the three persons plural have got another one. It is important to keep this in mind, because this is true for all the irregular verbs.


=====Past of ''-jan verbs''=====
=====Past of ''-je verbs''=====


As for the present, the "-jan verbs" show a modified vowel root in this tense. While in the present indicative only the 2nd and the 3rd singular person show this change, in the past indicative all the verbal voices show this mutation.
As for the present, the "-je verbs" show a modified vowel root in this tense. While in the present indicative only the 2nd and the 3rd singular person show this change, in the past indicative all the verbal voices show this mutation.


Here are the verbs ''lyrnan'', ''behewan'' and ''kinnan'':
Here are the verbs ''lyrne'', ''behewe'' and ''kinne'':


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Lyrnan'''
!'''Lyrne'''
!'''Behewan'''
!'''Behewe'''
!'''Kinnan'''
!'''Kinne'''
|-
|-
!'''y''' / '''tů''' / '''he'''
!'''y''' / '''tů''' / '''he'''
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{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Knåwan'''
!'''Knåwe'''
!'''Wytan'''
!'''Wyte'''
!'''Segan'''
!'''Sege'''
!'''Hwetan'''
!'''Hwete'''
!'''Don'''
!'''Do'''
!'''Skån'''
!'''Skå'''
|-
|-
!'''y''' / '''tů''' / '''he'''
!'''y''' / '''tů''' / '''he'''
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{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Åwan'''
!'''Åwe'''
!'''Håban'''
!'''Hå'''
!'''Willan'''
!'''Wille'''
!'''Mawan'''
!'''Mawe'''
!'''Kunnan'''
!'''Kunne'''
!'''Motan'''
!'''Mote'''
|-
|-
!'''y''' / '''tů''' / '''he'''
!'''y''' / '''tů''' / '''he'''
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{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Gån'''
!'''Gå'''
!'''Waran'''
!'''Ware'''
|-
|-
!'''y''' / '''tů''' / '''he'''
!'''y''' / '''tů''' / '''he'''
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Here are some examples of verbs of I, II, V, VI and VII class:
Here are some examples of verbs of I, II, V, VI and VII class:


* ''I: bytan - byt - båt - biton'' (to bite - you bite - I bit - we bit);
* ''I: byte - byt - båt - biton'' (to bite - you bite - I bit - we bit);
* ''II: bjowan - byt - bjåg - buwon'' (to bid - you bid - I bade - we bade);
* ''II: bjowe - byt - bjåg - buwon'' (to bid - you bid - I bade - we bade);
* ''V: jewan - jeft - jaf - jåwon'' (to give - you give - I gave - we gave);
* ''V: jewe - jeft - jaf - jåwon'' (to give - you give - I gave - we gave);
* ''VI: waran - wert - wor - woron'' (to go - you go - I went - we went);
* ''VI: ware - wert - wor - woron'' (to go - you go - I went - we went);
* ''VII: låtan - låt - let - leton'' (to let - you let - I let - we let).  
* ''VII: låte - låt - let - leton'' (to let - you let - I let - we let).  


The situation is more complicated for verbs of III and IV class.
The situation is more complicated for verbs of III and IV class.
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The first pattern is chosen with verbs whose root vowel is followed by an 'r' or 'l', the second one is used with verbs whose root vowel is followed by an 'm' or 'n', ex.:
The first pattern is chosen with verbs whose root vowel is followed by an 'r' or 'l', the second one is used with verbs whose root vowel is followed by an 'm' or 'n', ex.:


* ''beran - birt - ber - beron'' (to bear - you bear - I bore - we bore);
* ''bere - birt - ber - beron'' (to bear - you bear - I bore - we bore);
* ''helan - hilt - hal - hålon'' (to hide - you hide - I hid - we hid);
* ''hele - hilt - hal - hålon'' (to hide - you hide - I hid - we hid);
* ''niman - nimt - nam - nomon'' (to take - you take - I took - we took).
* ''nime - nimt - nam - nomon'' (to take - you take - I took - we took).


The III class is the most complicated, because there are many patterns and these verbs have to be learnt by heart. However, the most spread patterns are:
The III class is the most complicated, because there are many patterns and these verbs have to be learnt by heart. However, the most spread patterns are:
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Ex.:
Ex.:


* ''wjortan - wyrt - wjart - wurron'' (to become - you become - I became - we became);
* ''wjorte - wyrt - wjart - wurron'' (to become - you become - I became - we became);
* ''helpan - hilpt - skjalp (!) - hulpon'' (to help - you help - I helped - we helped);
* ''helpe - hilpt - skjalp (!) - hulpon'' (to help - you help - I helped - we helped);
* ''drinkan - drinkt - dronk - drunkon'' (to drink - you drink - I drank - we drank).
* ''drinke - drinkt - dronk - drunkon'' (to drink - you drink - I drank - we drank).


===The "w-verbs"===
===The "w-verbs"===


As it has been seen, the 1st person singular of the past indicative of the verb ''bjowan'' is ''y bjåg'' (and NOT **''y bjåf''), whereas the same person of the same tense of the verb ''jewan'' is ''y jaf'' (and NOT **''y jag'').
As it has been seen, the 1st person singular of the past indicative of the verb ''bjowe'' is ''y bjåg'' (and NOT **''y bjåf''), whereas the same person of the same tense of the verb ''jewe'' is ''y jaf'' (and NOT **''y jag'').
This is the particularity of the so called "w-verbs", that is verbs whose roots ends in '-w' in the infinitive form. If that 'w' will turn into an 'f' or into a 'g' depends on the verb itself. This particularity is found not only in the past tense, but also in the 2nd and 3rd persons singular of the present tense.
This is the particularity of the so called "w-verbs", that is verbs whose roots ends in '-w' in the infinitive form. If that 'w' will turn into an 'f' or into a 'g' depends on the verb itself. This particularity is found not only in the past tense, but also in the 2nd and 3rd persons singular of the present tense.
The following example shows the present of the verbs ''bjowan'', ''jewan'' and ''sywan'', "to fall down, to descend":
The following example shows the present of the verbs ''bjowe'', ''jewe'' and ''sywe'', "to fall down, to descend":


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Bjowan'''
!'''Bjowe'''
!'''Jewan'''
!'''Jewe'''
!'''Sywan'''
!'''Sywe'''
|-
|-
!'''y'''
!'''y'''
Line 1,952: Line 1,952:
|}
|}


These verbs show different mutations of 'w': it can disappear (''bjowan''), it can be replaced with 'f' (''jewan'') or it can be replaced with 'g' (''sywan''). The answer to these phenomenon is once again the Old English:
These verbs show different mutations of 'w': it can disappear (''bjowe''), it can be replaced with 'f' (''jewe'') or it can be replaced with 'g' (''sywe''). The answer to these phenomenon is once again the Old English:


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
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===Present perfect and participle II===
===Present perfect and participle II===


To express an action that has happened in a period of time that is not completely finished, such as ''skjowe'', today, ''se wuke her'', this week, ''se mont her'', this month, ''tat jår her'', this year, and so on, Tjoc uses the '''present perfect''' of indicative mood. This tense is used also to talk about happenings that haven't got a precise temporal localization.
To express an action that has happened in a period of time that is not completely finished, such as ''skjowe'', today, ''se wuke her'', this week, ''se monat her'', this month, ''tat jår her'', this year, and so on, Tjoc uses the '''present perfect''' of indicative mood. This tense is used also to talk about happenings that haven't got a precise temporal localization.


The present perfect is formed with the present of either the verb ''bjon'' or ''håban'' and the participle II - that corresponds to the past participle - of the main verb. Usually the verb ''bjon'' is used with verbs that indicate movement or change, such as ''wjassan'', to grow up, ''shorwan'', to die, ''wjortan'', to become, ''brejtan'', to change, to turn oneself into, and so forth. The verb ''håban'' is used with other verbs instead.
The present perfect is formed with the present of either the verb ''bjo'' or ''hå'' and the participle II - that corresponds to the past participle - of the main verb. Usually the verb ''bjo'' is used with verbs that indicate movement or change, such as ''wjasse'', to grow up, ''skjorwe'', to die, ''wjorte'', to become, ''brejte'', to change, to turn oneself into, and so forth. The verb ''hå'' is used with other verbs instead.


Here is the present perfect of the verbs ''bjon'', ''lyrnan'', ''wennan'' and ''lycan'':
Here is the present perfect of the verbs ''bjo'', ''lyrne'', ''wenne'' and ''lyce'':


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!'''Person'''
!'''Person'''
!'''Bjon'''
!'''Bjo'''
!'''Lyrnan'''
!'''Lyrne'''
!'''Wennan'''
!'''Wenne'''
!'''Lycan'''
!'''Lyce'''
|-
|-
!'''y'''
!'''y'''
|jom ibjon
|jom ibjon
|håbe iljornd
|hå iljornd
|håbe iwend
|hå iwend
|håbe ilyced
|hå ilyced
|-
|-
!'''tů'''
!'''tů'''
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!'''we''' / '''je''' / '''hy'''
!'''we''' / '''je''' / '''hy'''
|sinn ibjon
|sinn ibjon
|håba iljornd
|hå iljornd
|håba iwend
|hå iwend
|håba ilyced
|hå ilyced
|}
|}


In colloquial speaking, the present tense of the auxiliary is often omitted, ex.:
In colloquial speaking, the present tense of the auxiliary is often omitted, ex.:


* ''Hy håba ifrjod ůs'' or ''Hy ifrjod ůs'' - They have loved us.
* ''Hy hå ifrjod ůs'' or ''Hy ifrjod ůs'' - They have loved us.


This omission cannot be used with other compound tenses such as past perfect or future perfect.
This omission cannot be used with other compound tenses such as past perfect or future perfect.
Line 2,060: Line 2,060:
The past participle, called ''participle II'', is formed with a circumfix ''i--(e)d'' for the regular verbs. The participle II of the ''-jan verbs'' is formed with the same root vowel of the past indicative.
The past participle, called ''participle II'', is formed with a circumfix ''i--(e)d'' for the regular verbs. The participle II of the ''-jan verbs'' is formed with the same root vowel of the past indicative.


However in the participle II of the compound verbs, the ''i-'' prefix is not used, ex.: ''ůtgån'', to go out > ''ůtgån''; ''onhipan'', to come back > ''onhuped'' (it is a ''-jan'' verb).
However in the participle II of the compound verbs, the ''i-'' prefix is not used, ex.: ''ůtgå'', to go out > ''ůtgå''; ''onhipa'', to come back > ''onhuped'' (it is a ''-je'' verb).


The participle II can be used also as adjective, in this case it inflects and has got both weak and strong declension. Moreover when it is used as adjective, it loses its ''i-'' and takes a ''be-'' prefix, ex.:
The participle II can be used also as adjective, in this case it inflects and has got both weak and strong declension. Moreover when it is used as adjective, it loses its ''i-'' and takes a ''be-'' prefix, ex.:
Line 2,069: Line 2,069:
====Participle II of irregular verbs====
====Participle II of irregular verbs====


The irregular verbs form the participle II with the circumfix ''i--(e)n'' - as we have just seen for the verb ''bjon'' - and undergo a root vowel change. This vowel is almost always different than the one of the past indicative. Once again it can be distinguished among seven classes. Here is a table with the vowel of the infinitive, that of the 2nd / 3rd person singular of present tense, those of the first past form and the second past form, and that of the participle II:
The irregular verbs form the participle II with the circumfix ''i--(e)n'' - as we have just seen for the verb ''bjo'' - and undergo a root vowel change. This vowel is almost always different than the one of the past indicative. Once again it can be distinguished among seven classes. Here is a table with the vowel of the infinitive, that of the 2nd / 3rd person singular of present tense, those of the first past form and the second past form, and that of the participle II:


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
Line 2,134: Line 2,134:
|-
|-
!'''I'''
!'''I'''
|bytan
|byte
|byt
|byt
|båt
|båt
Line 2,141: Line 2,141:
|-
|-
!'''II'''
!'''II'''
|bjowan
|bjowe
|byt  
|byt  
|bjåg
|bjåg
Line 2,148: Line 2,148:
|-
|-
!'''V'''
!'''V'''
|jewan
|jewe
|jeft
|jeft
|jaf
|jaf
Line 2,155: Line 2,155:
|-
|-
!'''VI'''
!'''VI'''
|waran
|ware
|wert
|wert
|wor
|wor
Line 2,162: Line 2,162:
|-
|-
!'''VII'''
!'''VII'''
|låtan
|låte
|låt
|låt
|let
|let
Line 2,169: Line 2,169:
|}
|}


Please note that the verbs ''bytan'' and ''bjowan'' have got the same 2nd person singular form in the present of indicative (''byt'').
Please note that the verbs ''byte'' and ''bjowe'' have got the same 2nd person singular form in the present of indicative (''byt'').


The IV class has got two different options:
The IV class has got two different options:
Line 2,198: Line 2,198:
Some paradigms of verbs of the IV class:
Some paradigms of verbs of the IV class:


*  ''beran - birt - ber - beron - iborn'';
*  ''bere - birt - ber - beron - iborn'';
*  ''helan - hilt - hal - hålon - iholn'';
*  ''hele - hilt - hal - hålon - iholn'';
*  ''niman - nimt - nam - nomon - inumn''.  
*  ''nime - nimt - nam - nomon - inumn''.  


The III class is once again the most complicated to schematize, because there are too many subclasses. Here are the most spread:
The III class is once again the most complicated to schematize, because there are too many subclasses. Here are the most spread:
Line 2,236: Line 2,236:
Some examples:
Some examples:


* ''wjortan - wyrt - wjart - wurron - iworren'';
* ''wjorte - wyrt - wjart - wurron - iworren'';
* ''helpan - hilpt - skjalp (!) - hulpon - iholpen'';
* ''helpe - hilpt - skjalp (!) - hulpon - iholpen'';
* ''drinkan - drinkt - dronk - drunkon - idrunken''.
* ''drinke - drinkt - dronk - drunkon - idrunken''.


===Some paradigms===
===Some paradigms===
Line 2,253: Line 2,253:
!'''Meaning'''
!'''Meaning'''
|-
|-
|håban
|hå
|haft
|haft
|hafte
|hafte
|hafton
|hafton
|ihaft
|ihaft
|håban
|hå
|''to have''
|''to have''
|-
|-
|bjon
|bjo
|jart
|jart
|was
|was
|weron
|weron
|ibjon
|ibjon
|bjon
|bjo
|''to be''
|''to be''
|-
|-
|don
|do
|det
|det
|dide
|dide
|didon
|didon
|idon
|idon
|håban
|hå
|''to do''
|''to do''
|-
|-
|gån
|gå
|gåt
|gåt
|jode
|jode
|jodon
|jodon
|igån
|igån
|bjon
|bjo
|''to go''
|''to go''
|-
|-
|waran
|ware
|wert
|wert
|wor
|wor
|woron
|woron
|iwarn
|iwarn
|bjon
|bjo
|''to go''
|''to go''
|-
|-
|frjowan
|frjowe
|frjot
|frjot
|frjode
|frjode
|frjodon
|frjodon
|ifrjod
|ifrjod
|håban
|hå
|''to love''
|''to love''
|-
|-
|sjon
|sjo
|set
|set
|sjå
|sjå
|såwon
|såwon
|isewen
|isewen
|håban
|hå
|''to see''
|''to see''
|-
|-
|legan
|lege
|lekt
|lekt
|lekte
|lekte
|lekton
|lekton
|ilegen
|ilegen
|bjon
|bjo
|''to lay''
|''to lay''
|-
|-
|motan
|mote
|mot
|mot
|moste
|moste
|moston
|moston
|imoten
|imoten
|håban
|hå
|''to be allowed to''
|''to be allowed to''
|-
|-
|kuman
|kume
|kimt
|kimt
|kom
|kom
|komon
|komon
|ikumn
|ikumn
|bjon
|bjo
|''to come''
|''to come''
|-
|-
|kunnan
|kunne
|konn
|konn
|kůte
|kůte
|kůton
|kůton
|ikunnen
|ikunnen
|håban
|hå
|''can''
|''can''
|-
|-
|segan
|sege
|sagt
|sagt
|sagde / såde
|sagde / såde
|sagdon / sådon
|sagdon / sådon
|isagd
|isagd
|håban
|hå
|''to say''
|''to say''
|-
|-
|hwetan
|hwete
|hwet
|hwet
|hwat
|hwat
|hwådon
|hwådon
|ihwen
|ihwen
|håban
|hå
|''to tell''
|''to tell''
|-
|-
|wytan
|wyte
|wåt
|wåt
|wisse
|wisse
|wiston
|wiston
|iwiten
|iwiten
|håban
|hå
|''to know''
|''to know''
|-
|-
|knåwan
|knåwe
|knaut
|knaut
|knjow
|knjow
|knjowon
|knjowon
|iknåwen
|iknåwen
|håban
|hå
|''to know''
|''to know''
|-
|-
|willan
|wille
|wilt
|wilt
|wolle
|wolle
|wollon
|wollon
|iwiln
|iwiln
|håban
|hå
|''to want to''
|''to want to''
|-
|-
|skulan
|skule
|skal
|skal
|skolle
|skolle
|skollon
|skollon
|iskuln
|iskuln
|håban
|hå
|''must; to have to''
|''must; to have to''
|-
|-
|skjorwan
|skjorwe
|skyrft
|skyrft
|skjarf
|skjarf
|skjurwon
|skjurwon
|iskjorwen
|iskjorwen
|bjon
|bjo
|''to die''
|''to die''
|-
|-
|skån
|skå
|skaft
|skaft
|shof
|shof
|skowon
|skowon
|iskån
|iskån
|håban
|hå
|''to make''
|''to make''
|-
|-
|etan
|ete
|et
|et
|at
|at
|åton
|åton
|ieten
|ieten
|håban
|hå
|''to eat''
|''to eat''
|-
|-
|mawan
|mawe
|mag
|mag
|myte
|myte
|myton
|myton
|imawen
|imawen
|håban
|hå
|''to wish''
|''to wish''
|}
|}
Llyn
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