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The main motivation for Hiberno-Arabic are aesthetic and grammatical similarities between Irish and Arabic, including:
The main motivation for Hiberno-Arabic are aesthetic and grammatical similarities between Irish and Arabic, including:
* a kind of "broad/slender" distinction in consonants (emphatic/nonemphatic in Arabic, velarized/palatalized in Irish)
* vowel length
* vowel length
* has at least /a i u a: i: u:/, and diphthongs /ej~aj/ and /ew~aw/
* has at least /a i u a: i: u:/, and diphthongs /ej~aj/ and /ew~aw/
Line 55: Line 54:
The first surviving text in Hiberno-Arabic is dated to 1215.
The first surviving text in Hiberno-Arabic is dated to 1215.


Hiberno-Arabic is an isolate within Dynjan Arabic; it evolved from [[Hiberno-Arabic/Proto|Proto-Hiberno-Arabic]], a fictional vernacular Arabic variety similar to our old Maghrebi Arabic which had the following features:
* Hamza is lost completely.
* ''qāf'' and ''ṭāʔ'' are unaspirated, sometimes voiced.
* ''þāʔ'' and ''{{đ}}āl'' are retained.
* ''ẓāʔ'' and ''ḍād'' are both [z{{phar}}~ð{{phar}}].
* ''jīm'' is [ɟ~g].
* The vowel system ''i a u ī ē ā ū ay aw''
* C(+emph)C(-emph)C(+emph) root > C(+emph)C(+emph)C(+emph) root
== Place names ==
* Doonancole (''Dùn{{cll}} an Ċoill'', Ir. 'fort of the hazel') is a major city; an inhabitant of Dùn an Ċoill is called a ''Dùnaì'' in Hiberno-Arabic.
== Figures ==
== Phonology ==
=== Consonants ===
Hiberno-Arabic has an almost complete set of pairs of emphatic (''leat{{cda}}an{{cll}}'' ['læ{{heth}}{{lowered}}ən{{den}}{{uvu}}], Ir. 'broad') and nonemphatic (''caol{{cll}}'' [q&#799;{{asp}}ɪ:l{{den}}{{uvu}}], Ir. 'slender') consonants, formed from both native emphatic consonants (Classical Arabic T D S Z q became /t{{uvu}} z{{uvu}} s{{uvu}} z{{uvu}} q/) and the contrast between broad (velarized) and slender (palatalized) consonants in borrowed Irish vocabulary. Irish broad and slender consonants are usually borrowed as emphatic and nonemphatic consonants, respectively. For referring to Hiberno-Arabic we will use emphatic and broad, and nonemphatic and slender, as synonyms, as well as terms like "broadness spreading" and "slenderization".
Arabic /θ/ and /ð/ become Hiberno-Arabic /t{{=}}/ and /z/.
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
|+Consonant phonemes in Hiberno-Arabic
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|
!colspan="2" | Labial
!colspan="2" | Dental/Alveolar
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar
!colspan="2" | Dorsal
!rowspan="2" | Glottal
|-
! <small>plain</small>
! <small>emph.</small>
! <small>plain</small>
! <small>emph.</small>
! <small>prevelar</small>
! <small>preuvular</small>
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
| m || mˠ
| n̪ || n̪ˠ
|
| [ŋ˖]
| [ɴ&#799;]
|
|-
!rowspan="2" | Stop
!<small>aspirated</small>
| pʰ || pˠʰ
| t{{den}}ʰ || t̪ˠʰ
|
| k&#799;ʰ
| q&#799;ʰ
|
|-
!<small>unaspirated</small>
| p ||  pˠ
| t{{den}}
| t{{den}}ˠ
|
| k&#799;
|colspan=2| q&#799;~ʔʶ
|-
!rowspan="2"|Continuant
!<small>voiceless</small>
|| f || fˠ
|| s{{den}}
|| s{{den}}ˠ
|| ʃ
| x&#799;
||  χ˖
||  h
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
||  v~β&#798; || vˠ~wˠ
||  z{{den}} 
||  z{{den}}ˠ
|| ʒ
||  j
|| ʁ&#799;
|
|-
!colspan=2| Trill
| || 
||  r
||  rˠ
|
|
|
|
|-
!colspan=2| Lateral
| ||
|| l || l̪ˠ
| 
|
|
|
|}
* [ŋ&#799; ɴ&#799;] occur as allophones of /n̪ n̪ʶ/ before dorsal stops. For speakers that realize /q/ as a glottal stop, a preceding /n{{uvu}}/ is often realized as nasalization and lengthening of the preceding vowel.
* /h/ is never dropped except in some complex clusters, after an aspirate or a fricative. It is usually [h~ɦ], but is [ħ̞] (weakly fricated [ħ]) before or after /ɑ/ or /æ/.
* Aspirated stops (written as voiceless in the orthography) are consistently aspirated; single unaspirated stops may be weakly voiced (as in German and Irish) or completely devoiced (as in Icelandic). Single aspirated stops are also slightly longer than single unaspirated ones. Unaspirated geminate stops are realized as voiceless unaspirated. Geminated and word-final aspirated stops are preglottalized.
* Unaspirated stops are often voiced after voiced sounds (voiced fricatives, rosonants and vowels). However, unaspirated stops are always devoiced after a voiceless or aspirated consonant: ''nectbw'' [ˈnɛk&#799;ʰtʲʰp⁼ü] 'we will write', and when they are geminated: ''mitcebber'' [m{{laxi}}t{{lam}}{{pal}}ʰ'k{{adv}}ʰ{{laxe}}p:ə{{adv}}r{{pal}}] 'arrogant'.
* Word-final geminates surface as compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel (cf. Irish and Hebrew diachronics).
* Emphatic consonants have the feature +RTR (retracted tongue root). Emphatic unaspirated stops tend to be less voiced than their nonemphatic counterparts; /ɢ&#799;/ is particularly prone to devoicing.
* Preuvular consonants are halfway between velar and uvular for most speakers but are velar or uvular for some speakers; the velar realization is more common for older speakers. /q/ in contemporary urban Hiberno-Arabic is turning into [ʔʶ] (cf. Maltese and Egyptian Arabic /ʔ/ for older Arabic ''q''), even affecting Irish loans: ''teanga'' 'language' and ''guid{{cda}}e'' 'prayer' are pronounced [ˈt̪ʰænʶʔʶʌ] and [ˈʔʶʊ{{ret}}jjə] by the majority of younger speakers. This is often attributed to immigration from other parts of ed Dynje's Arab world bringing the glottal stop reflex of Arabic ''q''.
* /r/ is a lamino-alveolar or dental trill or flap. When palatalized, it is often pronounced as Czech ''ř'' or as [ʒ].
* /rʶ/ may be realized as [ɾʶ] or [ɹʷʶ], the latter sounding a lot like a General American English r.
* All non-rhotic, non-postalveolar coronals  are lamino-dental.
* Nonemphatic consonants (except /v h/) are allophonically palatalized in pausal position. /t{{asp}} t n l/ become laminal alveolar [t̻ʲ{{asp}} t{{lam}}ʲ n̻ʲ lʲ] when allophonically palatalized. Allophonic palatalization of nonemphatic consonants also occurs when said consonant is next to a prevelar consonant (one of /k&#799;{{asp}} k&#799; x&#799; j/): e.g. ''ħacme'' [ˈħ{{lowered}}æk&#799;ʰmʲə{{adv}}] 'rule, reign'. This also affects /v/ ''after'' a prevelar, e.g. ''gvèr'' [k&#799;vʲe:r] 'about, concerning'.
* Emphatic consonants are less strongly uvularized and more velarized in pausa, for speakers that uvularize emphatics.
* /{{sh}} {{ž}}/ are postalveolar and non-labialized.
* /h {{sh}}/ have emphatic allophones [hʶ s{{ret}}ʶ] next to an emphatic consonant.
* /j/ is vocalized to [ɪ] in word-initial position before a consonant.
* /v vʶ/ vocalize to [β̞ ~ẅ w{{uvu}}] when not before a vowel.
unasp stop + h > asp stop
asp stop + h > geminated asp stop
=== Vowels ===
Hiberno-Arabic is usually analyzed as having 5 short monophthongs, 5 long monophthongs, and 4 diphthongs (not counting vowel + semivowel sequences) in stressed syllables. Some non-exhaustive common spellings for the vowels are given. Sometimes [æ] and [ɑ] (and their long counterparts) are analyzed as distinct phonemes, however this distinction is marginal.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
|+ {{PAGENAME}} stressed vowel phonemes
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Cemtral
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
|-
! style="" |Close
| '''i, y''' /ɪ/
| '''ì''' /iː/
|
|
| '''iu, u(i), io''' /ü~ʊ/
| '''iù, ù(i)''' /üː~uː/
|-
! style="" |Mid
| '''e''' /ɛ/
| '''è''' /eː/
|
|
| '''(e)o(i)''' /ɔ/
| '''(e)ò(i)''' /oː/
|-
! style="" |Open
| '''ea, ȝa''' [æ]
| '''eà(i), ȝà''' [ä:~æː]
| /a/
| /aː/
| '''a(i)''' [ɑ]
| '''à(i)''' [ɑː]
|}
Opening diphthongs: /eɐ oɐ iɐ uɐ/
Example words:
* ''feg{{cll}}g{{cll}}èȝ'' /fəˈʔʶeɐ/ 'mushrooms'
* ''g{{cll}}uħd{{cll}}a'' /'ʔʶoɐhtʶə/ ['ʔʶoɐħ{{lowered}}t{{den}}ʶʌ] 'scarcity'
* ''lìaṫ'' /liɐh/ [liɐħ{{lowered}}] 'gray'
* ''rùħ'' /rʶuɐh/ [rʶʊɐħ{{lowered}}] 'self, soul'
Reduced vowels: /ə ɐ/
a is [æ] after nonemphatics, [ɑ] after emphatics
o is [o] after nonemphatics, [ɔ] after emphatics
i is [ɪ&#799;] after nonemphatics, [ɪ̈] after emphatics
u is [ü] after nonemphatics, [ʊ] after emphatics
/ɛj ɛv ɛvʶ/ is [ɛ̈j ə&#799;ẅ ɛ̈wʶ] after nonemphatics, [ɑj ɑẅ ɑwʶ] after emphatics (merging with /aj av avʶ/ after emphatics)
/eɐ oɐ iɐ uɐ/ result from CA (stressed) i u ī ū + pharyngeal consonant; some ia ua also come from Old Irish ía úa
/ɐ/ is similar to stressed /a/ but more centralized, and result from Arabic ''{{ayin}}ayn'' adjacent to an unstressed vowel
/ə/ is
* [ʌ] after an emphatic
* [ə&#799;] after a nonemphatic and not before an emphatic
* [ə{{ret}}~ʌ{{adv}}] after a nonemphatic and before an emphatic
3i 3ī 3u 3ū > aj aj aw aw
/C[emphatic]ə/ and unstressed /C[emphatic]ɐ/ merge for younger speakers; the vowel becomes [ɑ~ʌ].
/æ/ is spelled ea or (ȝ/ħ)a; /æ:/ is spelled eà or (ȝ/ħ)à
iù and eò are read /jü:/ and /jo:/
=== Stress ===
Weight-sensitive (inherited from Arabic). A V rime is one mora, VC and V: are two morae, and VCC and V:C are three.
To determine stress, drop the final mora, and assign stress to the last heavy syllable (i.e. with more than 1 mora). In ''Ȝagmì'' words, ''nn ll rr'' in unstressed syllables may attract stress: ''fìrinne'' /fɪˈrɪn:ə/ 'truth'.
Intervocalic Irish ''ṁ ḃ'' in an originally unstressed syllable are borrowed as underlying geminate /v({{uvu}})/ which also attracts stress: ''oifigeṁṁail'' /ɔfɪˈcɛwʶwʶəl/ 'official (sg.)'. Similarly most cases of intervocalic slender ''d{{cda}} g{{cda}}'' in unstressed syllables become geminate /j/. These geminate semivowels lose gemination and syncope the schwa when a suffix is added: ''oifigeṁṁala'' /ɔfɪˈcɛwʶl{{uvu}}ə/ 'official (pl.)'; cf. ''dajjeb'' /'t{{uvu}}ajjəp/ 'good (m.sg.)' -> ''dajjbe'' /'t{{uvu}}ajpə/ 'good (f.sg. and pl.)'.
=== Minimal pairs/Things to investigate ===
==== Emphatic vs nonemphatic ====
Common for sg vs pl in Irish loanwords
* n vs N: ''neahr{{cll}}'' 'river', ''nathair'' 'snake' (near-minimal pair); ''rùn{{cll}}'' 'secret', ''rùin'' 'secrets'
* r vs R: ''ȝas̱r'' 'vespers', ''ȝas̱r{{cll}}'' 'squeeze.VN'
* f vs F?
* m vs M?
* b vs B?
* p vs P?
==== Vowels ====
* [æ] and [ɑ] are distinctive in vowel-initial words and after /h/ (from Arabic a/Irish ea vs Irish a)
* /æ:/ vs /ɒ:/: *ā after emphatic + hamza cluster (e.g. ''G{{cll}}ur{{cll}}{{2}}eàn'')?
* /e:/ vs /æ:/: find an example of *ā vs 3ayn colored *a
* /ɛ/ vs /æ/?
=== Archiphonemes ===
* Ē (Classical ā), Ā (Middle Irish á): ē and ā respectively after nonemphatics; both become ō after emphatics and ā after pharyngeals
** Some analogical leveling happens, though, which collapses some occurrences to invariable /ē ā ō/
* Ə: schwa archiphoneme, i between 2 nonemphatics in a final syllable
* Classical Arabic stressed /a/ becomes:
** If NOT next to a pharyngeal: /ɑ/ ''a'' after emphatic, /æ/ ''ea'' before emphatic but after nonemphatic, /ɛ/ ''e'' otherwise
** IF next to a pharyngeal: /ɑ/ after emphatic, /æ/ otherwise
=== Emphasis spreading ===
Occurs for affixes that are not marked for emphasis (from originally nonemphatic consonants). A stressed onset being emphatic will result in the corresponding prefixes being emphatic and a stressed coda being emphatic will result in suffixes being emphatic.
(The VN suffix ''-uc{{cda}}ad{{cda}}'' is an exception since it ''is'' marked for emphasis)
=== Intonation ===
As Irishy as Maltese intonation is Italian
== Orthography ==
=== Latin ===
In Midhir, Hiberno-Arabic uses a Roman orthography which adopted changes to more faithfully reflect Arabic in the spelling of native vocabulary. Like many orthographies used in ed Dynje, Hiberno-Arabic orthography is based on the principles of etymological spelling and enabling many-to-one reading, with the latter taking precedence. In Gaelic type for Hiberno-Arabic, the underline diacritic is rendered as slightly slanted horizontal strokes under the letter.
Hiberno-Arabics handwrite lowercase i and j without dots.
Emphatics denoted with underline
etymological a/ai/e/i for schwa in Irish loanwords
native vowels are written as palatalizing to be able to use different broadening strategies for Arabic and Irish vocab
* /æ/ is spelled ea or (ȝ/ħ)a; /æ:/ is spelled eà or (ȝ/ħ)à
* /ɑ/ is spelled a (not after pharyngeal); /ɑ:/ is spelled à
''o'' and ''ò'' always uvularize a preceding consonant. The corresponding slender spellings are ''eo'' and ''eò''.
==== Alphabet ====
# Aa: ''à''
# Bb: ''bè''
# Cc: ''cèf''
# Dd: ''dèl''
# Ee: ''è''
# Ff: ''fè''
# Gg: ''gìm''
# {{big3}}{{3}}: ''{{3}}ajn''
# Ᵹᵹ: ''ᵹajn''
# Hh: ''hè''
# Ħħ: ''{{heth}}à'' /hæ:/
# Xx: ''xà''
# Ii: ''ì''
# Jj: ''jè''
# Ll: ''lèm''
# Mm: ''mìm''
# Nn: ''niùn''
# Oo: ''ò''
# Pp: ''pè''
# Rr: ''rè''
# Ss: ''sìn''
# {{bigsīn}}ɯ: ''ɯìn''
# Tt: ''tè''
# Uu: ''ù leat{{cda}}an{{cll}}''
# Vv: ''vèv''
# Yy
# Zz: ''zejn''
# Grave accent: ''fada''
# Underline: ''leat{{cda}}nàn''
# Lenition dot on b, c, d, f, g, m, p, s, t: ''sèim{{cda}}ec{{cda}}ad{{cda}}''
==== Spelling native consonants ====
(corresponding to underlying phonemes not realization)
* bā2 = b be bi bw beà bè bì biù bej bev
* tā2 = t te ti tw teà tè tì tiù tej tev
* jīm = g ge gi gw geà gè gì giù gej gev
* Hā2 = ħ ħa ħi ħu ħà ħì ħù ħaj ħav
* khā2 = x xa xi xu xà xì xù xaj xav
* dāl, þā2 = d de di dw dè dì diù dej dev
* Rā2 = (r, like khā2)
* zāy, ðāl = (z, like bā2)
* sīn = ɯ ɯe ɯi ɯw ɯè ɯì ɯiù ɯej ɯev
* šīn = s se si sw sè sì siù sej sev
* Sād = (s{{cll}}, like khā2)
* Dād, Zā2 = (z{{cll}}, like khā2)
* Tā2 = (d{{cll}}, like khā2)
* 3ayn = {{3}} {{3}}a {{3}}i {{3}}u {{3}}à {{3}}ì {{3}}ù {{3}}aj {{3}}av
* ghayn = (γ, like khā2)
* fā2 = (f, like bā2)
* qāf = (ǥ, like khā2)
* kāf = (c, like bā2)
* lām = (l, like bā2)
* mīm = (m, like bā2)
* nūn = (n, like bā2)
* hā2 = (h, like bā2)
* wāw = (v, like bā2)
* yā2 = (j, like bā2)
==== Spelling Irish loans ====
Similar to our pre-reform Irish orthography, with lenition dots, and grave instead of acute
Irish loans that are inflected using Semitic morphology such as broken plurals are spelled as if native. However, the native plural endings /-e:h/ and /-a:h/ are spelled ''-èṫ'' and ''-àṫ''.
Consonants in Irish loans generally have the same value as in "carefully-read Irish", i.e. with no vowel contractions from V[semivowel]V. The values are the closest Hiberno-Arabic equivalents to the Irish consonants, with broad and slender becoming emphatic and nonemphatic, except:
* broad ''d{{cda}}'' = /z{{uvu}}/
* ''b{{cda}} m{{cda}}'' as well as slender ''d{{cda}} g{{cda}}'' may become geminates after an unstressed vowel.
Final broad consonants require the ''leaṫnàn'' unless they have a lenition dot.
Examples:
* ''sgàṫàn'' [s{{uvu}}ʔʶʌˈ{{heth}}{{lowered}}æːnʲ] 'mirror'
=== Arabic ===
An adapted Arabic script devised by the Hiberno-Arabic Sufi writer ___ is occasionally used for decorative purposes. The orthography uses invented letters and vowel diacritics made from Latin shapes (especially from Gaelic type) and Ogham for Hiberno-Arabic consonants and vowels that don't exist in Arabic.
Final schwa is written as TM, alif or alif maqSūra (possibly with hamza) depending on the Arabic etymology. In Irish loans:
* feminine and plural marker: TM
* final schwas in unmarked forms, such as Irish passive participles: alif. The /h/ in the -tha/-the allomorph may be written as a ''hā'' with two dots above to avoid confusion with native ''-he'' (3fs suffix), a case of nonfinal TM.
3ayn is used for diphthongs ending in /ɐ/ in loanwords, e.g. كْلاب ليعهة ''clèb lìaṫa'' [k&#799;ʰlʲeːb lʲiɐħ{{lowered}}ə] 'gray dogs'
agus{{cll}} written ٦ُ ?
== Morphology ==
=== Pronouns ===
* ''èn(e), int(e), hiù, hì, aħn(e), intwm, hwm(e)''; impersonal ''mir'' (< mar2 'person')
* object pronouns: ''ìje, ìc, ìjwh, ìhe, ìne, ìcwm, ìhwm'' (from 2iyyā-, cognate to Hebrew et < *2iyyōt < *2iyy-āt-, the *-āt- is also found in the  kămot- combining form for Heb kămo 'like')
** object pronouns go to the end of a transitive clause
** ''Hì ritcellim mir fis{{cll}} S{{cll}}ìn ìhe'' 'it (f., for ''ilɯèn'' or ''teanga'' 'language') was spoken in China / one spoke it in China' vs. ''Ritcellim mir et teanga fis{{cll}} S{{cll}}ìn''
=== Nouns ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Noun declension classes
! || unmarked || final schwa || sound masculine plural || sound feminine plural
|-
! absolute
| ''-'' || ''-e'' or ''-a'' || ''-ìn'' || ''-èt{{cda}}'' or ''-àt{{cda}}''
|-
! construct
| generally unchanged || ''-(e)t'' or ''-(a)t{{cll}}'' || ''-ì'' || ''-èt'' or ''-àt''
|}
"Unmarked" includes unmarked singulars, native broken plurals, and Irish plurals that do not end in ''-e'' or ''-a''.
Some unsuffixed nouns have marked constructs:
* CavC → CuC; CevC → CwC; CajC, CejC → CiC (jevm → jwm)
Plurals directly borrowed from Irish do not have marked constructs
nisba nouns (both native and from Irish -(a)iḋ): -(a)ì -(a)ìn (-ī -ī́n), f. -(a)ìje -(a)ìjèṫ (-ī́jə -ijḗh)
Animate masculine nouns in ''-e/a'', often from Latin and Greek, have a construct in ''-(e)t/-(a)t{{cll}}'' and a plural in ''-ìn''.
In post-independence Hiberno-Arabic, the construction ''el{{cll}}-guiḋe gur{{cll}}i'' is more common.
The following words demonstrate the Hiberno-Arabic sun letters (''consain semsìje''):
* ''ed{{cll}} dùile'' (əD-Dūlə) 'the element'
* ''ed dèr'' (əd-dēr) 'the house'
* ''et{{cll}} t{{cll}}ifl'' (əT-Tífil) 'the boy'
* ''et twffèħa'' (ət-tuffeahə) 'the apple'
* ''es{{cll}} s{{cll}}ajf'' (əS-Sajf) 'summer'
** before ''s{{cll}}C'' clusters in Irish loans, the definite article is ''el{{cll}}'': ''el{{cll}} s{{cll}}mac{{cda}}t{{cll}}'' 'control, authority'
* ''eɯ ɯene'' (əs-sénə) 'the year'
* ''ez{{cll}} z{{cll}}uhr'' (əZ-Zúhər) 'noon'
* ''ez zeȝrùl'' (əz-zaRū́l) 'the hawthorn'
* ''er{{cll}} Ram{{cll}}zàn'' (əR-RəMZān) 'Lent'
* ''er rìġ'' (ər-rī) 'the king'
* ''el{{cll}} luas{{cll}}'' (əL-LuaS) 'the speed'
* ''el levz'' (əl-ləwz) 'the almond'
* ''en{{cll}} nahir'' (əN-Náhər) 'the snake'
* ''en nèr'' (ən-nēr) 'the fire'
* ''es sems'' (əš-šemš) 'the sun'
** before ''sC'' clusters in Irish loans the definite article is ''el''
* ''ež žwhneàl'' (əž-žuhnā́l) 'the journal'
Before moon letters (''consain gamrìje''), the article is ''el{{cll}}'' before emphatic consonants and ''el'' before nonemphatic ones (including h and null).
==== Gender of Irish loan nouns ====
The following heuristics are useful for guessing the gender of Hiberno-Arabic ''inanimate'' nouns of Irish origin:
# Singular nouns that have ''-a/-e'' in the nominative are always feminine.
#* Example: ''teanga'' 'language'
# Certain classes of nouns, such as country names and language names, are always feminine.
#* Example: ''er{{cll}} F{{cda}}rainc'' 'France'
# Most Irish nouns that take ''-e'' or ''-a'' in the genitive singular become feminine and are borrowed in their genitive singular forms.
#* Example: ''creic{{cda}}e'' 'booty, prey' (gen. sg. of ''creach'')
# Most ''-t'' and ''-t{{cll}}'' nouns become feminine and are borrowed in their nominative singular forms, sometimes with lenition.
#* Example: ''s{{cll}}mac{{cda}}t{{cll}}'' 'control, authority' (Note: this usual sense of this word is from influence from writers who knew Hebrew; it originally meant 'rule'.)
# Most other inanimate Irish nouns become masculine and are borrowed in their nominative singular forms.
#* Example: ''gnè'' 'property, feature'
==== Pluralization ====
For learned and semi-learned Irish borrowings (mainly for inanimates):
* Most first- and fifth-declension nouns essentially use their Irish plurals.
* Nouns ending in ''-a'' or ''-e'' take a plural in ''-(a)iḋèṫ'', ''-èṫ'', or ''-àṫ'', use the Irish genitive plural form (which is broadened and drops the ''-a''/''-e''), or use a native broken plural.
* Other nouns that have an ''-(a)iḋe'' (modern ''-(a)í'') plural in Irish pluralize in ''-(a)iḋèṫ''.
* Other nouns that have no ''-a'' or ''-e'' use an Irish strong plural: ''-a'', ''-ta'', ''-ṫa/-ṫe'', or ''-aḋ/-eḋ''.
* agentives in ''-(a)iḋe'' are borrowed as nisba ''-(a)ì'' and are pluralized accordingly: e.g. ''Crìs{{cll}}daì'' 'Christian (m.)' or ''Crìs{{cll}}daìje'' (f.), from ''Críostaiḋe''. with epicene plural ''Crìs{{cll}}daìn''.
Nativized Irish loans often use Arabic broken plurals: e.g. ''faz{{cll}}b{{cll}}'' 'problem' (from ''fod{{cda}}b'') has plural ''f{{cll}}zùb{{cll}}'' or ''f{{cll}}zàb{{cll}}''.
* English loans are often pluralized with ''-ad{{cda}}'', the phonologically closest plural marker to English /-z/.
==== Possessive suffixes ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! If construct ends in... →<br/>Person↓ || slender C || broad C || ''{{3}}'' or ''{{heth}}'' || stressed vowel
|-
! 1sg
|| ''-ì'' || ''-ì'', ''-aì'' for broadened ''tā{{aleph}} marbūṭah'' or Irish loans || ''-ì'' || ''-je''
|-
! 2sg
|| ''-ic'' || ''-ac{{cll}}'' || ''-ac'' || ''-c''
|-
! 3sg.m
|| ''-wh'' || ''-uh'' || ''-uh'' || ''-h''
|-
! 3sg.f
|| ''-he'' || ''-ha'' || ''-he'' || ''-he''
|-
! 1pl
|| ''-ne'' || ''-na'' || ''-ne'' || ''-ne''
|-
! 2pl
|| ''-cwm'' || ''-cum{{cll}}'' || ''-cwm'' || ''-cwm''
|-
! 3pl
|| ''-hwm'' || ''-hum{{cll}}'' || ''-hwm'' || ''-hwm''
|}
Examples of possessive suffixes on ''Ȝagmì'' nouns:
* ''rùn{{cll}}'' /r{{uvu}}u:n{{uvu}}/ (m.) 'secret; sweetheart', ''rùnaì'' /r{{uvu}}u:n{{uvu}}i:/ 'my secret', ''rùn{{cll}}ha'' /r{{uvu}}u:n{{uvu}}hə/ 'her secret'
* ''rùin'' /r{{uvu}}u:n/ 'secrets', ''rùinì'' /r{{uvu}}u:ni:/ 'my secrets', ''rùinhe'' /r{{uvu}}u:nhə/ 'her secrets'
* ''teanga'' /tʰanʶʔ{{uvu}}ə/ 'language', ''teangtaì'' /tʰanʶʔʶt{{uvu}}ʰi:/ 'my language', ''teangtha'' /tʰanʶʔʶt{{uvu}}ʰə/ 'her language'
* ''guiḋe'' /ʔ{{uvu}}ʊjjə/ 'prayer', ''guiḋtì'' /ʔ{{uvu}}ʊjtʰi:/ 'my prayer', ''guiḋthe'' /ʔʊjt:ʰə/ 'her prayer'
* ''rì'' /ri:/ 'king', ''rìje'' /ri:jə/ 'my king', ''rìhe'' /ri:hə/ 'her king'
=== Adjectives ===
Adjectives became a separate morphological part of speech from nouns under Irish influence. Adjectives agree in definiteness, like in Arabic but unlike in Irish.
Most native non-nisba adjectives have the same declension: m. sg. -0, f. sg. ''-a/e'', pl. ''-a/e''. Nisba adjectives decline as ''-ì, -ìje, -ìje'' (-i -ī́jə -ī́jə). All adjectives have an ''-a/-e'' plural; this comes from Arabic broken plurals taking feminine singular agreement, and spread to all plural adjectives under the influence of Irish plural ''-a/-e'' for adjectives.
Most loan adjectives have unmarked feminine singular forms. For Irish loan adjectives, the emphaticness of the plural may differ from the m.sg.: ''oifigeṁm{{cda}}ail'' /ɔfɪ'g&#799;ɛw{{uvu}}:ə'''l'''/ (m. and f.sg), ''oifigeṁṁala'' /ɔfɪ'g&#799;ɛw{{uvu}}'''l{{uvu}}'''ə/ (pl) 'official'.
Color and defect adjectives follow a different declension: ''eaħmir'' 'red' has f.sg. and pl. ''ħamra''. Color adjectives from Irish do use the plural form as the feminine singular: ''celb lìaṫ'' /cɛlb liɐh/ 'a gray dog', ''moȝze liaṫ'''a''''' /moɐzə liɐhə/ 'a gray goat'.
Adverbs formed from adjectives use the unmarked form, as in Levantine Arabic. An alternative construction for adverbs, common in written language, is ''be treò'' [ADJ.m.sg] or ''be sliġe'' /bəʃliːjə/ [ADJ.f.sg], from ''be'' 'instrumental' + Irish ''treo'' 'direction'/''sliġe'' 'way'.
In adjectives ending in non-emphatic ''r'' in the masculine form, the feminine and plural form takes emphatic ''R'': ''gas{{cll}}ìr'' (''GəSī́r'') 'short (m.sg.)', ''gas{{cll}}ìra'' (''GəSī́Rə'') 'short (f.sg. or pl.)'.
Degree:
* ''veaxra'' 'a lot' / ''mejl'' 'very', ''eacder'' 'more', ''el eacder'' 'most'
* ''ftìt'' 'few, little, not very', ''eang{{cll}}as{{cll}}'' 'less', ''el eang{{cll}}as{{cll}}'' 'least'
=== Verbs ===
A Hiberno-Arabic regular verb has five principal parts:
# past 3sg.m
# future 3sg.m
# imperative sg
# passive participle
# verbal noun
As in our Neo-Arabic, the passive is formed by using verb stems that have ''n-'' or ''t-''.
TAMs (for non-stative verbs):
* Present: ''ganectib'' 'I write, am writing'
* Present habitual: ''ncw&#768;n nectib'' 'I usually write'
* Past or conditional: ''ctebtin'' 'I wrote'
* Past or conditional imperfect: ''cwntin nectib'' 'I was writing'
* Future or subjunctive: ''nectib'' 'I will write; that I write'
* Imperative: ''wctib!'' 'write!'
TAMs for stative verbs:
* Non-past: ''n{{heth}}ebb'' 'I like; I will like'
* Past or conditional: ''{{heth}}abbejtin'' 'I liked'
negative ''mè ... s'' sticks to the first (focused) constituent; the unmarked construction is ''mè radṁaiġ hiù s'' 'he did not admit' for pronoun subjects, but ''mè radṁaiġ s Sèmas{{cll}}'' 'Sèmas̱ did not admit' for noun subjects. However, ''mè radṁaiġ s'' is used for answering questions.
Work out interactions between subject suffixes + object suffixes + subject pronoun clitics
Stems whose past and imperative stems fall together get the preverb ro-/re-/ri- (pronounced /rə-/ or /r{{uvu}}ə-/ depending on the first consonant; from Middle Irish ro, from the Old Irish perfect preverb) in the past tense, do-/de-/di- if the first consonant in the stem is R/r. Adding the Irish preverb ''ro'' to native verbs was at first an affected hyper-Hibernism used by the middle class, and even today some conservative dialects only use rə-/də- in the past tense when the verb is affirmative:
: ''– A g{{cll}}addiɯ Calum{{cll}} eljevm? – Mè g{{cll}}addiɯ s.'' (Standard ''Ar{{cll}} rog{{cll}}addiɯ...? Mè rog{{cll}}addiɯ s.'')
: – Did Calum{{cll}} attend Mass today? – He did not.
The prohibitive is formed by using ''lè'' + imperative.
For prefix + native verbs, native conjugation works as normal and preverbs and personal prefixes are added before the prefix, e.g. ''raṫɯemme, jaṫɯemmi, maṫɯemmi, aṫtiɯmìje'' 'to rename'.
With a plural noun subject, verbs use the 3rd person m.sg. form:
: '''''Mè jciùn jècil s el Jhiùd leaħm ⁊ ħalìb flimcèn.'''''
: ''Jews don't eat meat and milk together.''
==== Inherited 3-consonant verbs ====
===== Stem I (cetib) =====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Stem I verb conjugation: ''cetib'' 'he wrote' (Arabic ''kataba'')
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''ctebtin''
| ''ctebbint''
| ''cetib hiù''
| ''cetbet hì''
| ''ctebne''
| ''ctebtwm, ctebbintwm''
| ''cetbw hwm''
|-
! future; subjunctive
| ''nectib''
| ''tectib''
| ''jectib hiù''
| ''tectib hì''
| ''nectbw''
| ''tectbw''
| ''jectbw hwm''
|-
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''wctib!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''wctbw!''
| ''-''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=7| ''mictiùb''
|-
! verbal noun
|colspan=7| ''cetb''
|}
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Stem I verb conjugation: ''sear{{cll}}ab{{cll}}'' 'he drank' (Arabic ''šaraba'')
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''sr{{cll}}ab{{cll}}t{{cll}}in''
| ''sr{{cll}}ab{{cll}}b{{cll}}int''
| ''sear{{cll}}ab{{cll}} hiù''
| ''sear{{cll}}b{{cll}}at{{cll}} hì''
| ''sr{{cll}}ab{{cll}}na''
| ''sr{{cll}}ab{{cll}}tum''
| ''sear{{cll}}b{{cll}}u hwm''
|-
! future; subjunctive
| ''nesr{{cll}}ab{{cll}}''
| ''tesr{{cll}}ab{{cll}}''
| ''jesr{{cll}}ab{{cll}} hiù''
| ''tesr{{cll}}ab{{cll}} hì''
| ''neser{{cll}}b{{cll}}u''
| ''teser{{cll}}b{{cll}}u''
| ''jeser{{cll}}b{{cll}}u''
|-
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''wsr{{cll}}ab{{cll}}!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''wser{{cll}}b{{cll}}u!''
| ''-''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=7| ''mesr{{cll}}ùb{{cll}}''
|-
! verbal noun
|colspan=7| ''swRB''
|}
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Stem I verb conjugation, III-y: ''bene'' 'he built' (Arabic ''*banē'')
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''bnejtin''
| ''bnejtint''
| ''bene hiù''
| ''benet hì''
| ''bnejne''
| ''bnejtwm, bnejtintwm''
| ''benev hwm''
|-
! future; subjunctive
| ''nebni''
| ''tebni''
| ''jebni hiù''
| ''tebni hì''
| ''nebnw ''
| ''tebnw ''
| ''jebnw hwm''
|-
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''wbni!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''wbnw!''
| ''-''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=7| ''mibnìj''
|-
! verbal noun
|colspan=7| ''binje''
|}
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Stem I verb conjugation, II-w: ''meàt'' 'he died' (Proto-Arabic ''*mawita'')
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''mwttin''
| ''mwttint''
| ''meàt hiù''
| ''meàtet hì''
| ''mwtne''
| ''mwttwm, mwttintwm''
| ''meàtw hwm''
|-
! future; subjunctive
| ''nmw&#768;t''
| ''tmw&#768;t''
| ''jmw&#768;t hiù''
| ''tmw&#768;t hì''
| ''nmw&#768;tw ''
| ''tmw&#768;tw ''
| ''jmw&#768;tw hwm''
|-
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''mw&#768;t!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''mw&#768;tw!''
| ''-''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=7| ''mmw&#768;t''
|-
! verbal noun
|colspan=7| ''mevt''
|}
(One can also use the expression ''vegid mevt'' (lit. find/suffer death), in Irta Irish ''faigh bás'' is a calque of this)
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Stem I verb conjugation, II-y: ''xèn'' 'he cheated, betrayed' (Arabic ''*xayVna'')
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''xintin''
| ''xinnint''
| ''xèn hiù''
| ''xènet hì''
| ''xinne''
| ''xintwm, xinnintwm''
| ''xènw hum''
|-
! future; subjunctive
| ''nxìn''
| ''txìn''
| ''jxìn hiù''
| ''txìn hì''
| ''nxìnw''
| ''txìnw''
| ''jxìnw hwm''
|-
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''xìn!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''xìnw!''
| ''-''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=7| ''mxùn''
|-
! verbal noun
|colspan=7| ''xajn''
|}
===== Stem II (rocettib) =====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Stem II verb conjugation: ''rogaddiɯ'' 'he sanctified; he attended Mass' (Arabic ''qaddasa'')
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''rogaddeɯtin''
| ''rogaddeɯɯint''
| ''rogaddiɯ hiù''
| ''rogaddɯet hì''
| ''rogaddeɯne''
| ''rogaddeɯ(ɯint)wm''
| ''rogaddɯw hwm''
|-
! future; subjunctive
| ''ngaddiɯ''
| ''tgaddiɯ''
| ''jgaddiɯ hiù''
| ''tgaddiɯ hì''
| ''ngaddɯw''
| ''tgaddɯw''
| ''jgaddɯw hum''
|-
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''gaddiɯ!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''gaddɯw!''
| ''-''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=7| ''mgaddiɯ''
|-
! verbal noun
|colspan=7| ''teg{{cll}}dìɯ''
|}
===== Stem III (rocètib) =====
===== Stem IV (ectib) =====
Early loan verbs beginning with a consonant cluster fall into this conjugation (cf. some Modern Hebrew loan verbs like ''hiklík''). Stem IV is no longer productive.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Stem IV verb conjugation: ''ecrid'' 'he believed'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''ecridtin''
| ''ecriddint''
| ''ecrid&nbsp;hiù''
| ''ecerdet&nbsp;hì''
| ''ecridne''
| ''ecridtwm, ecriddintwm''
| ''ecerdw hwm''
|-
! future; subjunctive
| ''nicrid''
| ''ticrid''
| ''jicrid hiù''
| ''ticrid hì''
| ''nicerdw''
| ''ticerdw''
| ''jicerdw hwm''
|-
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''icrid!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''icerdw!''
| ''-''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=7| ''micrid''
|-
! verbal noun
|colspan=7| ''icrèd''
|}
===== Stem V (ritcettib) =====
Mediopassive for stem II
The r- is helpful for parsing the t- in verbs that contain it correctly as passive, not as 2sg future. Like the 2sg future prefix, the passive ''t-'' assimilates before coronal obstruents.
===== Stem VI (ritcètib) =====
Mediopassive for ''cètib''
The ''t'' assimilates before coronal obstruents.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Stem X verb conjugation: ''ritvèlid'' 'he was born'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''ritvèledtin''
| ''ritvèleddint''
| ''ritvèlid hiù''
| ''ritvèldet hì''
| ''ritvèledne''
| ''ritvèled(din)twm''
| ''ritvèldw hwm''
|-
! future; subjunctive
| ''nitvèlid''
| ''titvèlid''
| ''jitvèlid hiù''
| ''titvèlid hì''
| ''nitvèldw''
| ''titvèldw''
| ''jitvèldw hwm''
|-
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''tvèlid!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''tvèldw!''
| ''-''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=7| ''mitvèlid''
|-
! verbal noun
|colspan=7| ''tvèlde''
|}
===== Stem VII (rintectib) =====
used as mediopassive for ''cetib'' and ''ectib''
===== Stem VIII (rictetib) =====
===== Stem X (riɯtectib) =====
==== 4-consonant roots ====
usually treated somewhat like loan verbs; they even take r- in the past tense
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ rəCaCCəC verb conjugation: ''riteargem'' 'he translated, interpreted' (Arabic ''tarjama'')
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''ritergemtin''
| ''ritergemmint''
| ''riteargem hiù''
| ''riteargmit hì''
| ''ritergemne ''
| ''ritergemtwm, ritergemmintwm''
| ''riteargmw hwm''
|-
! future; subjunctive
| ''nteargem ''
| ''tteargem ''
| ''jteargem hiù''
| ''tteargem hì''
| ''nteargmw''
| ''tteargmw''
| ''jteargmw hum''
|-
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''teargem!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''teargmw!''
| ''-''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=7| ''mitteargem''
|-
! verbal noun
|colspan=7| ''teargmiċaḋ''
|}
==== Irish loan verbs ====
===== 1st-conjugation verbs =====
These verbs are mostly borrowed in the verbal noun form, with principal parts ro+lenited VN, j+lenited VN, lenited VN+ta/te/ṫa/ṫe, lenited VN. The imperative is usually, but not always, the unlenited VN.
===== Syncope verbs =====
These verbs end in /-C1əC2/ in unsuffixed forms. When a suffix beginning with a vowel is added, the schwa is dropped and C2 assimilates in emphasis to C1. If C2 becomes emphatic it spreads its emphasis to the suffix, like in any native verb whose stem ends in an emphatic consonant: ''roc{{cda}}osain'' 'he defended', ''roc{{cda}}os{{cll}}n'''at{{cll}}''''' 'she defended'.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Irish loan verb conjugation: ''dif{{cda}}reagair'' 'he answered, responded (synonym of ''rivègib'')'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''dif{{cda}}reagairtin''
| ''dif{{cda}}reagairrint''
| ''dif{{cda}}reagair hiù''
| ''dif{{cda}}reagrat{{cll}} hì''
| ''dif{{cda}}reagairne''
| ''dif{{cda}}reagairtwm''
| ''dif{{cda}}reagru hwm''
|-
! future; subjunctive
| ''nf{{cda}}reagair''
| ''tf{{cda}}reagair''
| ''jf{{cda}}reagair hiù''
| ''tf{{cda}}reagair hì''
| ''nf{{cda}}reagru''
| ''tf{{cda}}reagru''
| ''jf{{cda}}reagru hwm''
|-
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''f{{cda}}reagair!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''f{{cda}}reagru!''
| ''-''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=7| ''f{{cda}}reagart{{cda}}a''
|-
! verbal noun
|colspan=7| ''f{{cda}}reagairt'' (f)
|}
Examples:
* ''roc{{cda}}osain'' 'to defend'
* ''riomair'' 'to travel by water; to diffuse, to disperse'
* ''riomc{{cda}}air rù{{heth}}uh'' 'to behave'
* ''rinis'' 'to narrate'
===== 2nd-conjugation ''-aig{{cda}}'' verbs =====
Loan verb paradigm based on loaned Irish ''-aig{{cda}}'' (from OIr ''-igidir'') verbs (partly fitted to native 3-y verbs, hence the stress shifts and possibly vowel reduction and addition of the R- to past forms from Irish ro and d-/D- if the 1st consonant in the stem is a r/R)
past tense forms are lenited as in Irish, and VN follows that (Irish feminine definite article lenition + analogy to past for d-/t-/s-)
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Irish loan verb conjugation: ''radṁaiġ'' 'he admitted, confessed'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''radṁaiġtin''
| ''radṁaiġtint''
| ''radṁaiġ hiù''
| ''radṁait hì''
| ''radṁaiġne''
| ''radṁaiġtwm, radṁaiġtintwm''
| ''radṁav{{cll}} hwm''
|-
! future; subjunctive
| ''nadṁaiġ''
| ''tadṁaiġ''
| ''jadṁaiġ hiù''
| ''tadṁaiġ hì''
| ''nadṁu''
| ''tadṁu''
| ''jadṁu hwm''
|-
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''adṁaiġ!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''adṁu!''
| ''-''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=7| ''adṁaiṫe''
|-
! verbal noun
|colspan=7| ''adṁaċaḋ'' (f)
|}
==== Newer loan verbs ====
Newer loan verbs use the same stress patterns and affixes as regular ''-aig{{cda}}'' loan verbs from Irish, but have a fixed stem.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Irish loan verb conjugation: ''rofònaiġ'' 'he phoned'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''rofònaiġtin''
| ''rofònaiġtint''
| ''rofònaiġ hiù''
| ''rofònaiġt hì''
| ''rofònaiġne''
| ''rofònaiġtwm, rofònaiġtintwm''
| ''rofònav{{cll}} hwm''
|-
! future; subjunctive
| ''nfònaiġ''
| ''tfònaiġ''
| ''jfònaiġ hiù''
| ''tfònaiġ hì''
| ''nfònu''
| ''tfònu''
| ''jfònu hwm''
|-
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''fònaiġ!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''fònu!''
| ''-''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=7| ''fònaiṫe''
|-
! verbal noun
|colspan=7| ''fònaċaḋ'' (f)
|}
==== Passivizing loan verbs ====
Loan verbs are made passive by adding ''(ə)t-'' to the stem:
''raimsig{{cda}}'' 'to attempt' -> ''rotaimsig{{cda}}'' 'to be attempted'
The ''t'' assimilates before coronal obstruents.
==== The verb ''gàl'' 'to say' ====
exhibits suppletion with ''*sèd'' < ''šahida'' 'to bear witness' (inspired by għid ~ qal in Maltese, ghid looks like hebrew 3ėd but is a false friend)
sedtin, seddint, gàl, gàlit, sedne, sedtwm, gàlw
nessid, tessid, jessid, nessdw, tessdw, jessdw
wssid, wssdw
megùl
gavl
==== The verb ''ceàn'' 'to be' ====
The verb ''ceàn, jciùn, (no passive part.), cevn/cvèn'' (from Arabic ''kāna'') is a regular hollow 2-w verb. Unlike in Irish, ''ceàn'' covers the senses of both Irish ''is'' and Irish ''bí''.
In the present tense,
* the appropriate independent pronoun is used, for predicate nouns, predicative adjectives, and adjuncts
* the particle ''temm'' (irregularly from Arabic ''þamma'' 'there') is used, for existential statements
The future form of ''ceàn'' is also used as a "habitual be". (''nciùn'' = Scottish Gaelic ''bidh mi'' 'I (tend to) be, I will be')
==== Modals ====
Both verbs and prepositional phrases are used for modals.
* ''eas{{cll}}d{{cll}}a{{3}}, jeas{{cll}}d{{cll}}a{{3}}, --, --, s{{cll}}d{{cll}}à{{3}}a'' 'can' (istiTā3a reanalyzed as Form IV)
* ''rèd/ridtin, jrìd, --, --, rìde'' 'to want'
* ''{{3}}alèh'' 'to have to'
* ''{{3}}andwh gàd{{cda}}'' 'to need to'
*: ''{{big3}}andi gàd{{cda}} nibtì{{3}} deg{{cll}}ìg{{cll}} {{ocus}} swccar{{cll}} bès ns{{cll}}ajjer cejc min nefɯi.'' 'I need to buy flour and sugar in order to bake my own cake.'
* ''{{3}}andwh cead{{cll}}'' 'to be permitted to'
*: ''{{big3}}andic cead{{cll}} tfejjem zeàl progreamm tea{{heth}}t el{{cll}} coing{{cda}}eallaid{{cda}}èt{{cda}} gèje.'' 'You may use this program under the following conditions.'
=== Prepositions ===
* b(e) 'instrumental': bìje, bìc, bìh, bìhe, bìne, bìcwm, bìhwm
* f(i) 'in, at': fìje, fìc, fìh, fìhe, fìne, fìcwm, fìhwm
* min 'from': minnì, minnic/minc (poetic), minnwh, minhe, minne, mincwm, minhwm
* meȝ 'comitative': meȝje /maːjə/, meȝc, meȝuh /maẅh/, meȝhe /mahhə/, meȝne, meȝcwm, meȝhwm /mahhum/
* bejn 'between': bejn(èt)ì, bejn(èt)ic, bejn(èt)wh, bejn(èt)he, bejn(èt)ne, bejn(èt)cwm, bejn(èt)hwm
*: ''bejn X {{ocus}} Y'' and ''bejn X (w)bejn Y'' are both valid for 'between X and Y'
* ''frè'' (< Irish fré) = against
*:''frejje, frèc, frèh, frèhe, frène, frècwm, frèhwm''
* ''ȝal'' /æl/ = on, for
* fwg{{cll}} = upon, towards (< fawq + chuig)
*: fwg{{cll}}ì, fwg{{cll}}ac{{cll}}, fwg{{cll}}uh, fwg{{cll}}ha /çüqʰə/, fwg{{cll}}na, fwg{{cll}}cum /çüqʰːʊmˁ/, fwg{{cll}}hum /çüːm~çüʔʊmˁ/
* gvèr = about
''f(i)'' (< CA fī) is matched to faoi in some verb complements and is in fact ''fo'' sometimes; 'in' often uses a different prep ''gil'' (from ''majāl'' 'domain')
g{{cll}}ur{{cll}} = 'of, at' (from GuRB 'vicinity'): g{{cll}}ur{{cll}}ì, g{{cll}}ur{{cll}}ac{{cll}}, g{{cll}}ur{{cll}}uh, g{{cll}}ur{{cll}}ha, g{{cll}}ur{{cll}}na, g{{cll}}ur{{cll}}cum, g{{cll}}ur{{cll}}hum
ȝand 'to have'
=== Conjunctions ===
* ''agus{{cll}}'' /əjs/ 'and', usually written {{ocus}} except at the beginning of a sentence (informally ''ejɯ'')
* ''ev'' 'or'
* ''eas{{cll}}da'' 'but (however)'
* ''bzeàcwllwh'' 'however'
* ''γir'', ''xlàf'' 'but (rather)' (used like Irish ''ach'')
* ''metli'' 'when'
* ''g{{cll}}abli'' 'before'
* ''veara li'' 'after'
* ''ȝalcem'' 'although'
* ''ȝaseàn'', ''ħajd'' 'because'
* ''bès'' (+ future) 'so that, in order that'
* ''lè'' (+ future) 'lest'
** (synonym) ''fzeȝ'' + pronominal suffix for the subject of the matrix clause
* ''veag{{cll}}t{{cll}}, veag{{cll}}t{{cll}} li'' 'while'
* ''jenc'' 'if (realis)'
* ''cinc'' 'if (irrealis)'
* ''annsin'' /ən'{{sh}}ɪn/ 'then'
=== Numerals ===
''vè{{heth}}ad'' /veahəd/, ''nejn, dlède, earb{{cll}}ȝa, xamɯe, ɯitte, ɯeab{{cll}}{{3}}a, dmènje, diɯȝa, ȝasra'' (''nejn'' is due to rebracketing: ''vèħad, dnejn'' → ''vèħad, nejn''
attributive forms: ''vè{{heth}}ad/vè{{heth}}de, zevg, dlèdit, earb{{cll}}{{3}}at{{cll}}, xamɯt, ɯitt, ɯeab{{cll}}{{3}}at{{cll}}, dmènt, diɯȝat, ȝasrat{{cll}}''
''xamɯt meara'' (by Irish influence; literary) or ''xamɯt niɯe'' '5 women', ''xamɯt en-niɯe'' 'the 5 women'
''evvil, dèni, dèlid, ràb{{cll}}aȝ, xàmiɯ, ɯètit, ɯèb{{cll}}aȝ, dmèni, dèɯeȝ, ȝàser''
Ordinals come before nouns, as in Irish: ''ed dèlid bèb'' (abbrev. ''ed .3. bèb'') = the third door
== Syntax ==
Irish influence preserved or revived many conservative Semitic features of Hiberno-Arabic syntax:
* "A el B" ("A B" when B is a proper noun) construction predominant for possessives
* possessive suffixes always productive
* default VSO word order, preserved as topic-first-before-verb word order with VSO in subordinate clauses by a development of Arabic nominativus pendens
The vocative particle ''je'' (''j'' before a vowel) is consistently used (like the Irish vocative). Vocative phrases usually go to the end: 'Cerìm, close the door!' is ''ʔwγlag{{cll}} el bèb, je Cerìm!''
Syntax example:
{| class=wikitable
! Language
! I love reading a lot.
! When I went to the library,
! I only found this old book.
! I wanted to read a book about the history of women in France.
|-
! Hiberno-Arabic
| ''Ène nħebb neag{{cll}}ra veaxra.''
| ''Metli s{{cll}}altin {{3}}al el leaḃarlan{{cll}}n{{cll}},''
| ''mè s{{cll}}abtin s γir zeàl ctèb g{{cll}}adìm.''
| ''Ridtin neag{{cll}}ra ctèb gvèr grejjèt en niɯe fir{{cll}} F{{cda}}rainc.''
|-
! Maltese
| ''Jien inħobb naqra ħafna.''
| ''Meta mort il-librerija,''
| ''sibt biss dan il-ktieb il-qadim.''
| ''Ridt naqra ktieb dwar il-ġrajja tan-nisa fi Franza.''
|-
! Arabic
| أَنَا أُحِبُّ القِرَاءَةَ  كَثِيرًا
| عِنْدَمَا ذَهَبْتُ إِلَى المَكْتَبَة
| لَمْ أَجِد سِوَى هٰذَا الكِتَابِ القَدِيم
| كُنْتُ أُرِيدُ أَنْ أَقْرَأَ  كِتَابًا عَن تَارِيخِ المَرأَةِ فِي فَرَنسَا
|-
! (Transl. for MSA)
| ''ʔanā ʔuħibbu l-qirāʔata kaþīran.''
| ''ʕindamā ðahabtu ʔila l-maktabah,''
| ''lam ʔaǧid siwā hāða l-kitābi l-qadīm.''
|  ''kuntu ʔurīdu an ʔaqraʔa kitāban ʕan tārīxi l-marʔati fī faransā.''
|-
! Irish (An Caighdeán)
| ''Is maith liomsa léamh go leor.''
| ''Nuair a chuaigh mé go dtí an leabharlann,''
| ''ní bhfuair mé ach an sean-leabhar seo.''
| ''Theastaigh uaim leabhar faoi stair na mban sa Fhrainc a léamh.''
|}
=== Noun phrase ===
* adnominal demonstratives: zeàl (m), zìl (f), ilel (pl), sìl (what/which X?) (follows sun/moon letter rules like the definite article)
* pronominal demonstratives:
** proximal: zeà (m), zì (f), ile (pl)
** distal: zeàc (m), zìc (f), ilèc (pl)
* can use ''el X hùn'' lit. 'the X here', ''el X temm'' 'the X there' instead
* attributive adjective phrases: "NOUN ADJ1 ADJ2" for 'a ADJ1 and ADJ2 NOUN' (Irish influence)
== Vocabulary ==
* Native: most everyday words (33%), archaic literary vocabulary
* Irish: most formal vocabulary; government, law and source of many new coinages (50%)
* Latin, Romance and Greek: some formal vocabulary, esp. religion (possibly via Irish or English)
** ''profète, profètìn'' (m) 'prophet'
* English: source of calques, many technology words
=== Derivation ===
(e is a stressed vowel which may change to ea; ej may change to aj; ə may be spelled e or a; w may be spelled u; Ē is either è or à; Ā is either eà or à)
* ''CeCC(ə), CiCC(ə), CwCC(ə)'': segolates
* ''meCCəC, meCCCə, miCCəC, miCCCə, mwCCəC, mwCCCə'': various inanimate nouns
* ''CCejjəC, CCejCə'': diminutives
* ''CCwCə, CCwCìje'': abstract nouns
*  ''CəCCèC'', ''CĒCəC'' (less prod.): agentives
* ''-aire, -airìn'': Irish agentive
* ''-(ad)òir, -(ad)òirìn'': Irish agentive
* ''-Ān'' (''-eàn'' after ''t{{cda}}''): Irish instrument nouns
* ''-òg'': Irish diminutive
* ''aṫ-'': re-
* ''neaṁ-'': non-, un- (for adjectives; lenites nouns of Irish origin)
* ''mì-'': non-, in- (for nouns; lenites nouns of Irish origin)
** ''mì-{{heth}}nène'' (f) 'cruelty, callousness' < ''{{heth}}nène'' (f) 'compassion'
** ''mì-c{{cda}}òir'' (f) 'injustice' < ''còir''
* ''nùa-'': neo- (lenites nouns of Irish origin)
* ''CèCəC, C(ə)CìC, CəCCĀn'': adjectives
* ''-ì, -ìje, -ìje'': nisba, used in both Arabic and Irish words; ''-ìje'' is used for feminine occupations, e.g. ''nòtaire'' 'notary' → ''nòtairìje'' 'notary (f.)'
* ''-ìje'': some language names
* ''-aċt/-eċt, -aċtaid{{cda}}èṫ/-eċtaid{{cda}}èṫ'': most common abstract noun suffix, used on agentives and adjectives; also used on native words
* ''-us'': (m) abstracts
* ''-àn'': adjectives
* ''-usaì'': (adj/noun) -arian, -ist (generalized from -us abstract + -aì; not found in Irish)
=== Days of the week ===
* Sunday: ''jwm Dom{{cda}}naig{{cda}}''
* Monday: ''jwm Dnejn''
* Tuesday: ''jwm Dlède''
* Wednesday: ''jwm Ear{{cll}}b{{cll}}{{3}}a''
* Thursday: ''jwm Xamɯe''
* Friday: ''jwm Gim{{3}}a''
* Saturday: ''jwm ẞebt''
abbreviated as "D 2 3 4 5 G ẞ", e.g. ''jwm 2''
== Texts ==
Todo:
* snippet from some Classical Arabic text
* snippet from some Irish epic
* a hypothetical news report in Modern Midhir
=== UDHR, Article 1 ===
:''Ritvèldw el bnèdmìn cwllhe xèlɯe {{ocus}} coṁionanna f uirrimhwm {{ocus}} fi cear{{cll}}tathum. Hwme mrabbħa ber rèsùn{{cll}} {{ocus}} bel&#817; cogaḃḃus{{cll}} {{ocus}} ȝalèhwm jiomċru rùħhum meȝ silsìn b mèin guṟ eaxva.''
:/rɪtʰˈveːldʊ əl bnɪdˈmiːn ˈcʰʊlhə ˈχe:lsə əɪs qʰəwʶˈnʶanʶ:ə f ˈʊr:ɪmhʊm əɪs fɪ ˈcærʶtʶʰʌtʶʰ:ʊm | ˈhʊmə ˈmʶrʶapʰ:ɐ bər rəˈsʶu:nʶ əɪs bəlʶ qʰɔˈʔʶawʶ:ʊsʶ əɪs ɐˈle:hʊm ˈjʊmʶχrʶʊ ˈrʶuɐhhʊm mɐ ʃɪlˈʃi:n bə me:n ʔʶʊrʶ ˈaχvʶə/
:[rɪt&#810;ʰˈveːl{{den}}d{{den}}ʊ̈ ə&#799;lbn&#810;ɪd&#810;ˈmiːŋ&#799; ˈk&#799;ʰʊ̈lhə ˈχɛːls{{den}}ə&#799; əɪs{{den}} qʰʌwʶˈn&#810;ʶɑn&#810;ʶːʌ ˈf‿ʊ̈rːɪmhʊ̈m ˌɛjs{{den}} fɪ ˈk&#799;ærʶt{{den}}ʶʰʌt{{den}}ʶʰ:ʊmʲ ‖ hʊ̈mə&#799; ˈm{{uvu}}rʶɑpːʰɐ&#799; bərrə&#799;ˈs{{den}}{{uvu}}ʊːn{{den}}{{uvu}} ʌɪs{{den}} bəl&#810;ʶqʰʌˈʔɑwwʶʊs{{den}}ʶ əɪs{{den}} ɐ&#799;ˈleːhʊ̈mʲ ˈjʊmʶχrʶʊ ˈrʶʊɐħ&#798;ħ&#798;ʊm mɐ&#799; ʃɪ&#799;lʃiːnʲ b‿meːnʲ ʔʶʊrʶ ˈæχwʶʌ]
:PST-PASS-give_birth_to-3PL DEF human-PL all.PL free-PL and equal-PL in dignity-3PL.POSS and right-PL-3PL.POSS. 3PL.INDEP enriched-PL INST-DEF reason and INST-DEF conscience and on-3PL behave/3PL.FUT REFL-3PL COM each_other INS mindset POSS sibling.PL.
Our timeline's Tunisian Arabic:
: ''In-nès il-kull muludìn ħurrìn w mitsèwìn fi’l-karàme w’il-ħuqùq. Tagħŧàw għqal w żamìr w lèzim ygħàmlu bgħażhum kìf l-axwa.''
Our timeline's Egyptian Arabic:
:''ʔil-mæddæ ʔil-ʔæwwalaniyyæ ʔil-bæniʔædmīn kulluhum mæwlūdīn ħurrīn wi mitsawwyīn fil-karāma wil-ħuʔūʔ. ʔitwæhæb-luhum ʔil-ʕaʔl wiḍ-ḍamīr wil-mafrūḍ yiʕæmlu baʕḍ bi-rūħ ʔil-ʔuxuwiyyæ.''
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Varieties of Arabic]]
[[Category:Varieties of Arabic]]
[[Category:Hiberno-Xenic]]
[[Category:Hiberno-Xenic]]
IlL
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