Thangha': Difference between revisions

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Thangha' (view source)

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====Additive Plural====
====Additive Plural====


This is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the noun, except that the vowel is changed to schwa e.g. /ˈjəʔma/ (HL) [ˈjǽm̰à] - "llama" -> /jə-ˈjama/ (HL) [jɪ́ˈjǽm̰à] - "llamas". However, in Thangha', pluralisation is optional. So /ˈjəʔma/ (HL) could mean either "llama" or "llamas". In general, the plural is only used to emphasise that there is a large number / quantity of something. It can even be used for uncountable nouns e.g. /ˈsaⁿdə/ (HL) [ˈsândə̀] - sand (from a desert, Thangha' has a different word for beach sand) -> /sə-ˈsaⁿdə/ (HL) [sə́ˈsândə̀] - "large amount of desert sand / dune sea".
This is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the noun, except that the vowel is changed to schwa e.g. /ˈjəʔma/ (HL) [ˈjɪ̋m̰à] - "llama" -> /jə-ˈjama/ (HL) [jɪ́ˈjɪ̋m̰à] - "llamas". However, in Thangha', pluralisation is optional. So /ˈjəʔma/ (HL) could mean either "llama" or "llamas". In general, the plural is only used to emphasise that there is a large number / quantity of something. It can even be used for uncountable nouns e.g. /ˈsaⁿdə/ (HL) [ˈsândə̀] - sand (from a desert, Thangha' has a different word for beach sand) -> /sə-ˈsaⁿdə/ (HL) [sə́ˈsândə̀] - "large amount of desert sand / dune sea".


====Associative Plural====
====Associative Plural====
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Thangha' has three cases, Absolutive (unmarked), Genitive (marked with the prefix /wa-), and Ergative (marked with the prefix /pə-/).
Thangha' has three cases, Absolutive (unmarked), Genitive (marked with the prefix /wa-), and Ergative (marked with the prefix /pə-/).


e.g. /ˈməsa/ (H) - [ˈmə̋sá] - "mother" -> /wa-ˈməsa/ (H) - [wáˈmə̋sá] - "of the mother" -> /pə-ˈməsa/ (H) - [pə́ˈmə̋sá]
e.g. /ˈfazə/ (L) [ˈfȁzə̄] - father -> /waˈfazə/ (L) [wāˈfȁzə̄] - "of the father" -> /pəˈfazə/ (L) [pə̄ˈfȁzə̄] - "father" (ergative)


However, if the noun root begins with a voiceless obstruent, it becomes voiced e.g. /ˈtʷoʀa/ (L) [ˈtʷòʀɑ̄] - "shaman" -> /waˈdʷoʀa/ (L) [wāˈdʷòʀɑ̀] - "of the shaman" (not */waˈyʷoʀa/ (L)) -> /pə-ˈdʷoʀa/ (L) [pə̄ˈdʷòʀɑ̄] - "shaman" (ergative).
However, if the noun root begins with a voiceless obstruent, it becomes voiced e.g. /ˈtʷoʀa/ (L) [ˈtʷòʀɑ̄] - "shaman" -> /waˈdʷoʀa/ (L) [wāˈdʷòʀɑ̀] - "of the shaman" (not */waˈyʷoʀa/ (L)) -> /pə-ˈdʷoʀa/ (L) [pə̄ˈdʷòʀɑ̄] - "shaman" (ergative).
Also, if the noun root begins with a glottalised sonorant, it loses its glottalisation when it takes a prefix e.g. /ˈʔməsa/ (H) [ˈm̰ə̋sá] - "mother" -> /wa-ˈməsa/ (H) [wáˈmə̋sá] - "of the mother" -> /pə-ˈməsa/ (H) [pə́ˈmə̋sá] - "mother" (ergative).




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/ˈʔəkfa ʎə-ˈbedˤə qaˈɲəʔja/ (H) (HL) (H)
/ˈʔəkfa ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə qaˈɲəʔja/ (H) (HL) (H)


[ʔə̋kfá ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ qɐ́ˈɲɪ́j̰æ̀]
[ʔə̋kfá ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ qɐ́ˈɲɪ́j̰æ̀]


1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-bite 3PS.PAT
1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-bite 3PS.PAT
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/pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈɕeɳə/ (HL) (HL) (HL)
/pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈɕeɳə/ (HL) (HL) (HL)


[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈɕéɳʌ̀]
[pʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈɕéɳʌ̀]


dog-ERG ATEL-bite REFL.PAT
ERG-dog ATEL-bite REFL.PAT


The dog was biting itself.
The dog was biting itself.
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/pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ʔwȁⁿ ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (L) (HL)
/pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ʔwȁⁿ ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (L) (HL)


[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ʔwaⁿ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[pʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ʔwaⁿ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


dog-ERG ATEL-bite REFL.GEN bone
ERG-dog ATEL-bite REFL.GEN bone


The dog was biting its own bone.
The dog was biting its own bone.
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The reciprocal patientive pronoun is used where English would say "each other" or "one another". For example:
The reciprocal patientive pronoun is used where English would say "each other" or "one another". For example:


/pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈɕaⁿkfə/ (HL) (HL) (HL)
/pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈɕaⁿkfə/ (HL) (HL) (HL)


[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈɕǽŋkfə̀]
[pʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈɕǽŋkfə̀]


dog-ERG ATEL-bite RECP.PAT
ERG-dog ATEL-bite RECP.PAT


The dogs were biting each other.
The dogs were biting each other.
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/pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈtəʔʎə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL) (HL)
/pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈtəʔʎə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL) (HL)


[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈtɪ́ʎ̰ɪ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[pʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈtɪ́ʎ̰ɪ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


dog-ERG ATEL-bite RECP.PAT bone
ERG-dog ATEL-bite RECP.PAT bone


The dogs were biting each other's bones.
The dogs were biting each other's bones.
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! Voice !! Telic !! Atelic !! Negative !! Prohibitive
! Voice !! Telic !! Atelic !! Negative !! Prohibitive
|-
|-
| Default || ʔmʲaɲə- || ʎə- || na- || tʷaⁿ-
| Default || ʔmʲaɲə- || ʔʎə- || ʔna- || tʷaⁿ-
|-
|-
| Antipassive || ʔmʲaⁿma- || ʔʎama- || ʔnama- || N/A
| Antipassive || ʔmʲaⁿma- || ʔʎama- || ʔnama- || N/A
|-
|-
| Benefactive Applicative || ʔmʲaɲəqa- || ʎəka- || naka- || tʷaⁿka-
| Benefactive Applicative || ʔmʲaɲəqa- || ʔʎəka- || ʔnaka- || tʷaⁿka-
|-
|-
| Instrumental Applicative || ʔmʲaɲəʔpaⁿ- || ʎəpaⁿ- || napaⁿ- || tʷaⁿpaⁿ--
| Instrumental Applicative || ʔmʲaɲəʔpaⁿ- || ʔʎəpaⁿ- || ʔnapaⁿ- || tʷaⁿpaⁿ--
|}
|}


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However, for verb roots that begin with voiceless obstruents all the prefixes except the default telic voice prefix /ʔmʲaɲə-/ cause lenition to voiced obstruents e.g.
However, for verb roots that begin with voiceless obstruents all the prefixes except the default telic voice prefix /ʔmʲaɲə-/ cause lenition to voiced obstruents e.g.


/ˈpedˤə/ (HL) - "to bite" (root) -> /ʔmʲaɲə-ˈpedˤə/ (HL) - "to bite" (telic), but /ʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (HL) - "to bite" (atelic).
/ˈpedˤə/ (HL) - "to bite" (root) -> /ʔmʲaɲə-ˈpedˤə/ (HL) - "to bite" (telic), but /ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (HL) - "to bite" (atelic).




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/pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL)
/pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL)


[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[pʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


ERG-dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS
ERG-dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS
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/ˈtʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL)
/ˈtʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL)


[ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS
dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS
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/ˈpəʔwəⁿ pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (HL) (HL) (HL)
/ˈpəʔwəⁿ pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (HL) (HL) (HL)


[ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀]
[ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ pʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀]


bone.ABS dog-ERG ATEL-bite
bone.ABS ERG-dog ATEL-bite


The bone was being bitten by the dog.
The bone was being bitten by the dog.
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/ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL)
/ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL)


[ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


ATEL-bite bone.ABS
ATEL-bite bone.ABS
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/pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈtʷoʀa/ (HL) (HL) (L)
/pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈtʷoʀa/ (HL) (HL) (L)


[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄/
[pʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄/


dog-ERG ATEL-bite shaman.ABS
ERG-dog ATEL-bite shaman.ABS


A dog was biting the shaman.
A dog was biting the shaman.
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/pə-ˈdʷogə ʎəka-ˈbedˤə ˈxeⁿda tə=ˈtʷoʀa/
/pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎəka-ˈbedˤə ˈxeⁿda tə=ˈtʷoʀa/


[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́káˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈχɛ̋ndá tʊ̄ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄/
[pʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́káˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈχɛ̋ndá tʊ̄ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄/


dog-ERG ATEL.BEN.APPL-bite shepherd.ABS DAT=shaman
ERG-dog ATEL.BEN.APPL-bite shepherd.ABS DAT=shaman


A dog was biting the shaman for the shepherd (maybe the shepherd ordered it to attack the boss).
A dog was biting the shaman for the shepherd (maybe the shepherd ordered it to attack the boss).
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===Instrumental Applicative Voice===
===Instrumental Applicative Voice===


This functions in a similar way to the benefactive applicative voice. The noun that would normally take the plain absolutive case (i.e. the subject of an intransitive verb, or the direct object of a transitive verb) goes to the end of the sentence and takes the prepositional clitic /dəʔ/. Whatever the subject used to complete the action takes the absolutive case, and is not marked with a preposition e.g.
This functions in a similar way to the benefactive applicative voice. The noun that would normally take the plain absolutive case (i.e. the subject of an intransitive verb, or the direct object of a transitive verb) goes to the end of the sentence and takes the prepositional clitic /tə/. Whatever the subject used to complete the action takes the absolutive case, and is not marked with a preposition e.g.




/pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈtʷoʀa/ (HL) (HL) (L)
/pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈtʷoʀa/ (HL) (HL) (L)


[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄/
[pʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄/


dog-ERG ATEL-bite shaman.ABS
ERG-dog ATEL-bite shaman.ABS


A dog was biting the shaman.
A dog was biting the shaman.
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/pə-ˈdʷogə ʎəpaⁿ-ˈbedˤə ˈʔɲəʔja ˈɕəʀə ˈtaⁿtə təʔ=ˈtʷoʀa/ (HL) (HL) (H) (L) (HL) (L)
/pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎəpaⁿ-ˈbedˤə ˈʔɲəʔja ˈɕəʀə ˈtaⁿtə təʔ=ˈtʷoʀa/ (HL) (HL) (H) (L) (HL) (L)


[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́pám-ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ɲ̰ɪ́j̰æ̀ʔ ˈɕɘ̏ʀɘ̄ ˈtântə̀ tʊ̄ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄]
[pʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́pám-ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ɲ̰ɪ́j̰æ̀ʔ ˈɕɘ̏ʀɘ̄ ˈtântə̀ tʊ̄ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄]


dog-ERG ATEL.INSTR.APPL-bite 3PS.GEN sharp tooth.ABS DAT=shaman
ERG-dog ATEL.INSTR.APPL-bite 3PS.GEN sharp tooth.ABS DAT=shaman


A dog was biting the shaman with its sharp teeth.
A dog was biting the shaman with its sharp teeth.
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==Copula==
==Copula==


The Thangha' copula /pʲə/ (L) is a verb that conjugates regularly like all of the others. Note that for it to correspond to English "to be", it must take the atelic aspect, so in the default voice it is /ʎə-ˈbʲə/. If it takes the telic aspect (i.e. becoming /ʔmʲaɲə-ˈpʲə/ in the default voice), it means "to become".
The Thangha' copula /pʲə/ (L) is a verb that conjugates regularly like all of the others. Note that for it to correspond to English "to be", it must take the atelic aspect, so in the default voice it is /ʔʎə-ˈbʲə/. If it takes the telic aspect (i.e. becoming /ʔmʲaɲə-ˈpʲə/ in the default voice), it means "to become".


Note that the copula counts as a transitive verb, so the subject generally takes the ergative case e.g.
Note that the copula counts as a transitive verb, so the subject generally takes the ergative case e.g.




/pəˈxeⁿda ʎə-ˈbʲə ˈtʷoʀa/ (H) (L) (L)
/pəˈxeⁿda ʔʎə-ˈbʲə ˈtʷoʀa/ (H) (L) (L)


[pə́ˈxe̋ndá ʎɪ̄ˈbʲɪ̏ ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄]
[pə́ˈxe̋ndá ʎ̰ɪ̄ˈbʲɪ̏ ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄]


shepherd-ERG ATEL-be shaman.ABS
shepherd-ERG ATEL-be shaman.ABS
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/ˈxeⁿda ʎə-ˈbʲə ˈtʷoʀa/ (H) (L) (L)
/ˈxeⁿda ʔʎə-ˈbʲə ˈtʷoʀa/ (H) (L) (L)


[ˈχɛ̋ndá ʎɪ̄ˈbʲɪ̏ ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄]
[ˈχɛ̋ndá ʎ̰ɪ̄ˈbʲɪ̏ ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄]


shepherd.TOP ATEL-be shaman.ABS
shepherd.TOP ATEL-be shaman.ABS
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===Predicative Adjectives===
===Predicative Adjectives===


However, when an adjective is used as a predicate, the copula verb is not used. Instead, the adjective is verbalised, taking the atelic prefix ʎə- and becoming an intranstive verb (so the subject will not take the ergative case) e.g.
However, when an adjective is used as a predicate, the copula verb is not used. Instead, the adjective is verbalised, taking the atelic prefix ʔʎə- and becoming an intranstive verb (so the subject will not take the ergative case) e.g.




/ˈtaⁿtə wa-ˈdʷogə ʎəˈʑəʀə/ (HL) (HL) (L)
/ˈtaⁿtə wa-ˈdʷogə ʔʎəˈʑəʀə/ (HL) (HL) (L)


[ˈtântə̀ wá-ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ̄ˈʑɘ̏ʀʌ̄]
[ˈtântə̀ wá-ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ̄ˈʑɘ̏ʀʌ̄]


tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp
tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp
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===Locative Verb===
===Locative Verb===


Unlike English, to express location, Thangha' speakers use a different verb to the copula. This is /ˈsadˤə/ (HL), which usually takes an atelic prefix to become /ʎəˈzadˤə/. For example:
Unlike English, to express location, Thangha' speakers use a different verb to the copula. This is /ˈsadˤə/ (HL), which usually takes an atelic prefix to become /ʔʎəˈzadˤə/. For example:




/ʎəˈzadˤə ˈʔjiːtə ʔɲəʀə=ˈtʷoʀa/ (HL) (HL) (L)
/ʔʎəˈzadˤə ˈʔjiːtə ʔɲəʀə=ˈtʷoʀa/ (HL) (HL) (L)


[ʎɪˈzɑ́dˤʌ̀ ˈj̰êːdˤʌ̀ ɲ̰ɘ̄ʀɔ̄ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄]
[ʎɪˈzɑ́dˤʌ̀ ˈj̰êːdˤʌ̀ ɲ̰ɘ̄ʀɔ̄ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄]
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Inside a relative clause, subjects must always be marked with the ergative case marker e.g.
Inside a relative clause, subjects must always be marked with the ergative case marker e.g.


/ˈpəʔwəⁿ xaⁿ=pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (HL) (HL) (HL)
/ˈpəʔwəⁿ xaⁿ=pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (HL) (HL) (HL)


[ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ χɒ́mbʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀]
[ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ χɒ́mbʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀]


bone REL=ERG-dog ATEL-bite
bone REL=ERG-dog ATEL-bite
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/ˈtʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL)
/ˈtʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL)


[ˈtʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[ˈtʷúgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS
dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS
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/pa ˈtʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (H) (HL) (HL) (HL)
/pa ˈtʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (H) (HL) (HL) (HL)


[pa̋ ˈtʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[pa̋ ˈtʷúgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


Q dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS
Q dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS
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/pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL)
/pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL)


[pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS
ERG-dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS


The dog was biting the bone (where the main emphasis of the speaker is to point out that the dog was biting the bone, and not a cat)
The dog was biting the bone (where the main emphasis of the speaker is to point out that the dog was biting the bone, and not a cat)




/pa pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL)
/pa pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL)


[pa̋ pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[pa̋ pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS
Q ERG-dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS


Was the dog biting the bone? (or was it something else)
Was the dog biting the bone? (or was it something else)




/ˈpəʔwəⁿ pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (HL) (HL) (HL)
/ˈpəʔwəⁿ pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (HL) (HL) (HL)


[ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀]
[ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀]


bone.TOP ERG-dog ATEL-bite
bone.TOP ERG-dog ATEL-bite
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/pa ˈpəʔwəⁿ pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (H) (HL) (HL) (HL)
/pa ˈpəʔwəⁿ pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (H) (HL) (HL) (HL)


[pa̋ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀]
[pa̋ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀]


bone.TOP ERG-dog ATEL-bite
bone.TOP ERG-dog ATEL-bite
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/ˈtʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə cəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (L)
/ˈtʷogə ʔʎə-ˈbedˤə cəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (L)


[ˈtʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ cȅⁿ]
[ˈtʷùgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ cȅⁿ]


dog-TOP ATEL-bite what
dog-TOP ATEL-bite what
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/cəⁿ fʲe/ (L) (H) [cȅⁿ fʲi̋] - "how" (literally "what method")
/cəⁿ fʲe/ (L) (H) [cȅⁿ fʲi̋] - "how" (literally "what method")


/cəⁿ ʎəfiː/ (L) (H) [cȅⁿ ʎɪ́ˈfʲi̋ː] - "why" (literally "what reason")
/cəⁿ ʔʎəfiː/ (L) (H) [cȅⁿ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈfʲi̋ː] - "why" (literally "what reason")




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===Standard Intransitive Construction===
===Standard Intransitive Construction===


To say "A has B" in Thangha', the standard way is for A (the possessor) to appear at the start of the sentence as a topic (in the absolutive case), followed by the verb /ˈtaʔa/ (H) - "to exist", taking the atelic prefix /ʎə-/, becoming /ʎə-ˈdaʔa/ (H). Finally, the possessed noun appears, also in the absolutive case. For example:
To say "A has B" in Thangha', the standard way is for A (the possessor) to appear at the start of the sentence as a topic (in the absolutive case), followed by the verb /ˈtaʔa/ (H) - "to exist", taking the atelic prefix /ʔʎə-/, becoming /ʔʎə-ˈdaʔa/ (H). Finally, the possessed noun appears, also in the absolutive case. For example:






/ˈtʷogə ʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (H) (HL)
/ˈtʷogə ʔʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (H) (HL)


[ˈtʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈda̋ʔá ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[ˈtʷúgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈda̋ʔá ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


dog.TOP ATEL-exist bone.ABS
dog.TOP ATEL-exist bone.ABS
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/pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (H) (HL)
/pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (H) (HL)


[pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈda̋ʔá ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈda̋ʔá ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


dog-ERG ATEL-have bone.ABS
ERG-dog ATEL-have bone.ABS


The dog has a bone.
The dog has a bone.
Line 938: Line 940:
Speakers tend to use the transitive construction when they wish to put focus on the possessor i.e. in the above case, emphasise that it is the dog that has the bone, and not a cat / human etc. that has the bone. Speakers also use the transitive construction when they wish to topicalise the possessed noun e.g.
Speakers tend to use the transitive construction when they wish to put focus on the possessor i.e. in the above case, emphasise that it is the dog that has the bone, and not a cat / human etc. that has the bone. Speakers also use the transitive construction when they wish to topicalise the possessed noun e.g.


/ˈpəʔwəⁿ pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈdaʔa/ (HL) (HL) (H)
/ˈpəʔwəⁿ pə-ˈdʷogə ʔʎə-ˈdaʔa/ (HL) (HL) (H)


[ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈda̋ʔá]
[ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈda̋ʔá]


bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-have
bone.TOP ERG-dog ATEL-have


The bone belongs to the dog.
The bone belongs to the dog.
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/ˈʔəkfa ʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (H) (H) (HL)
/ˈʔəkfa ʔʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (H) (H) (HL)


[ˈʔə̋kfá ʎɪ́ˈda̋ʔá ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[ˈʔə̋kfá ʎ̰ɪ́ˈda̋ʔá ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-have bone
1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-have bone
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/ˈʔaɟəⁿ ʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (H) (HL)
/ˈʔaɟəⁿ ʔʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (H) (HL)


[ˈʔæ̋ɟèⁿ ʎɪ́ˈda̋ʔá ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[ˈʔæ̋ɟèⁿ ʎ̰ɪ́ˈda̋ʔá ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


1PS.SG.PAT ATEL-have bone
1PS.SG.PAT ATEL-have bone
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The prepositional clitic /ʔapəⁿ/ literally means "above", but is also used to mean "more than" e.g.
The prepositional clitic /ʔapəⁿ/ literally means "above", but is also used to mean "more than" e.g.


/ˈtaⁿtə wa-ˈdʷogə ʎəˈʑəʀə ʔapəⁿ=ˈʔɲəʔja ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (L) (H) (HL)
/ˈtaⁿtə wa-ˈdʷogə ʔʎəˈʑəʀə ʔapəⁿ=ˈʔɲəʔja ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (L) (H) (HL)


[ˈdantəʔ wɔ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ̄ˈʑɘ̏ʀʌ̄ ʔápɪ́ɲ=ɲ̰ɪ̋j̰æ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]
[ˈdantəʔ wɔ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎ̰ɪ̄ˈʑɘ̏ʀʌ̄ ʔápɪ́ɲ=ɲ̰ɪ̋j̰æ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]


tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp above 3PS.GEN bone
tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp above 3PS.GEN bone


The dog's teeth are sharper than its bones.
The dog's teeth are sharper than its bones.
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