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{{construction}}


'''[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}}|Vy górov in socovíto]]'''<br/>'''[[{{PAGENAME}}/he|דף זה בעברית]]'''
{{Infobox language
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|name = {{PAGENAME}}
|nativename = socovíc/socovija lesán
|region = Balkan Peninsula
|states = Mostsev, Greece, Italy
|speakers = 4 million
|date = 2015
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
|fam1=[[w:Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]]
|fam2=[[w:Semitic languages|Semitic]]
|fam3=North Semitic
|script=[[w:Latin script|Latin]]
}}
==todo==
*[[Socovíc/Lexicon]]
**''cedor, cedr-'' instead of {{recon|''oroz'', ''orz-''}}
**''odom'': high register word for 'human'/'mortal'
**''qobod'' 'servant'; ''qobdíc'' 'work, service'
**''túr'' instead of {{recon|''fúr''}}
**''ura'' 'time'
**''zúg'' 'pair'
***''sezeg'' 'husband'
**''mór'' 'man'
*[[Main Page/Socovíc]]
*Grammar
**stative > present?
==Background==
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' ({{PAGENAME}}: ''socovíc'' /ˈsotsoviːts/ or ''socovija lesán'' /ˈsotsovija ˈlesaːn/), sometimes called '''Sotsovian''' in English, is a Semitic language in the [[w:Balkan sprachbund|Balkan Sprachbund]], spoken in the nation of Mostsev (''Moscév'') which is actually a thin piece of land running straight down the west coast of the Balkan Peninsula or something. A North Semitic language, it diverges in many ways from Central Semitic tongues such as Arabic, Aramaic and Hebrew - it preserves archaic features that have not survived in Central Semitic languages, as well as some innovations in its grammar. North Semitic is thought to have been a quasi-Central Semitic dialect that separated very early from the rest of Central Semitic. The name of the language, ''socovíc'', is the feminine singular definite form of the adjective ''socoví'' - which seems to have stemmed from {{recon|√s-t-w}}, a root meaning 'north' in {{PAGENAME}} (cf. Hebrew {{heb|סְתָו}} ''săṯâw'' 'winter'). Like its Semitic and Afro-Asiatic relatives, {{PAGENAME}} is a fusional, templatic language with an accusative alignment. Because of its obvious connection with the "sacred tongue" Hebrew, {{PAGENAME}} had caught some attention in historical Western scholarship before the era of modern linguistics. While {{PAGENAME}} is very conservative in some respects (e.g. inflectional cases, dual number, a prefix-conjugated preterite, feminine plural verb forms), over its history the language has absorbed influences from Slavic, Greek, Albanian, Turkish, Italian, Arabic, and more recently French, German and English.
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="2"|
! | Labial
! | Dental
! | Alveolar
! | Postalveolar
! | Palatal
! | Velar
! | Uvular
! | Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
|
| '''n''' /n/
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Plosive
! | <small>voiceless</small>
| '''p''' /p/
|
| '''t''' /t/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/
| '''q''' /q/
| (/ʔ/)
|-
! | <small>voiced</small>
| '''b''' /b/
|
| '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''g''' /g/
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
! | <small>voiceless</small>
| '''f''' /f/
| '''þ''' /θ/
| '''s''' /s/
| '''š''' /ʃ/
|
| '''x''' /x/
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! | <small>voiced</small>
| '''v''' /v/
|
| '''z''' /z/
| '''ž''' /ʒ/
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Affricate
|
|
| '''c''' /ts/
| '''č''' /tʃ/
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Trill
|
|
| '''r''' /r/
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|
|
| '''l''' /l/
|
| '''j''' /j/
|
|
|
|}
====Allophony====
If a word begins with a vowel, a glottal stop is added before it.
Obstruents followed by an obstruent assimilate to the voicing of the following obstruent: ''mosbár'' /mɤsbaːr/ '(faculty of) reason' is pronounced [ˈmɤzbaːr].
===Vowels===
====Oral====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! rowspan="1" colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front
! rowspan="1" colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
!style="width: 90px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 90px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 90px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 90px; "|<small>long</small>
|-
! style="" |Close
| '''i''' /i/
| '''í''' /iː/
| '''u''' /u/
| '''ú''' /uː/
|-
! style="" |Mid
| '''e''' /e/
| '''é''' /eː/
| '''o''' /ɤ/
| '''ó''' /o̞ː/
|-
! style="" |Open
| '''ē''' /æ&#797;/
| '''ḗ''' /æ&#797;ː/
| '''a''' /a/
| '''á''' /aː/
|}
====Nasal====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
!style="width: 90px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 90px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 90px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 90px; "|<small>long</small>
|-
! style="" |Close
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Mid
|
| '''ę''' /ɛ̃ː/
|
| '''ǫ''' /ɔ̃ː/
|-
! style="" |Open
|
|
|
|
|}
====Allophony====
/i/ > [ɨ] / C[+retroflex]_
===Stress and intonation===
Stress always falls on the first syllable of a word.
Disyllabic words tend to have a high-low intonation. In words with more syllables, pitch starts high, declines until the last syllable, and the last syllable is higher in pitch than the lowest syllable.
==Diachronics==
===STRESS===
Initially Arabic-like, then stress shifts leftward (before "Proto-/Old {{PAGENAME}}" stage), resulting in the loss of the final nasal elements in dual and plural endings
*base cases: {{recon|kabī́ra}}; {{recon|kátaba}}; {{recon|nawlū́da}} (when > {{recon|náwlūda}}?)
*generalize the rule "start from the left to determine syllable weight":
**only the first 2 syllables may be stressed
**['''H''' L; [L '''H'''; [H '''H'''; ['''L''' L
===Vowels===
====PSem to PNSem====
*Word-final ''-i'' dropped; this triggers the generalization of diptotes and the fronting of the overall consonant inventory.
*{{recon|āN *īN *ūN *ayN}} > overlong {{recon|â *î *û *ê}} if N is not part of a root
====PNSem to P{{PAGENAME}}====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! Proto-North Semitic
! Proto-{{PAGENAME}}
|-
| i
| ь
|-
| u
| ъ
|-
| a > ə
| o
|-
| ī
| i
|-
| ū
| y
|-
| ay
| ě
|-
| aw
| u
|-
| ā
| a
|-
| an
| ǫ
|-
| in
| ę, ь
|-
| un
| ǫ, ъ
|}
===P{{PAGENAME}} to {{PAGENAME}}===
Havlík's law: strong {{recon|''ъ''}} > {{recon|''o''}}, strong {{recon|''ь''}} > {{recon|''e''}}, weak jers vanish without doing anything
{{recon|''y''}} > ''e''
===Consonants===
{{PAGENAME}} distinguishes between around 23 of the original 29 consonants of Proto-Semitic. (cf. Arabic 28, Aramaic/Phoenician 22, Akkadian 20, Modern Hebrew <20). The following chart presents the predominant reflexes of the Proto-Semitic consonants in each stage:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width:650px; text-align:center;"
|-
! PSem
! {{recon|b}}
! {{recon|d}}
! {{recon|g}}
! {{recon|p}}
! {{recon|t}}
! {{recon|k}}
! {{recon|ṭ}}
! {{recon|ḳ}}
! {{recon|ð}}
! {{recon|z}}
! {{recon|þ}}
! {{recon|š}}
! {{recon|ś}}
! {{recon|s}}
! {{recon|þ&#803;}}
! {{recon|ṣ}}
! {{recon|ṣ́}}
! {{recon|ɣ}}
! {{recon|ʕ}}
! {{recon|ʔ}}
! {{recon|x}}
! {{recon|ħ}}
! {{recon|h}}
! {{recon|m}}
! {{recon|n}}
! {{recon|l}}
! {{recon|r}}
! {{recon|w}}
! {{recon|y}}
|-
! Late PNSem
| {{recon|b}}
| {{recon|d}}
| {{recon|ǵ}}
| {{recon|p}}
| {{recon|ť}}
| {{recon|ḱ}}
| {{recon|t&#803;}}
| {{recon|k&#803;}}
| {{recon|v}}
| {{recon|z}}
| {{recon|f}}
| {{recon|s}}
| {{recon|ś}}
| {{recon|s}}
| {{recon|f&#803;}}
| {{recon|ṣ}}
| {{recon|ṣ́}}
| {{recon|ɣ}}
| {{recon|ʕ}}
| {{recon|ʔ}}
| {{recon|x}}
| {{recon|ħ}}
| {{recon|h}}
| {{recon|m}}
| {{recon|n}}
| {{recon|l}}
| {{recon|r}}
| {{recon|w}}
| {{recon|y}}
|-
! Old {{PAGENAME}}
| ''b''
| ''d''
| ''ž''
| ''p''
| ''ć''
| ''č''
| ''t''
| ''k''
| ''v''
| ''z''
| ''f''
| ''s''
| ''š''
| ''s''
| ''f''
| ''š''
| ''ś''
| ''g''
| ''<sup>a</sup>q'', ''-a''
| {{recon|''ʔ''}}
| ''x''
| ''<sup>a</sup>h''
| ''h''
| ''m''
| ''n''
| ''l''
| ''r''
| ''v''
| ''j''
|-
! Modern {{PAGENAME}}
| ''b''
| ''d''
| ''ž''
| ''p''
| ''c''
| ''č''
| ''t''
| ''k''
| ''v''
| ''z''
| ''f''
| ''s''
| ''š''
| ''s''
| ''f''
| ''š''
| ''þ''
| ''g''
| ''<sup>a</sup>q'', ''-a''
| ː, ''v'', ''j''
| ''x''
| ''<sup>a</sup>h''
| ''h''
| ''m''
| ''n''
| ''l''
| ''r''
| ''v''
| ''j''
|}
===Declension===
====Early Proto-North Semitic====
Diptotic declension. The parenthesized nasal elements in the dual and plural were unstable due to the shift to word-initial stress that had occurred in PNSem.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''yawmu(n)'' || ''yawmā(ni)'' || ''yawmū''
|-
! Accusative/Genitive
| ''yawma(n)'' || ''yawmay(ni)'' || ''yawmī''
|}
<!--
If I want triptotes
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''júm'' 'day'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''júm'' || ''júm'''ov''''' || ''júm'''a''''' || ''júm'''ava''''' || ''júm'''y''''' || ''júm'''yly'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''j'''ui'''m'' || ''j'''ui'''m'''eve''''' || ''júm'''ä''''' || ''júm'''ävä''''' || ''júm'''i''''' || ''júm'''ili'''''
|-
! Accusative
| ''júm'''o''''' || ''júm'''ovo''''' || ''júm'''ä''''' || ''júm'''ävä''''' || ''júm'''i''''' || ''júm'''ili'''''
|-
! Oblique
| ''juim'''bi''''' || ''juim'''vebi''''' || ''júm'''äma''''' || ''júm'''äväma''''' || ''júm'''ím''''' || ''júm'''ilím'''''
|}
-->
====Proto-/Old {{PAGENAME}}====
Accusative implements DOM based on animacy of the noun: = genitive for animates, = nominative for inanimates
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''jumъ'' || ''juma'' || ''jumy''
|-
! Genitive
| ''jumo'' || ''jumě'' || ''jumi''
|}
==Nouns==
{{PAGENAME}} nouns decline in definiteness, three numbers (singular, dual and plural), and three cases (nominative, accusative, genitive). Unusually for a modern Semitic language, case plays a very important and productive role, while there is no counterpart to the construct state or possessed forms (except for very few nouns) of other Semitic languages; however, the possessor always follows the head.
===Morphological notes===
The accusative is identical to the genitive for animate nouns, and identical to the nominative for inanimate nouns.
{{PAGENAME}} nouns are notable for generalizing the diptotic (two-case) system, with nominative singular ''-''Ø < {{recon|''-ъ''}} < PNSem {{recon|''-u''}} and genitive/accusative singular ''-o'' < PNSem {{recon|''-a''}}, though it is uncertain whether diptotes or triptotes dominated the original Proto-Semitic paradigm. Feminine singular nominative {{recon|''-atu''}} was changed to {{recon|''-ā''}} (modern ''-a''), presumably under Indo-European influence. The feminine plural genitive also has an unexpected form of ''-aci'' instead of the syncretic {{recon|''-ác''}} < {{recon|''-āti''}} - probably a result of analogy to the masculine genitive plural.
The definiteness suffixes arose from cliticized demonstratives: e.g. ''vódov'' 'the child' (nom.) < {{recon|''voldъ-vy''}} < PNSem {{recon|''waldu&nbsp;ðū''}}; ''porosili'' 'the horses' (acc./gen.) < {{recon|''porosi-ъli''}} < PNSem {{recon|''parašī&nbsp;ʔulī''}}. Proper names, already being definite, are unmarked for definiteness: (e.g. ''Ivan'' 'John (m.)/Greece (f.)', ''Xrist'' or ''Xristos'' 'Christ', with a unique vocative form ''Xriste'').
Nouns fall into one of several declension paradigms. Diachronically, the declension paradigm a noun belongs to is a function of the declension class it was analyzed as, as well as the noun's gender.
===Masculine nouns of type ''júm''===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''vód'' 'child, boy'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''vód'' || ''vód'''ov''''' || ''vód'''a''''' || ''vód'''ava''''' || ''vód'''e''''' || ''vód'''ele'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''vód'''o''''' || ''vód'''ovo''''' || ''vód'''ē''''' || ''vód'''ēvē''''' || ''vód'''i''''' || ''vód'''ili'''''
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''júm'' 'day'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''júm'' || ''júm'''ov''''' || ''júm'''a''''' || ''júm'''ava''''' || ''júm'''e''''' || ''júm'''ele'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''júm'''o''''' || ''júm'''ovo''''' || ''júm'''ē''''' || ''júm'''ēvē''''' || ''júm'''i''''' || ''júm'''ili'''''
|}
===Masculine *-j-stems===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''fob'' 'antelope'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''fob'' || ''fob'''jev''''' || ''fob'''ja''''' || ''fob'''java''' || ''fob'''je''''' || ''fob'''jele'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''fob'''je''''' || ''fob'''jevo''' || ''fob'''jē''''' || ''fob'''jēvē''' || ''fob'''ji''''' || ''fob'''jili'''
|}
===''q''-stems===
{{recon|-q}} > ''a'', {{recon|-aq, *-yq}} > ''á'', {{recon|-eq, ēq}} > ''ē'', {{recon|-uq}} > ''ó'', {{recon|-iq}} > ''é''
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''vrá'' 'arm'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''vrá'' || ''vraqov'' || ''vraqa'' || ''vraqava'' || ''vraqe'' || ''vraqele''
|-
! Genitive
| ''vraqo'' || ''vraqovo''''' || ''vraqē'' || ''vraqēvē'' || ''vraqi'' || ''vraqili''
|}
===''*ħ''-stems===
Similar alternations to ''q''-stems.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''ráh'' 'wind'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''ráh'' || ''rehov'' || ''reha'' || ''rehava'' || ''rehe'' || ''rehele''
|-
! Genitive
| ''reho'' || ''rehovo''''' || ''rehē'' || ''rehēvē'' || ''rehi'' || ''rehili''
|}
===Feminine nouns of type ''molča''===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | ''sira'' 'performance, ritual'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''sir'''a''''' || ''sir'''ēc''''' || ''sir'''ota''''' || ''sir'''ēta''''' || ''sir'''ác''''' || ''sir'''alác'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''sir'''oto''''' || ''sir'''ēto''''' || ''sir'''ocē''''' || ''sir'''ēcē''''' || ''sir'''aci''''' || ''sir'''alaci'''''
|}
===Feminine nouns of type ''lesán''===
This class includes many feminine body part nouns. Examples: ''qӗn'' 'eye'; ''ovon, ovn-'' 'ear'; ''beton, betn-'' 'stomach'; ''koron, korn-'' 'horn'; ''óm'' 'mother'; ''lӗl'' 'night'; ''oroþ, orþ-'' 'earth'.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | ''lesán'' 'tongue, language'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''lesán'' || ''lesán'''ēc''''' || ''lesán'''a''''' || ''lesán'''ēta''''' || ''lesán'''ác''''' || ''lesán'''alác'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''lesán'''o''''' || ''lesán'''ēto''''' || ''lesán'''ē''''' || ''lesán'''ēcē''''' || ''lesán'''aci''''' || ''lesán'''alaci'''''
|}
===Feminine abstract ''-íc'' nouns===
These nouns have no definiteness distinction.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="5" | Feminine noun: ''omeníc'' 'truth'
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''omen'''íc''''' || ''omen'''ita''''' || ''omen'''ijác'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''omen'''ito''''' || ''omen'''icē''''' || ''omen'''ijaci'''''
|}
===Irregular nouns===
Nouns with "irregular" declension or broken plurals became nigh-extinct by the time of Proto-Socovíc; however, some still remain.
*''ęs'' (pl. nom. indef. ''onase'') 'person'
*''sem'' (pl. nom. indef. ''osame'') 'name'
====Possessed nouns====
Possessed nouns, or nouns that take possessive suffixes, are a closed class; this group covers only the nuclear family nouns ''ob'' 'father' (pl. ''obáje''), ''óm'' 'mother' (pl. ''ómác''), ''ox'' (pl. ''oxove'') 'brother', ''oxoc, oxc-/oxt-'' 'sister' (pl. ''oxovác''), ''ben, bn-'' (pl. ''bnáje'') 'son', ''bęc, bęc-/bęt-'' 'daughter' (pl. ''bnác''), ''mór'' (pl. ''omráje'') 'husband', ''nesa'' 'wife'. Only the singular has possessed forms: ''oxi'' 'my brother', but ''oxava li'' 'my two brothers'. The possessive suffixes make the noun definite. Note that the plurals are all irregular in order to disambiguate the plural case-marked forms from the singular possessed forms.
All nouns in this class follow the same declension w.r.t. possession. The oblique can be formed by adding ''-bi'' to the end of the accusative/genitive possessed forms.
'My sister' and 'my daughter' are ''ox'''c'''i'' and ''bę'''c'''i'' in the nominative; all other posssessed forms take stems in ''oxt-'' and ''bęt-''.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="5" | Possessed forms of ''ob'' 'father'
|-
! colspan="5" | Nominative singular
|-
! style="width: 100px;" |  !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''obi'' || ''obena'' || ''obene''
|-
! 2.m
| ''obeko''
|rowspan="2"| ''obekma'' || ''obekme''
|-
! 2.f
| ''obeč''  || ''obekno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''obe''
|rowspan="2"| ''obema'' || ''obeme''
|-
! 3.f
| ''obá'' || ''obeno''
|-
! colspan="5" | Accusative/Genitive singular
|-
! style="width: 100px;" |  !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''obajo'' || ''obana'' || ''obane''
|-
! 2.m
| ''obako''
|rowspan="2"| ''obakma'' || ''obakme''
|-
! 2.f
| ''obač''  || ''obakno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''obav''
|rowspan="2"| ''obama'' || ''obame''
|-
! 3.f
| ''obá'' || ''obano''
|}
==Adjectives==
Adjectives merge the genitive and oblique cases into the genitive case.
Adjectives precede nouns in the nominative and accusative cases: ''rób bḗc'' 'a big house', ''taba spara'' 'a good story', but follow the nouns in the genitive and oblique: ''docēc bḗcovo róbovo'' 'the door of the big house', and prepositional objects: ''en bḗcovo róbovo'' 'in the big house'. Adjectives do not agree in definiteness when they precede the noun, but do agree when they follow the noun.
===Adjectives ending in a consonant===
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Adjective declension: ''tab'' 'good' (masculine)
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''tab'' || ''tab'''ov''''' || ''tab'''a''''' || ''tab'''ava''''' || ''tab'''e''''' || ''tab'''ele'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''tab'''o'' || ''tab'''ovo'' || ''tab'''ē''''' || ''tab'''ēvē''''' || ''tab'''i''''' || ''tab'''ili'''''
|}
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Adjective declension: ''tab'' 'good' (feminine)
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''tab'''a''''' || ''tab'''ēc''''' || ''tab'''ota''''' || ''tab'''ēta''''' || ''tab'''ác''''' || ''tab'''alác'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''tab'''oto''''' || ''tab'''ēto'' || ''tab'''ocē''''' || ''tab'''ēcē''''' || ''tab'''aci''''' || ''tab'''alaci'''''
|}
===Nisba adjectives===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Adjective declension: ''bošorí'' 'bodily, physical' (masculine)
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''bošor'''í''''' || ''bošor'''ív''''' || ''bošor'''ija''''' || ''bošor'''íva''''' || ''bošor'''ije''''' || ''bošor'''íle'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''bošor'''ije'' || ''bošor'''ívo'' || ''bošor'''ijē''''' || ''bošor'''ívē''''' || ''bošor'''í''''' || ''bošor'''íli'''''
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Adjective declension: ''bošorí'' 'bodily, physical' (feminine)
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''bošor'''ija''''' || ''bošor'''íc''''' || ''bošor'''ijota''''' || ''bošor'''íta''''' || ''bošor'''ijác''''' || ''bošor'''ílác'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''bošor'''ijoto'' || ''bošor'''íto'' || ''bošor'''ijocē''''' || ''bošor'''ícē''''' || ''bošor'''ijaci''''' || ''bošor'''ílaci'''''
|}
==Pronouns==
Genitive and short accusative pronouns can be used as verbal clitics denoting a pronominal object; the clitic precedes the verb unless the verb is in the imperative. The genitive/dative clitic comes before the accusative clitic. A pronominal object may be "doubled" by a clitic for emphasis like in Balkan or Romance languages.
Pronouns are found in all three persons and all three numbers. The original 1st person dual-plural pronoun, {{recon|''naħnā''}}/{{recon|''naħnū''}} was reinterpreted as two different pronouns, each with its respective number ending: hence 1st person dual ''nahna'' < {{recon|''naħnā''}} and 1st person plural ''nahne'' < {{recon|''naħnū''}}. There is, in addition, a 2nd person polite pronoun ''ǫtmes''. The origin of the ''-s'' suffix is unknown, but is speculated to be a directive {{recon|''-š''}} (~ Hebrew ''-âh'') added to the 2nd person plural. ''Ǫtmes'' takes plural agreement.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="10" | Personal pronouns
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | Case !! colspan="3" | First person
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
|''nák''|| ''nahna'' || ''nahne''
|-
! Genitive
|''li''|| ''lona'' || ''lone''
|-
! Accusative
|''níc'', ''ni''|| ''nác'', ''na'' || ''néc'', ''ne''
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="12" | Personal pronouns, cont.
|-
! rowspan="3" style="width: 100px;" | Case !! colspan="6" | Second person !! colspan="5" | Third person
|-
! colspan="2" | Singular !! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural !! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | Polite !! colspan="2" | Singular !! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small>
|-
! Nominative
|''ǫto''|| ''ǫc'' || ''ǫtma'' || ''ǫtme'' || ''ǫcno'' || ''ǫtmes'' || ''e'' || ''i'' || ''oma'' || ''ome'' || ''en''
|-
! Genitive
|''lók''|| ''lóč'' || ''lókma'' || ''lókme'' || ''lóčno'' || ''lókmes'' ||''lú''||''lá''||''luma''||''lume''||''lēn''
|-
! Accusative
|''kác'', ''ka'', ''k'' ||''číc'', ''či'', ''č''|| ''kmác'', ''kma'' || ''kméc'', ''kme'' || ''čnác'', ''čna'' || ''kméc'', ''kmes'' || ''óc'', ''o'' ||''ác'', ''a''||''omác'', ''oma''||''oméc'', ''om'' ||''enác'', ''en''
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="width: 270px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | Interrogative pronouns
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case !! style="width: 90px;" | 'who' !! style="width: 90px;" | 'what'
|-
! Nominative
| ''mǫ'' || ''ma''
|-
! Genitive
| ''mǫlu'' || ''malu''
|-
! Accusative
| ''mǫc'' || ''ma''
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Demonstrative pronoun
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''ve'' || ''vēc'' || ''va'' || ''vēta'' || ''ele'' || ''elác''
|-
! Genitive
| ''vu'' || ''vēto'' || ''vē'' || ''vēcē'' || ''eli'' || ''elaci''
|-
! Dative
| ''velu'' || ''vētla'' || ''vēluma''''' || ''vētluma''''' || ''elilúm'' || ''elátlēn''
|}
Relative pronoun ''ove'' < {{recon|''han-ðū''}}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Relative pronoun
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''ove'' || ''ovēc'' || ''ova'' || ''ovēta'' || ''óle'' || ''ólác''
|-
! Genitive
| ''ovu'' || ''ovēto'' || ''ovē'' || ''ovēcē'' || ''óli'' || ''ólaci''
|-
! Dative
| ''ovelu'' || ''ovētla'' || ''ovēluma''''' || ''ovētluma''''' || ''ólilúm'' || ''ólátlēn''
|}
==Numerals==
===Cardinal numerals===
Different cardinal numerals are declined differently, and have various effects on the modified noun depending on the final digits of the numeral:
*Cardinal numerals one and two, and those ending in "1" or "2", are declined as adjectives. The modified noun is singular (and agrees in case) for numbers ending in ''ahod'', and the noun is dual for numbers ending in ''fla''.
**''Nul'' (0) is also an adjective that takes nominative singular.
*All other numerals are declined as nouns and require the noun they modify to be in the genitive plural.
**Words ''šolaf'' (3) through ''cés'' (9) or in ''qošor'' (10-19) are declined like feminine singular nouns in adnominal position (''Hén šolafa onasi'' 'There are three people') and like masculine singular nouns in nominal position (''Hén šolaf'' 'There are three'). Colloquial Hebrew displays this behavior as well. This pattern of agreement derives from the original Semitic chiastic concord, seen in Biblical Hebrew and Classical Arabic, wherein masculine numerals had feminine endings and vice versa.
**Words ''qošore'' (20), ''šolafe'' (30), ..., ''cése'' (90) are declined as masculine plural nouns.
**Units such as ''meja'' (100, ''f''), ''olop'' (1000, ''m''), ''milijon'', ''milijarda'', etc. are declined as ordinary nouns, taking the appropriate number and case.
Examples:
*''qošore júmi'' '20 days', ''qošore sonáci'' '20 years'
*''qošore v ahod júm'' '21 days', ''qošore v ahda sona'' '21 years'
*''qošore vo fla júma'' '22 days', ''qošore vo flota sonota'' '22 years'
*''qošore v šolafa júmi'' '23 days', ''qošore v šolafa sonaci'' '23 years'
*''milijona dolari'' '2 million dollars'
*''mejota milijoni dolari'' '200 million dollars'
*''Olop lēlaci v lēl'' 'One thousand and one nights' (Arabic ''ˀalf<sup>u</sup> layla<sup>tin</sup> wa-layla<sup>tun</sup>'').
Since {{PAGENAME}} has singular and dual forms, modifying numerals one and two are not needed; thus ''Li hén voda v bęc'' 'I have two sons and a daughter' is just as correct as, in fact preferred to, ''Li hén fla voda v ahda bęc''.
The ordinal numerals ''okdom'' 'first' and ''okrob'' 'second' are suppletive; ''okdom'' is the elative of the root ''k-d-m'' (''kodam'') 'front, before', (cf. the etymology of ''first''), and ''okrob'' is the elative of ''k-r-b'' (''koreb'') 'near' (cf. ''next'').
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="4"|{{PAGENAME}} numerals
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|''n''
!style="width: 120px; "|''n''th
!style="width: 120px; "|1/''n''
|-
|0
|''nul''
|''novel''
|''-''
|-
|1
|''ahod (m), ahda (f)''
|''okdom''
|''-''
|-
|2
|''fla (m), flota (f)''
|''okrob''
|''žǫb''
|-
|3
|''šolaf, šolafa''
|''šolef''
|''mǫšólef''
|-
|4
|''roba, roboqa''
|''robá''
|''mǫróbē''
|-
|5
|''xǫs, xǫsa''
|''xones''
|''mǫxónes''
|-
|6
|''séf, séfa''
|''sodef''
|''mǫsódef''
|-
|7
|''sóp, sópa''
|''sobá''
|''mǫsóbē''
|-
|8
|''fomán, fomána''
|''fomen''
|''mǫfómen''
|-
|9
|''cés, césa''
|''cosá''
|''mǫcósē''
|-
|10
|''qošor, qošora''
|''qoser''
|''mǫqóser''
|-
|11
|''ahodvqošor''
|''ahodvqoser''
|''-''
|-
|20
|''qošore''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|21
|''qošore v ahod''
|''qošorevokdom''
|''-''
|-
|30
|''šolafe''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|40
|''roboqe''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|50
|''xǫse''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|60
|''séfe''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|70
|''sópe''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|80
|''fománe''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|90
|''cése''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|100
|''meja''
|''mejocí''
|''-''
|-
|200
|''mejota''
|''mejotají''
|''-''
|-
|300
|''šolafa mejác''
|''šolafamejocí''
|''-''
|-
|1000
|''olop''
|''olpí''
|''-''
|-
|2000
|''olpa''
|''olpají''
|''-''
|-
|3000
|''šolafa olpe''
|''šolafaolpí''
|''-''
|}
==Verbs==
:''See also: [[{{PAGENAME}}/Verbal subparadigms|Verbal subparadigms]].''
===Voices===
Passive voice is almost concatenative, it's often just a nasal vowel prefix (derived from the {{recon|''n''}}-preformative):
*unprefixed ''ę-''
*w/ personal prefixes ''nǫ-'', ''tǫ-'', ''ję-''
With I-nasal verbs this changes to:
*unprefixed ''é-''
*w/ personal prefixes ''nó-'', ''tó-'', ''jé-''
===Overview of the verb forms===
====Present====
The present tense stems from the Proto-Semitic stative, or the suffix conjugation.
====Imperfect====
====Preterite====
The preterite indicates an action that was completed in the past. It was inherited from the Proto-Semitic preterite.
:'''''Lú {{blue|nohób}} vohób.'''''
:<small>lú=no-hób-Ø vohób-Ø</small>
:<small>3SG.M.DAT=1-give/PRET-SG gold-SG.ACC</small>
:''I gave him gold.''
Morphologically, the preterite is one of two forms that inherit the Proto-Semitic prefix conjugation. The personal prefixes are usually 1st person ''no-'', 2nd person ''to-'', and 3rd person ''je-'', though a "weak" 1st radical may change the prefix vowel. Note that unlike in other Semitic languages, the 1st person singular prefix is ''n-'' (not {{recon|''ʔ-''}}), and number/gender suffixes are added as in 2nd and 3rd person (cf. Maghrebi Arabic/Maltese). Also, 3fs form of ''jektól'' is ''jektóli'', not ''toktól''! This is often a shibboleth for Hebrew and Arabic speakers.
====Subjunctive====
The subjunctive form is similar to the preterite form, but has a short vowel in the stem (like the imperative) instead of a long vowel. The short vowel often elides when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added.
The non-2nd person imperatives may be formed with the hortative proclitic ''c'' (< ''ce!'' 'come!') plus the subjunctive.
:'''''Jēj roþēja no jeþej, po c jeþej.'''''
:<small>jēj roþēj-a no=je-þe-i po c=je-þe-i</small>
:<small>if want/PRES-3SG.F SUBJ=3-leave-SG.F, then HORT=SUBJ=3-leave-SG.F</small>
:''If she wants to leave, let her leave.''
In archaic language the bare subjunctive is used for hortatives and optatives:
:'''''Jéce memlóčov lók.'''''
:<small>je-ʔce-Ø memlóč-ov=lók</small>
:<small>3-come/SUBJ-SG.M kingdom-SG.DEF=2SG.M.GEN</small>
:''Thy kingdom come.''
:'''''Ječna ''f'' v ''g'' moftóbacota funkcijota...''
:<small>je-čŭn-a ''f'' v ''g'' moftóbac-ota funkcij-ota</small>
:<small>3-be/SUBJ-DU ''f'' and ''g'' continuous-DU.F.NOM function-DU.NOM</small>
:''Let ''f'' and ''g'' be continuous functions...''
The subjunctive (like the imperative) is negated with the negative particle ''la'', instead of ''bo''.
:'''''La li tošnej!'''''
:<small>la li=to-šne-i</small>
:<small>PROH 1SG.DAT=2-be_resentful/SUBJ-F.SG</small>
:''Don't be mad at me!''
:'''''La ho tačol!'''''
:<small>la ho=to-ʔčol-Ø</small>
:<small>PROH 3SG.M=2-eat/SUBJ-M.SG</small>
:''Don't eat it!''
====Imperative====
The imperative is formed by removing the personal prefix from the subjunctive. Often the subjunctive is used with imperative meaning instead. Any clitic pronouns must ''follow'' the imperative, not precede it like with other verb forms.
Imperative forms are often syncretic with present tense forms.
====Verbal noun====
Verbal nouns may be marked with a feminine suffix ''-c'', a preformative ''t-'' or both. Its use mirrors that of the ''maṣdar'' in Arabic.
====Participles====
*Present participle: {{recon|''qātilu''}}, {{recon|''mu-''}}
*Stative passive participle: {{recon|''qatīlu''}} (only G-stems)
*Past participle: {{recon|''qatālu''}}
====Future====
The most frequently used compound tense, the future tense is formed with ''de'' + subjunctive.
====Perfect====
The perfect construction is similar to Slavic: the past (also called resultative) participle is used with the present tense copula, the pronoun (a so called ''esse''-perfect).
====Pluperfect====
====Future perfect====
====Imperfect conditional====
====Preterite conditional====
===G-stems: ''jektól''===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | ''jektól'' 'he killed'
|-
! colspan="4" | Infinitive/Verbal noun
|-
| colspan="4" | ''kotlec''
|-
! colspan="4" | Present participle
|-
| colspan="4" | ''katel''
|-
! colspan="4" | Stative passive participle
|-
| colspan="4" | ''kotil''
|-
! colspan="4" | Past participle
|-
| colspan="4" | ''kotal''
|-
! colspan="4" | Imperative
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 2.m
| ''ktol!''
|rowspan="2"| ''ktola!'' || ''ktole!''
|-
! 2.f
| ''ktoli!'' || ''ktolno!''
|-
! 2.pol
|colspan="3"| ''ktoles!''
|-
! colspan="4" | Present
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''kotolok'' || ''kotolna'' || ''kotolne''
|-
! 2.m
| ''kotolto''
|rowspan="2"| ''kotoltma'' || ''kotoltme''
|-
! 2.f
| ''kotoloc'' || ''kotoltno''
|-
! 2.pol
|colspan="3"|''kotoltmes''
|-
! 3.m
| ''kotol''|| ''kotola'' || ''kotole''
|-
! 3.f
| ''kotola'' || ''kotolota'' || ''kotolno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Subjunctive
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''noktol'' || ''noktla'' || ''noktle''
|-
! 2.m
| ''toktol''
|rowspan="2"| ''toktla'' || ''toktle''
|-
! 2.f
| ''toktli'' || ''toktolno''
|-
! 2.pol
|colspan="3"|''toktles''
|-
! 3.m
| ''jektol''
|rowspan="2"| ''jektla'' || ''jektle''
|-
! 3.f
| ''jektli'' || ''jektolno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Imperfect
|-
| colspan="4"| ''Add ''fo-'' to present tense forms.''
|-
! colspan="4" | Preterite
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''noktól'' || ''noktóla'' || ''noktóle''
|-
! 2.m
| ''toktól''
|rowspan="2"| ''toktóla'' || ''toktóle''
|-
! 2.f
| ''toktóli'' || ''toktólno''
|-
! 2.pol
|colspan="3"|''toktóles''
|-
! 3.m
| ''jektól''
|rowspan="2"| ''jektóla'' || ''jektóle''
|-
! 3.f
| ''jektóli'' || ''jektólno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Future
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''de noktol'' || ''de noktla'' || ''de noktle''
|-
! 2.m
| ''de toktol''
|rowspan="2"| ''de toktla'' || ''de toktle''
|-
! 2.f
| ''de toktli'' || ''de toktolno''
|-
! 2.pol
|colspan="3"|''de toktles''
|-
! 3.m
| ''de jektol''
|rowspan="2"| ''de jektla'' || ''de jektle''
|-
! 3.f
| ''de jektli'' || ''de jektolno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Future perfect
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1.m
| ''de nočon kotol''|| ''de nočna kotla'' || ''de nočne kotle''
|-
! 1.f
| ''de nočon kotla'' || ''de nočna kotlota'' || ''de nočne kotlác''
|-
! 2.m
| ''de točon kotol'' || ''de točna kotla'' || ''de točne kotle''
|-
! 2.f
| ''de točni kotla''|| ''de točna kotlota'' || ''de točonno kotlác''
|-
! 2.pol
|colspan="3"|''de točnes kotle''
|-
! 3.m
| ''de ječon kotol'' || ''de ječna kotla'' || ''de ječne kotle''
|-
! 3.f
| ''de ječni kotla''|| ''de ječna kotlota'' ||  ''de ječonno kotlác''
|-
! colspan="4" | Perfect
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1.m
| ''nák kotol'' || ''nahna kotla'' || ''nahne kotle''
|-
! 1.f
| ''nák kotla'' || ''nahna kotlota'' || ''nahne kotlác''
|-
! 2.m
| ''ǫto kotol'' || ''ǫtma kotla'' || ''ǫtme kotle''
|-
! 2.f
| ''ǫc kotla'' || ''ǫtma kotlota'' || ''ǫtno kotlác''
|-
! 2.pol
|colspan="3"|''ǫtmes kotle''
|-
! 3.m
| ''(he) kotol'' || ''(homa) kotla'' || ''(home) kotle''
|-
! 3.f
| ''(hi) kotla'' || ''(homa) kotlota'' || ''(hen) kotlác''
|-
! colspan="4" | Pluperfect
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1.m
| ''nočen kotol'' || ''nočena kotla'' || ''nočene kotle''
|-
! 1.f
| ''nočen kotla'' || ''nočena kotlota'' || ''nočene kotlác''
|-
! 2.m
| ''točen kotol'' || ''točena kotla'' || ''točene kotle''
|-
! 2.f
| ''točeni kotla'' || ''točena kotlota'' || ''točenno kotlác''
|-
! 2.pol
|colspan="3"|''točenes kotle''
|-
! 3.m
| ''ječen kotol'' || ''ječena kotla'' || ''ječene kotle''
|-
! 3.f
| ''ječeni kotla'' || ''ječena kotlota'' || ''ječenno kotlác''
|}
===N-stems: ''jękotál''===
===D-stems: ''jekótél, jękótél''===
Examples: ''jobóréč'' 'greet, celebrate', ''joþójém'' 'bring up in conversation, build upon a concept' (< ''þima'' 'topic, theme')
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | ''jopóléž'' 'split (something)'
|-
! colspan="4" | Infinitive/Verbal noun
|-
| colspan="4" | ''pólžíc''
|-
! colspan="4" | Present Participle
|-
| colspan="4" | ''mopólež''
|-
! colspan="4" | Imperative
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 2.m
| ''pólež!''
|rowspan="2"| ''pólža!'' || ''pólže!''
|-
! 2.f
| ''pólži!'' || ''póležno!''
|-
! colspan="4" | Subjunctive
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''nopólež'' || ''nopólža'' || ''nopólže''
|-
! 2.m
| ''topólež''
|rowspan="2"| ''topólža'' || ''topólže''
|-
! 2.f
| ''topólži'' || ''topóležno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''jepólež''
|rowspan="2"| ''jepólža'' || ''jepólže''
|-
! 3.f
| ''jepólži'' || ''jepóležno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Preterite
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''nopóléž'' || ''nopóléža'' || ''nopóléže''
|-
! 2.m
| ''topóléž''
|rowspan="2"| ''topóléža'' || ''topóléže''
|-
! 2.f
| ''topóléži'' || ''topóléžno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''jepóléž'' || ''jepóléža'' || ''jepóléže''
|-
! 3.f
| ''jepóléži'' || ''jepóléža'' || ''jepóléžno''
|}
===Š-stems: ''soktel, ęsoktel''===
===Gt-stems: ''ektotel''===
The {{angbr|''t''}}-infix adds a reciprocal or mediopassive meaning to the verb.
====Metathesis of {{angbr|''t''}}====
Kinda like Hebrew but weirder.
The {{angbr|''t''}} metathesizes out of the stem and dissimilates when the first radical is:
*''t'': {{recon|''tt''}} > ''st''
*''c'': {{recon|''ct''}} > ''sc''
*''d'': {{recon|''dt''}} > ''zd''
*''þ'': {{recon|''þt''}} > ''sþ''
Metathesis also takes place when the first radical is ''m'' and ''n'' to better distinguish ''m'' from ''n'':
*''m'': {{recon|''mt''}} > ''tm''
*''n'': {{recon|''nt''}} > ''tn''
The infix voices after the following voiced obstruents:
*''b'': {{recon|''bt''}} > ''bd''
*''v'': {{recon|''vt''}} > ''vd''
*''z'': {{recon|''zt''}} > ''zd''
*''ž'': {{recon|''žt''}} > ''žd''
*''g'': {{recon|''gt''}} > ''gd''
===Št-stems: ''stoktol, ęstoktal''===
===''čan'' 'be, exist'===
The verb ''čan'' has no present tense indicative forms. It also has no imperfective-perfective distinction in the past or future. In the present indicative, pronouns are used as the copula, and the word ''jef'' is used to indicate existence.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | ''čanec, čon, jočen, čan, čun'' 'be'
|-
! colspan="4" | Infinitive/Verbal noun
|-
| colspan="4" | ''čanec''
|-
! colspan="4" | Present Participle
|-
| colspan="4" | ''čun''
|-
! colspan="4" | Past Participle
|-
| colspan="4" | ''čan''
|-
! colspan="4" | Imperative
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 2.m
| ''čon!''
|rowspan="2"| ''čona!'' || ''čone!''
|-
! 2.f
| ''čoni!'' || ''čonno!''
|-
! colspan="4" | Present
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| (''nák'') || (''nahna'') || (''nahne'')
|-
! 2.m
| (''ǫto'')
|rowspan="2"| (''ǫtma'') || (''ǫtme'')
|-
! 2.f
| (''ǫc'') || (''ǫtno'')
|-
! 3.m
| (''e'')
|rowspan="2"| (''oma'') || (''ome'')
|-
! 3.f
| (''i'') || (''en'')
|-
! colspan="4" | Past
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''nočen'' || ''nočena'' || ''nočene''
|-
! 2.m
| ''točen''
|rowspan="2"| ''točena'' || ''točene''
|-
! 2.f
| ''točeni'' || ''jočenno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''ječen''
|rowspan="2"| ''ječena'' || ''ječene''
|-
! 3.f
| ''ječeni'' || ''ječenno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Future
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''de nočon'' || ''de nočna'' || ''de nočne''
|-
! 2.m
| ''de točon''
|rowspan="2"| ''de točna'' || ''de točne''
|-
! 2.f
| ''de točni'' || ''de točonno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''de ječon''
|rowspan="2"| ''de ječna'' || ''de ječne''
|-
! 3.f
| ''de ječni'' || ''de ječonno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Subjunctive
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''nočon'' || ''nočna'' || ''nočne''
|-
! 2.m
| ''točon''
|rowspan="2"| ''točna'' || ''točne''
|-
! 2.f
| ''točni'' || ''točonno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''jočon''
|rowspan="2"| ''jočna'' || ''jočne''
|-
! 3.f
| ''jočni'' || ''jočonno''
|}
==Interrogatives==
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Interrogatives
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|Gloss
!|Etymology
|-
||''ma''|| what || {{recon|''mā''}}
|-
||''mǫ''|| who || {{recon|''man''}}
|-
||''mur''|| when || {{recon|''mā''}} + Ancient Greek ''hōra'' 'time'
|-
||''vilma''|| why || ''vil'' 'for' + ''ma'' 'what'
|}
==Prepositions==
Prepositions overwhelmingly govern the genitive case; exceptions are marked.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Prepositions
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|Gloss
!|Etymology
|-
||''cat''|| under || {{recon|''taħt''}}
|-
||''čun''|| (+ varies) as || present participle of ''ječen'' 'be'
|-
||''in''|| in, towards, into || {{recon|''ʔin(a)''}}
|-
||''me''|| from, with || {{recon|''min''}}; Greek ''me''
|-
||''qę''|| between, among|| {{recon|''ʕimm-''}}
|-
||''qolē''|| on || {{recon|''ʕalay''}}
|-
||''vil'' || for ||
|-
||''smǫ'' || named, by the name of || {{recon|''šman''}}
|}
==Conjunctions==
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Conjunctions
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|Gloss
!|Etymology
|-
||''v(o)''|| and || {{recon|''wa-''}}
|-
||''éla''|| or || {{recon|''ʔim lā''}}
|-
||''u''|| xor || {{recon|''ʔaw''}}
|-
||''vén''|| so, thus || {{recon|''wa-hinna''}} 'and lo'
|-
||''ča'' || as ||
|-
||''no''|| subjunctive || {{recon|''ʔan(na)''}}, {{recon|''-anna''}}
|-
||''jēj''|| if || {{recon|''yahwī''}}
|-
||''lu''|| if (contrary-to-fact) || {{recon|''law''}}
|-
||''po''|| then, so || {{recon|''pa-''}}
|-
||''onur''|| when || {{recon|''han-hōra''}} or {{recon|''ʔana hōra''}}
|}
==Particles==
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Particles
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|Gloss
!|Etymology
|-
||''o''|| polar question || {{recon|''ha-''}}
|-
||''bo''|| not (indicative) || {{recon|''bal''}}
|-
||''la''|| not (irrealis, nominal negation) || {{recon|''lā''}}
|}
==Usage==
===Nominal sentences===
As in most Semitic and many Slavic languages, present indicative does not require a copula:
:'''''Eláh ibošorí.''''' (also: ''Eláh e ibošorí.'' Obviously, a Muslim might say ''Alláh (e) ibošorí.'')
:<small>Eláh-Ø i-bošorí-Ø</small>
:<small>God-SG.NOM non-bodily-SG.NOM</small>
:''God is incorporeal.''
===Possession===
The possessor follows the possessum.
Possession is emphasized with the adjective ''nopsí'' (the pronoun is optional):
:'''''me jodēcē {{blue|nopsícē}}'''''
:<small>me jod-ēcē nopsí-ēcē</small>
:<small>with hand-DU.GEN.DEF own-DU.F.GEN.DEF</small>
:''with one's [the subject's] own hands''
Emphasized possession of possessed nouns: e.g. ''bn'''i''' nopsív'' 'my own son', cf. ''bēc'''ov''' nopsív li'' 'my own house'.
===Existentials===
In positive clauses, ''hén'' is used as the word for "there is"; in interrogative and negative clauses ''jef'' is used.
Existential words are used in predicative possession.
===Relative clauses===
As is the case in most European languages, but unlike in e.g. Arabic, relative pronouns agree with the gender and number of the head, but are case-marked for their syntactic position within the relative clause.
In elevated language, when the head represents the 1st or 2nd person, the verb or copula in the relative clause may be conjugated to that person:
:'''''Óle ǫtme la xotave rmeje obnov okdomov.'''''
:''Ye who have not sinned, cast the first stone.''
The choice of the relative pronoun depends on the definiteness/specificity of the noun. Specific referents use ''ve'' as the relative pronoun, whereas indefinite or hypothetical nouns use ''mǫ'' (animate)/''ma'' (inanimate).
===Sequence of tenses in subordinate clauses===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 500px; text-align: center;"
|-
!|Type
!|Form of protasis
!|Form of apodosis
|-
|gnomic; general present
|''jēj'' + present
|present
|-
|general past
|''jēj'' + imperfect
|imperfect
|-
|future
|''jēj'' + subjunctive
|{{abbtip|often the present in colloquial usage|future}}
|-
|counterfactual present/imperfect
|''lu'' + imperfect
|imperfect conditional
|-
|counterfactual preterite
|''lu'' + preterite
|preterite conditional
|}
==Derivational morphology==
===Patterns===
*''CoCCán'' 'person characterized by//associated with X", also ''-án''
**''rahmán'' 'merciful one' < {{recon|''r-ħ-m''}}
**''čovbán'' 'liar, deceitful person' < {{recon|''k-ð-b''}}
*''meCCoC'' place noun
**''mevbáh'' 'altar' < {{recon|''ð-b-ħ''}} 'sacrifice' (''altar, altarj-'' is more common though)
**''mesvój'' 'plain' < {{recon|''š-w-y''}} 'even, equal'
===Guidelines to internationalisms===
A heuristic: Transliterating from the Modern Hebrew form of the internationalism and adding any acute accents as necessary often yields a correct Socovíc form. lol
===Affixes===
*''aft(o)-'' 'self-, auto-'
**''aftokotlec'' 'suicide'
**''aftorahom'' 'self-pity' < ''rahom, rahm-'' 'compassion, mercy'
**''aftoqosor'' 'self-worth; eigenvalue' < ''qosor, qosr-'' 'value, worth'.
*''-cija'' '-tion'
**''funkcija'' '(mathematical) function'
*''-eza'' '-esis'
**''fotosinþeza'' 'photosynthesis'
*''i-'' 'un-', 'non-' (negative prefix for nouns and adjectives)
**''ibercí'' 'nonmetallic' < ''bercí'' 'metallic'
*''-í'' adjective (nisba) suffix
**''májí'' 'aquatic, aqueous' < ''máj'' 'water'
**''qomí'' 'national' < ''qom'' 'people, nation'
**''-ikí'' '-ic'
***''logikí'' 'logical' < ''logika'' 'logic' vs. ''logí'' '(of or pertaining to) throat'
**Some 'redundant' adjective suffixes may be omitted, more often than in English: ''mizoginí'' 'misogynistic' (cf. German ''misogyn'')
*''-íc'' abstract noun suffix from nouns and adjectives
**''nopsíc'' 'identity' < ''nopos, nops-'' 'self'
**''omeníc'' 'truth' < ''omen'' 'true'
**''onasíc'' 'humanity (human species)' < ''onase'' 'people (pl.)' (compare ''ęsíc'' 'humanity (being human)' < ''ęs'' 'person (sg.)'; cf. German ''Menschheit'' vs. ''Menschlichkeit'')
**''polaríc'' 'polarity' < ''polarí'' 'polar'
*''-ist'' '-ist'
**Again, not always used: ''mizogin'' 'misogynist'
*''-izom, -izm-'' '-ism'
**''šiqizom'' 'Shiˁism'
*''-loja'' (< Demotic Greek ''-loya'') '-logy'
** verbal prefixes borrowed from IE?
==Dialects==
Standard Socovíc (''standardija socovíc'') has the dual number and the feminine plural verb suffix ''-no''. Other dialects tend to omit one or both of these features.
===Greek-influenced===
*''c'' (in affixes) > ''s'': ''socovis'' : ''socovíc''
*f.pl. ending (all cases) is ''-as'', def. ''-alas''
*''e'' and ''ē'' merge to /e/
*Netagin-esque mutation?
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Adjective declension: ''tab'' 'good' (masculine)
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''tab'' || ''tab'''ov''''' || ''tab'''a''''' || ''tab'''ava''''' || ''tab'''e''''' || ''tab'''ele'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''tab'''o'' || ''tab'''ovo'' || ''tab'''e''''' || ''tab'''eve''''' || ''tab'''i''''' || ''tab'''ili'''''
|}
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Adjective declension: ''tab'' 'good' (feminine)
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''tab'''a''''' || ''tab'''es''''' || ''tab'''ota''''' || ''tab'''eta''''' || ''tab'''as''''' || ''tab'''alas'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''tab'''oto''''' || ''tab'''eto''''' || ''tab'''ose''''' || ''tab'''ese''''' || ''tab'''as''''' || ''tab'''alas'''''
|}
===Italian-influenced===
*Geminates are preserved; {{recon|VCC}} did not turn into {{recon|VːC}}
*{{recon|''ū''}} > {{recon|''y''}} merges into ''i'' rather than ''e''
**Plural verb ending is still ''-e''
*/q/ merges into /k/
*No gender distinction in plural
==Phrasebook==
*''Solám!'' 'Hello!'
*''Tabǫ ocēj!'' 'Welcome!' (to m.sg, decline as adjective according to gender/number of audience)
*''Tab mahár!'' 'Good morning!'
*''Tab júm!'' 'Good day!'
*''Taba mesa!'' 'Good evening!'
*''Taba lēl!'' 'Good night!'
*''Ma smov lókmes?'' 'What is your name?'
*''Smov li [name].'' 'My name is [name].'
*''Mótrok!'' 'Thank you!'
*''Staqpoves li!'' 'Excuse me!'
*''Oj vil ma!'' 'No worries!'
*''Čok.'' 'Yes.'
*''Bo.'' 'No.'
*''Bo mólúk socovíc.'' 'I don't speak {{PAGENAME}}.'
*''O mólútmes...'' 'Do you speak...'
**''...anglíc?'' '...English?'
**''...nēmcíc?'' '...German?'
**''...francíc?'' '...French?'
**''...rusíc?'' '...Russian?'
**''...ivaníc?'' '...Greek?'
**''...qebríc?'' '...Hebrew?'
**''...qorobíc?'' '...Arabic?'
==Texts==
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 1===
:'''''Čóle onasele jǫvolade horare v savije in qosrovo v tahikili.'''''
:<small>all-PL.M.NOM human.PL.DEF.NOM 3.PRES-beget/PASS-PL.M free-PL.M.NOM and equal-PL.M.NOM in worth-SG.DEF.INS and right-PL.DEF.INS</small>
:''All humans are born free and equal in dignity and rights.''
:'''''Mǫsečale me mosbáro v tostočíno, ome mǫpokade no joptaqle okrobokroblu in xnumoto oxovíto.'''''
:<small>PART-empower/PASS-PL.M.NOM with rationality-SG.GEN and conscience-SG.GEN 3.PL.M.NOM PART-obligate/PASS-PL.M.NOM SUBJ 3-behave/PRES-PL.M each_other-SG.M.DAT in spirit-SG.GEN brotherhood-SG.GEN</small>
:''Empowered with reason and conscience, they ought to behave toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
([[Media:Udhr_{{PAGENAME}}.ogg|audio]])
===Pater noster===
<poem>
''Obene, ov' ǫto in somájili!''
''Jektódas smov loko.''
''Jéce memlóčov loko.''
''Jępoqele roþív loko, ēma in somájili ēvi v in orþēto.''
''Xlebov lone jumív cen lone ojúm.''
''V staqpu lone xotálác lone, ēvi v nahne nostaqpove xotálác nož lone.''
''V la ne sabej in tonésíne, éla žal ne leč rogovo.''
''Amen.''
</poem>
===Schleicher's fable===
'''''Sovēc v porosele'''''
:''Sova vētla bo foječon qobáj jerí porosi; okdomov foježórer čobid merčab, okrobov fojeshab rób homol, v šolefov fojeshab ęso išǫ. Sovēc jamári porosili: «Lébov li márér onur rájok ęso mosožéro porosi.» Porosele jamáre: «Stosmeqi, sova, lébov lone márér onur rájne ve: ęs, baqlov, qošē noposlu qobájvobi sovēto ham molbes. Vén sovētla bo jef qobáj.» Somoqa ve, sovēc jebráhi in mesvójovo.''
([[Media:Schleicher_{{PAGENAME}}.ogg|audio]])
'''The Sheep and the Horses'''
:A sheep that had no wool saw horses; one was pulling a heavy wagon, one was carrying a big load, and one was carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me [lit. my heart is bitter] when I see a man driving horses." The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes out of the wool of the sheep a warm garment for himself. So the sheep has no wool." Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.
===A math joke (which probably already exists in quite a few languages)===
:'''''Vilma matricēc jektórádi?'''''
:''Why did the matrix crumple up?''
:'''''Pove lá foječon nul aftoqosor.'''''
:''Because it had a zero eigenvalue/zero self-worth.''
[[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Semitic languages]][[Category:A posteriori]]
IlL
139,286

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