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====Voiceless Plosives==== | ====Voiceless Plosives==== | ||
/p/ This is a bilabial voiceless stop [p]. It is unaspirated with voicing occurring very shortly after its release. It may occur in onset and coda position. In coda position before a following consonant it is unreleased with the release occurring on the following onset consonant. Phrase finally it is usually unreleased but this varies by speaker. Examples: '''oωɾ''' /ʹpinda/ [ʹpindɐ] | /p/ This is a bilabial voiceless stop [p]. It is unaspirated with voicing occurring very shortly after its release. It may occur in onset and coda position. In coda position before a following consonant it is unreleased with the release occurring on the following onset consonant. Phrase finally it is usually unreleased but this varies by speaker. Examples: '''oωɾ''' /ʹpinda/ [ʹpindɐ] ''many''; '''coo''' /ʹsupa/ [ʹsupɐ] ''same''; '''ooɔ''' /ʹpupka/ [ʹpup˺ka] ''sick''; '''υυó''' /luʹlap/ [ɫuʹɫap˺ ~ ɫuʹɫap] ''I''.<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">3</span>. | ||
/t/ This is an alveolar voiceless stop [t]. There is some speaker variation as to its exact production. Women generally produce this sound apically whereas men have a tendency to produce this laminally, [t̻]. When it is produced laminally is may be slightly affricated as [t̻s] in pre-stressed position though affrication does not occur elsewhere. It is unaspirated with voicing occurring very shortly after its release. It may occur in onset and coda position. In coda position before a following consonant it is unreleased with the release occurring on the following onset consonant. Phrase finally it is usually unreleased but this varies by speaker. Examples: '''ɾɾυ''' /ʹtidla/ [ʹtidɫɐ ~ ʹt̻idɫɐ ~ ʹt̻<sup>s</sup>idɫɐ] | /t/ This is an alveolar voiceless stop [t]. There is some speaker variation as to its exact production. Women generally produce this sound apically whereas men have a tendency to produce this laminally, [t̻]. When it is produced laminally is may be slightly affricated as [t̻s] in pre-stressed position though affrication does not occur elsewhere. It is unaspirated with voicing occurring very shortly after its release. It may occur in onset and coda position. In coda position before a following consonant it is unreleased with the release occurring on the following onset consonant. Phrase finally it is usually unreleased but this varies by speaker. Examples: '''ɾɾυ''' /ʹtidla/ [ʹtidɫɐ ~ ʹt̻idɫɐ ~ ʹt̻<sup>s</sup>idɫɐ] ''coin''; '''oɾɾ''' /ʹpita/ [ʹpitɐ ~ ʹpit̻a] ''to crave''; '''oɾɔ''' /ʹpitka/ [ʹpit˺kɐ ~ ʹpit̻˺kɐ] ''already''; '''ɾ́ɾɾ''' /at/ [ɐt˺ ~ ɐt̻˺ ~ ɐt ~ ɐt̻] ''it.present''.<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1</span>. | ||
/c/ This is generally described as a palatal voiceless stop [c] though there is allophonic variation as well as speaker variation. Allophonically this becomes [c̠] when followed by a non-front vowel, so when followed by /a/ or /u/. Many speakers also slightly affricate this sound to [cç ~ c̠ç̠] in pre-stress position. The pronunciation [ç] may also be heard in any position but is generally stigmatised. It is unaspirated with voicing occurring very shortly after its release. It may occur in onset and coda position. In coda position before a following consonant it is unreleased with the release occurring on the following onset consonant. Phrase finally it is usually unreleased but this varies by speaker. Examples: '''nɾʌ''' /ʹcidra/ [cidɾɐ ~ cçidɾɐ ~ çidɾɐ] | /c/ This is generally described as a palatal voiceless stop [c] though there is allophonic variation as well as speaker variation. Allophonically this becomes [c̠] when followed by a non-front vowel, so when followed by /a/ or /u/. Many speakers also slightly affricate this sound to [cç ~ c̠ç̠] in pre-stress position. The pronunciation [ç] may also be heard in any position but is generally stigmatised. It is unaspirated with voicing occurring very shortly after its release. It may occur in onset and coda position. In coda position before a following consonant it is unreleased with the release occurring on the following onset consonant. Phrase finally it is usually unreleased but this varies by speaker. Examples: '''nɾʌ''' /ʹcidra/ [cidɾɐ ~ cçidɾɐ ~ çidɾɐ] ''red''; '''nιo''' /ʹcuhpa/ [c̠uhpɐ ~ c̠çuhpɐ ~ çuhpa] ''big''; '''ιnn''' /ʹhica/ [ʹhic̠ɐ] ''late''; '''υnn:n''' /ʹlicic/ [ʹɫicic˺ ~ ɫicic ~ ʹɫiçiç] ''baby''-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span>; '''υnɾ''' /ʹlicta/ [ʹɫic˺tɐ ~ ʹɫic˺t̻ɐ] ''arm''. | ||
/k/ This is generally described as a velar voiceless stop [k] though there is allophonic variation. This sound becomes [k̟] allophonically before the front vowel /i/ and as such it forms a near merger with [c̠] mentioned above, though the two sounds occur in different environments and are recoverable if the following vowel is altered. It may occur in onset and coda position. In coda position before a following consonant it is unreleased with the release occurring on the following onset consonant. Phrase finally it is usually unreleased but this varies by speaker. Examples: '''ɔʌυ''' /ʹkila/ [ʹk̟iɫɐ] | /k/ This is generally described as a velar voiceless stop [k] though there is allophonic variation. This sound becomes [k̟] allophonically before the front vowel /i/ and as such it forms a near merger with [c̠] mentioned above, though the two sounds occur in different environments and are recoverable if the following vowel is altered. It may occur in onset and coda position. In coda position before a following consonant it is unreleased with the release occurring on the following onset consonant. Phrase finally it is usually unreleased but this varies by speaker. Examples: '''ɔʌυ''' /ʹkila/ [ʹk̟iɫɐ] ''abyss''; '''ɔυɔ''' /ʹkuga/ [ʹkugɐ] ''wall''; '''ɔɔɔ''' /ʹkuka/ [kukɐ] ''earth''; '''ɔɔɔ:ω''' /ʹkukin/ [ʹkuk̟in] ''earth''-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span>; '''ɔιɔ''' /kuʹhak/ [kuʹhak˺ ~ kuʹhak] ''gold''.<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">3</span>. | ||
====Voiced Plosives==== | ====Voiced Plosives==== | ||
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The voiced plosives are only marginally phonemic. In the earliest forms of Mila if a voiceless plosive and /s/ is preceded and followed by voiced sounds within the same word then the plosive will become voiced. As such voiced plosives were formerly only allophones of the voiceless plosives. Some language changes have occurred such that pronouns (and in one case a suffix) are shortened in common speech which has meant that voiced plosives now occur word initially in a limited number of words and [d] may occur word finally in words with the suffix ''':υɾ''' [-ud]. Also degemination has meant that former voiceless geminates are now simplex voiceless sounds which appear intervocalically, so in a position which previously triggered voicing. Their distribution is however very limited so can at best only be described as marginally phonemic. The Mila orthography does not have separate symbols for these sounds although the Romanisation does indicate them. Mila scholars therefore enjoy debating the status of these sounds, with purists denying their existence and looking at the phonology from a historic perspective, with progressives accepting them. | The voiced plosives are only marginally phonemic. In the earliest forms of Mila if a voiceless plosive and /s/ is preceded and followed by voiced sounds within the same word then the plosive will become voiced. As such voiced plosives were formerly only allophones of the voiceless plosives. Some language changes have occurred such that pronouns (and in one case a suffix) are shortened in common speech which has meant that voiced plosives now occur word initially in a limited number of words and [d] may occur word finally in words with the suffix ''':υɾ''' [-ud]. Also degemination has meant that former voiceless geminates are now simplex voiceless sounds which appear intervocalically, so in a position which previously triggered voicing. Their distribution is however very limited so can at best only be described as marginally phonemic. The Mila orthography does not have separate symbols for these sounds although the Romanisation does indicate them. Mila scholars therefore enjoy debating the status of these sounds, with purists denying their existence and looking at the phonology from a historic perspective, with progressives accepting them. | ||
/b/ This is the voiced equivalent of /p/. It is a voiced bilabial stop [b]. It occurs marginally in initial position in unstressed shortened versions of some pronouns and is also possible in loan words which begin with a voiced bilabial. In this position voicing starts prior to the stop closure and manifests itself as prenasalisation. Its usual position is intervocalically or in a voiced environment and as such historically was an allophone of /p/ but degemination and shortenings have allowed for its phonemic status. It never occurs in word final position. Examples: '''ooó''' /ba/ [<sup>m</sup>bɐ] | /b/ This is the voiced equivalent of /p/. It is a voiced bilabial stop [b]. It occurs marginally in initial position in unstressed shortened versions of some pronouns and is also possible in loan words which begin with a voiced bilabial. In this position voicing starts prior to the stop closure and manifests itself as prenasalisation. Its usual position is intervocalically or in a voiced environment and as such historically was an allophone of /p/ but degemination and shortenings have allowed for its phonemic status. It never occurs in word final position. Examples: '''ooó''' /ba/ [<sup>m</sup>bɐ] ''it.absent''.3; '''υoʌ''' /ʹlubra/ [ʹɫubɾɐ] ''enemy''; '''υυo''' /ʹluba/ [ʹɫubɐ] ''I''. | ||
/d/ This is a voiced alveolar stop [d]. It does not display the speaker variation present for /t/ so may not be produced laminally and it also therefore resists affrication. As it has historically evolved from an allophone of /t/ its environments are more restricted than the voiceless stops. It may occur initially in unstressed shortened versions of some pronouns and is also possible in loan word which begin with a voiced alveolar. In this position voicing starts prior to the stop closure and manifests itself as prenasalisation. Its usual position is intervocalically or in a voiced environment. It may also occur in coda position in the isolated ending ''':υɾ''' /-ud/ | /d/ This is a voiced alveolar stop [d]. It does not display the speaker variation present for /t/ so may not be produced laminally and it also therefore resists affrication. As it has historically evolved from an allophone of /t/ its environments are more restricted than the voiceless stops. It may occur initially in unstressed shortened versions of some pronouns and is also possible in loan word which begin with a voiced alveolar. In this position voicing starts prior to the stop closure and manifests itself as prenasalisation. Its usual position is intervocalically or in a voiced environment. It may also occur in coda position in the isolated ending ''':υɾ''' /-ud/ ''doer''. In coda position it is usually unreleased but this varies by speaker. Examples: '''ɾɾɾ́''' /da/ [<sup>n</sup>dɐ] ''it.present''.3; '''υɾω''' /ʹlidna/ [ʹɫidnɐ] ''group''; '''υʌɾ''' /ʹlida/ [ʹɫidɐ] ''boy''; '''ɔυo:υɾ''' /ʹkubud/ [ʹkubud˺ ~ ʹkubud] ''supporter''. | ||
/ɟ/ This is generally a voiced palatal stop [ɟ] but it shows allophonic as well as speaker variation in much the same way as /c/. Allophonically this becomes [ɟ-] when followed by a non-front vowel, so when followed by /a/ or /u/. Many speakers also slightly affricate this sound to [ɟʝ ~ ɟ-ʝ] in pre-stress position. The pronunciation [ʝ] may also be heard in any position but is generally stigmatised. It may occur initially in unstressed shortened versions of some pronouns and is also possible in loan word which begin with a voiced palatal. In this position voicing starts prior to the stop closure and manifests itself as prenasalisation. Its usual position is intervocalically or in a voiced environment and as such historically was an allophone of /c/ but degemination and shortenings have allowed for its phonemic status. It never occurs in word-final position. Examples: '''nnń''' /ɟa/ [<sup>ɲ</sup>ɟ-ɐ] | /ɟ/ This is generally a voiced palatal stop [ɟ] but it shows allophonic as well as speaker variation in much the same way as /c/. Allophonically this becomes [ɟ-] when followed by a non-front vowel, so when followed by /a/ or /u/. Many speakers also slightly affricate this sound to [ɟʝ ~ ɟ-ʝ] in pre-stress position. The pronunciation [ʝ] may also be heard in any position but is generally stigmatised. It may occur initially in unstressed shortened versions of some pronouns and is also possible in loan word which begin with a voiced palatal. In this position voicing starts prior to the stop closure and manifests itself as prenasalisation. Its usual position is intervocalically or in a voiced environment and as such historically was an allophone of /c/ but degemination and shortenings have allowed for its phonemic status. It never occurs in word-final position. Examples: '''nnń''' /ɟa/ [<sup>ɲ</sup>ɟ-ɐ] ''it.visible''.3; '''υωn:ω''' /ʹlinɟin/ [ʹlinɟin] ''south''-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span>; '''ιnυ''' /hiɟla/ [hiɟlɐ] ''empty''; '''ɔʌn''' /ʹkiɟa/ [ʹk̟iɟ-ɐ] ''anvil''; '''ɔʌv:ω''' /ʹkiɟin/ [ʹkiɟin] ''anvil''-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span>. | ||
/ɡ/ This is a voiced velar stop [ɡ] which has allophonic variation in much the same way as /k/. This sound becomes [ɡ+] allophonically before the front vowel /i/ and as such it forms a near merger with [ɟ-] mentioned above, though the two sounds occur in different environments and are recoverable if the following vowel is altered. It does not occur in initial position. Its usual position is intervocalically or in a voiced environment and as such historically was an allophone of /k/ but degemination has allowed for its phonemic status. It never occurs in word final position. | /ɡ/ This is a voiced velar stop [ɡ] which has allophonic variation in much the same way as /k/. This sound becomes [ɡ+] allophonically before the front vowel /i/ and as such it forms a near merger with [ɟ-] mentioned above, though the two sounds occur in different environments and are recoverable if the following vowel is altered. It does not occur in initial position. Its usual position is intervocalically or in a voiced environment and as such historically was an allophone of /k/ but degemination has allowed for its phonemic status. It never occurs in word final position. Examples: '''vɔɷ''' /ʹjugma/ [ʹjugmɐ] ''beech''; '''ɔυɔ''' /ʹkuga/ [ʹkugɐ] ''wall''; '''ɔυɔ:ω''' /ʹkugin/ [ʹkug+in] ''wall''-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span>. | ||
Examples: '''vɔɷ''' /ʹjugma/ [ʹjugmɐ] | |||
====Nasals==== | ====Nasals==== | ||
/m/ This is the voiced bilabial nasal [m]. It becomes slightly devoiced when preceded or followed by /h/, but it is not fully devoiced. It may occur in both onset and coda position. Examples: '''ɷɷɷ''' /ʹmuma/ [ʹmumɐ] | /m/ This is the voiced bilabial nasal [m]. It becomes slightly devoiced when preceded or followed by /h/, but it is not fully devoiced. It may occur in both onset and coda position. Examples: '''ɷɷɷ''' /ʹmuma/ [ʹmumɐ] ''mouth''; '''vɷι''' /ʹjumha/ [ʹjumhɐ ~ ʹjum̥hɐ] ''bread''; '''vιɷ́''' /juʹham/ [juʹham] ''egg''.3. | ||
/n/ This is the voiced alveolar nasal [n]. It becomes slightly devoiced when preceded or followed by /h/, but it is not fully devoiced. It may occur in both onset and coda position. In the standard language, unlike in many other languages, it does not assimilate for place of articulation when followed by non-alveolar consonants. Examples: '''ωωω''' /ʹnina/ [ʹninɐ] | /n/ This is the voiced alveolar nasal [n]. It becomes slightly devoiced when preceded or followed by /h/, but it is not fully devoiced. It may occur in both onset and coda position. In the standard language, unlike in many other languages, it does not assimilate for place of articulation when followed by non-alveolar consonants. Examples: '''ωωω''' /ʹnina/ [ʹninɐ] ''smell''; '''ɔιω''' /ʹkuhna/ [ʹkuhnɐ ~ ʹkuhn̥ɐ] ''to jump''; '''ɷωo''' /ʹminba/ [ʹminbɐ] ''tale''; '''ɷɾώ''' /miʹdan/ [miʹdan] ''tongue''.3. | ||
====Fricatives==== | ====Fricatives==== | ||
/s/ This is the voiceless alveolar fricative [s]. There is some speaker variation as to its exact production. Women generally produce this sound apically with some retraction [s̺] whereas men generally produce this laminally, [s]. It may occur in onset or coda position. Examples: '''ccc''' /ʹsisa/ [ʹsisɐ ~ s̺is̺a] | /s/ This is the voiceless alveolar fricative [s]. There is some speaker variation as to its exact production. Women generally produce this sound apically with some retraction [s̺] whereas men generally produce this laminally, [s]. It may occur in onset or coda position. Examples: '''ccc''' /ʹsisa/ [ʹsisɐ ~ s̺is̺a] ''liquid''; ɷcn /ʹmisca/ [ʹmisc̠a ~ ʹmis̺ca] ''spit''; '''ɔoυ:c''' /ʹkublis/ [ʹkubɫis ~ ʹkubɫis̺] ''again''. | ||
/h/ This is the voiceless glottal fricative [h]. It remains voiceless in all positions, including intervocalically. It may occur in onset and coda position. Examples: '''ιιι''' /ʹhuha/ [ʹhuhɐ] | /h/ This is the voiceless glottal fricative [h]. It remains voiceless in all positions, including intervocalically. It may occur in onset and coda position. Examples: '''ιιι''' /ʹhuha/ [ʹhuhɐ] ''air''; '''vɷί''' /juʹmah/ [juʹmah] ''bread''.3. | ||
/z/ This is the voiced alveolar fricative [z]. There is some speaker variation as to its exact production. Women generally produce this sound apically with some retraction [z̺] whereas men generally produce this laminally, [z]. It may only occur in voiced positions, so intervocalically and between a vowel and a voiced sound and as such may usually be treated as an allophone of /s/, but degemination and loss of coda /r/ and /l/ followed by /s/, which is allophonically [z], have altered its status slightly, though it is less phonemic than the voiced stops as it has not resulted from pronoun shortenings. It does not occur in final position. It is shown in Romanisations as 'z'. Example: '''ɔcʌ''' /ʹkizra/ [k̟izɾɐ ~ k̟iz̺ɾɐ] | /z/ This is the voiced alveolar fricative [z]. There is some speaker variation as to its exact production. Women generally produce this sound apically with some retraction [z̺] whereas men generally produce this laminally, [z]. It may only occur in voiced positions, so intervocalically and between a vowel and a voiced sound and as such may usually be treated as an allophone of /s/, but degemination and loss of coda /r/ and /l/ followed by /s/, which is allophonically [z], have altered its status slightly, though it is less phonemic than the voiced stops as it has not resulted from pronoun shortenings. It does not occur in final position. It is shown in Romanisations as 'z'. Example: '''ɔcʌ''' /ʹkizra/ [k̟izɾɐ ~ k̟iz̺ɾɐ] ''cliff''. | ||
====Liquids and Approximants==== | ====Liquids and Approximants==== | ||
/r/ This is a voiced alveolar trill [r]. In initial pre-stressed position and intervocalically it usually has at least two taps in all other positions it is more commonly a voiced flap [ɾ]. In the environment of an adjacent /h/ it will be slightly devoiced, though not fully so. Examples: '''ʌʌʌ''' /ʹrira/ [ʹrirɐ] | /r/ This is a voiced alveolar trill [r]. In initial pre-stressed position and intervocalically it usually has at least two taps in all other positions it is more commonly a voiced flap [ɾ]. In the environment of an adjacent /h/ it will be slightly devoiced, though not fully so. Examples: '''ʌʌʌ''' /ʹrira/ [ʹrirɐ] ''noise''; '''oʌ́ω''' /ʹparna/ [ʹpaɾnɐ] ''bad''.2; '''υιʌ''' /ʹluhra/ [ʹɫuhɾɐ ~ ɫuhɾ̥ɐ] ''father''; '''υιʌ́''' /luʹhar/ [ɫuʹhaɾ] ''father''.3. | ||
This trilled sound is notoriously difficult for many lula to produce and often becomes other sounds, which would usually be classed as speech defects. One very common ‘speech defect’ is to produce this sound as a ‘whistled s’, i.e. an apical retracted [s] which sounds a little like a kettle boiling. Another common pronunciation is to produce the trill as an apical voiced fricative [z̺]. The flapped [ɾ] allophone does not undergo these changes. | This trilled sound is notoriously difficult for many lula to produce and often becomes other sounds, which would usually be classed as speech defects. One very common ‘speech defect’ is to produce this sound as a ‘whistled s’, i.e. an apical retracted [s] which sounds a little like a kettle boiling. Another common pronunciation is to produce the trill as an apical voiced fricative [z̺]. The flapped [ɾ] allophone does not undergo these changes. | ||
/l/ This is a voiced velarised alveolar lateral [ɫ]. It may appear in both onset and coda positions. In the environment of an adjacent /h/ it will be slightly devoiced, though not fully so. Examples: '''υυυ''' /ʹlula/ [ʹɫuɫɐ] | /l/ This is a voiced velarised alveolar lateral [ɫ]. It may appear in both onset and coda positions. In the environment of an adjacent /h/ it will be slightly devoiced, though not fully so. Examples: '''υυυ''' /ʹlula/ [ʹɫuɫɐ] ''person''; '''υύι''' /ʹlalha/ [ʹɫaɫhɐ ~ ɫaɫ̥hɐ] ''alone''.2; '''υɔύ''' /luʹgal/ [ɫuʹgaɫ] ''house''.3. | ||
/j/ This is a voiced palatal approximant [j]. In coda position it is produced with slightly more friction [j ̝]. It may appear in both onset and coda positions. In the environment of an adjacent /h/ it will be slightly devoiced, though not fully so. Examples: '''vvv''' /ʹjija/ [ʹjijɐ] | /j/ This is a voiced palatal approximant [j]. In coda position it is produced with slightly more friction [j ̝]. It may appear in both onset and coda positions. In the environment of an adjacent /h/ it will be slightly devoiced, though not fully so. Examples: '''vvv''' /ʹjija/ [ʹjijɐ] ''animal''; '''v́ιɷ''' /ʹajhum/ [ʹaj ̝hum ~ ʹaj̊ ̝hum] ''egg''.1; '''ɔιv''' /ʹkuhja/ [ʹkuhjɐ ~ ʹkuhj̊ɐ] ''leg''; '''υɔυ:v''' /lugʹlij/ [ɫugʹɫij ̝] ''house''-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">lat</span>. | ||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
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Taking this analysis, the three vowels are described below. | Taking this analysis, the three vowels are described below. | ||
/i/ This is a high front unrounded vowel [i]. It is consistently high and front in both stressed and unstressed positions. Examples: '''ɔɾɔ''' /ʹkiga/ [ʹk̟igɐ] | /i/ This is a high front unrounded vowel [i]. It is consistently high and front in both stressed and unstressed positions. Examples: '''ɔɾɔ''' /ʹkiga/ [ʹk̟igɐ] ''axe''; '''ɔɾɔ:ω''' /ʹkigin/ [ʹk̟ig+in] ''axe''-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span>. | ||
/u/ This is a high back (slightly) rounded vowel [u]. It is consistently high and back in both stressed and unstressed positions, though it may variably be produced with less rounding tending towards [ɯ] before non-labial consonants. Examples: '''ɔυɔ''' /ʹkuga/ [ʹkugɐ (~ ʹkɯgɐ)] | /u/ This is a high back (slightly) rounded vowel [u]. It is consistently high and back in both stressed and unstressed positions, though it may variably be produced with less rounding tending towards [ɯ] before non-labial consonants. Examples: '''ɔυɔ''' /ʹkuga/ [ʹkugɐ (~ ʹkɯgɐ)] ''wall''; '''ɔυɔ:ɷ''' /ʹkugum/ [ʹkugum (~ ʹkɯgum)] ''wall''-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">ben</span>. | ||
/a/ In stressed position this is a low mid vowel [a]. In unstressed position this is more centralised to [ɐ]. Example: '''oίn''' /ʹpahca/ [ʹpahc̠ɐ] | /a/ In stressed position this is a low mid vowel [a]. In unstressed position this is more centralised to [ɐ]. Example: '''oίn''' /ʹpahca/ [ʹpahc̠ɐ] ''happy''.2. | ||
In linguistic discussions the phonemic status of the vowels is much discussed, especially the status of [ɐ]. In a 'neutral' word, or the root pronunciation of the word a following coronal consonant will mean that a vowel is produced as [i]. (Note here that /l/ does not behave like the other coronals and so its velar gesture is considered of greater importance than its coronal gesture.) If a following consonant is non-coronal then it is produced as [u], with slight or no rounding. If however no following consonant is present we have the production of [ɐ]. In an analysis such as this [i], [u] and [ɐ] are treated together. [a] is only ever produced as a marker of person on the object to show agreement with the subject. As every sentence necessarily has agreement with the subject, this vowel is present frequent, but it serves a grammatical role as opposed to a phonemic one. If it is considered non-phonemic, then the phonology can best be described as having just one vowel. | In linguistic discussions the phonemic status of the vowels is much discussed, especially the status of [ɐ]. In a 'neutral' word, or the root pronunciation of the word a following coronal consonant will mean that a vowel is produced as [i]. (Note here that /l/ does not behave like the other coronals and so its velar gesture is considered of greater importance than its coronal gesture.) If a following consonant is non-coronal then it is produced as [u], with slight or no rounding. If however no following consonant is present we have the production of [ɐ]. In an analysis such as this [i], [u] and [ɐ] are treated together. [a] is only ever produced as a marker of person on the object to show agreement with the subject. As every sentence necessarily has agreement with the subject, this vowel is present frequent, but it serves a grammatical role as opposed to a phonemic one. If it is considered non-phonemic, then the phonology can best be described as having just one vowel. | ||
Historical changes have meant that the vowels have become phonemic. A word such as '''ɔʌι''' 'work' with the root consonants K-R-H is pronounced [ʹkihɐ]. The vowel [i] is pronounced because of the following /r/ which has disappeared because it is in coda position. This has therefore led to [i] being followed by the non-coronal [h]. This could on different levels be analysed as /kVrhV/ from a purist perspective. Phonological processes would analyse the first /V/ as [i] and the second /V/ as [ɐ] whilst the /r/ would disappear in coda position. Such an analysis is preferred by many as it best demonstrated the underlying consonants, such that the related word ɔʌ́ι [ʹkaɾha] may be analysed as /karhV/. There are however certain isolated irregularities in the production of the vowels, such that the word '''onυ''' may be pronounced as expected [piɟlɐ] and here it means 'book', however it has the irregular pronunciation [puɟlɐ] meaning 'ghost'. Because of such changes, it may now be considered phonemic. In such a case [a] and [ɐ] are usually considered allophones of the same vowel. | Historical changes have meant that the vowels have become phonemic. A word such as '''ɔʌι''' ''work'' with the root consonants K-R-H is pronounced [ʹkihɐ]. The vowel [i] is pronounced because of the following /r/ which has disappeared because it is in coda position. This has therefore led to [i] being followed by the non-coronal [h]. This could on different levels be analysed as /kVrhV/ from a purist perspective. Phonological processes would analyse the first /V/ as [i] and the second /V/ as [ɐ] whilst the /r/ would disappear in coda position. Such an analysis is preferred by many as it best demonstrated the underlying consonants, such that the related word ɔʌ́ι [ʹkaɾha] may be analysed as /karhV/. There are however certain isolated irregularities in the production of the vowels, such that the word '''onυ''' may be pronounced as expected [piɟlɐ] and here it means 'book', however it has the irregular pronunciation [puɟlɐ] meaning 'ghost'. Because of such changes, it may now be considered phonemic. In such a case [a] and [ɐ] are usually considered allophones of the same vowel. | ||
===Prosody=== | ===Prosody=== | ||
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===Orthography=== | ===Orthography=== | ||
The Mila | The orthography in Mila is an Abjad system, that is each letter represents a consonant and vowels aren’t shown, the vowels are however predictable from the consonants but a few rules are necessary. It was historically accurate when created, but later changes in the language mean that reading needs to be learnt and there is not always a one-to-one equivalence. Shortened pronouns are written in their long forms even when produced in their shortened form and irregular verbs are written as if they are regular, but need to be learnt. These are, however, the exceptions and the majority of cases can be predicted from the orthography. | ||
The letters (in alphabetical order) are as follows with their corresponding phonemic equivalent: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
| '''c''' | |||
| '''ɔ''' | |||
| '''υ''' | |||
| '''v''' | |||
| '''ɾ''' | |||
| '''n''' | |||
| '''o''' | |||
| '''ɷ''' | |||
| '''ω''' | |||
| '''ʌ''' | |||
| '''ι''' | |||
|- | |||
| /s (~ z)/ | |||
| /k (~ g)/ | |||
| /l/ | |||
| /j/ | |||
| /t (~ d)/ | |||
| /c (~ ɟ)/ | |||
| /p (~ b)/ | |||
| /m/ | |||
| /n/ | |||
| /r/ | |||
| /h/ | |||
|} | |||
One thing which is immediately obvious from the table is that the voiced and voiceless obstruents have just one symbol for both forms. The environment of the letters in most cases, though, will tell us whether the sound is voiced or voiceless. | |||
In determining the pronunciation of a word syllable structure needs to be adhered to. All roots of Mila are triconsonantal, thus the word for ''good'' is '''oιc''' [puhsɐ] where the letters represent the roots P, H, and S. To form the correct pronunciation we start from the left to determine the first syllable. Onsets are more important than codas and so the first letter '''o''' /p/ will form the onset. Onsets can be maximally one consonant long, so we then will need a vowel (which at this stage will be represented by ‘V’). We now have pV. We can now add the next consonant, '''ι''' /h/ to this syllable to close it giving us the first syllable pVh. This syllable is now complete and nothing can be added to it as it has maximally one onset consonant and one coda consonant. | |||
We now need to start to form the second syllable with the next letter '''c''' /s/ which becomes the onset. As a syllable necessarily has a vowel this is then added to form the second syllable /sV/. As no more consonants are available we then have the completed word /pVh.sV/, where the ‘.’ shows the syllable boundary. As was stated above the main stress is on the first syllable of the root and so will fall on the first syllable here. | |||
We now need to determine the value of the vowels. This is predictable based on the coda consonants of their syllable . If the coda is [+<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">lab</span>] or [+<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">vel</span>] (cf. the distinctive feature table in 1.2) then this vowel will be /u/. If the coda is any other consonant it will be /i/. If however there is no coda present this will be /a/. | |||
In the first syllable of our example we have /h/ as the coda consonant so the vowel will be /u/. In the second syllable there is no coda consonant so this will be /a/. This gives us the full pronunciation for '''oιc''' as /ʹpuh.sa/. | |||
In an example such as '''ncn''' meaning ''the colour silver'' we can again start from the left to form the syllable outlines /cVs.cV/. The first syllable ends in /s/ so the vowel in this syllable will be /i/ and once again the vowel in the second syllable is not followed by a consonant so will be /a/. So '''ncn''' is pronounced [ʹcis.cɐ] | |||
There are, however, a number of phonological rules which need to be added to this basic outline. | |||
====Voicing==== | |||
The first is that adjacent consonants must agree in the amount of voicing. If therefore a voiceless obstruent (apart from '''ι''' /h/) is adjacent to a voiced consonant then it will become voiced. The word for ''house'' is '''υɔυ''' before voicing considerations are taken we have the basic outline of /ʹluk.la/ (the asterisk indicates a wrong form). The /k/ needs to agree for voicing with the following /l/ which is voiced. The /l/ cannot devoice so the /k/ must become the voiced /g/. giving us [ʹlug.lɐ]. Similarly, the word for ''more'' is '''oωɾ''' which gives the basic outline /ʹpin.ta/ but the /t/ needs to agree for voicing with the preceding /n/ so will become /d/, giving us [ʹpin.dɐ]. | |||
====Liquid Elision==== | |||
If coda /l/ or /r/ occur after /u/ or /i/ respectively then the /l/ and /r/ will be elided. We thus have the example of the word ''language'' '''ɷʌυ''' which has the root MRL. Without elision the syllabification gives /ʹmir.la/, but the /r/ follows /a/ and is in coda position, so the pronunciation is [ʹmi.lɐ]. Similarly the word for ''four'' is '''oυɾ''' which will syllabify prior to elision as /ʹpul.da/ but with elision it surfaces as [ʹpu.dɐ]. | |||
====Degemination==== | |||
If two identical consonants occur across a syllable boundary within the same word then this will degeminate, i.e. be pronounced as a single consonant. Note that voicing assimilation will occur before degemination, such that ''same'' is '''coo''' syllabifies as /ʹsup.pa/ prior to degemination but surfaces as [ʹsu.pa] but the /p/ will not subsequently voice. | |||
Note that a combination of this rule with liquid elision means that the pronunciation of some words have merged in their base form. We have for example ''to sleep'' is '''ιυι''' which syllabifies as /ʹhul.ha/ but the liquid elision rule means it surfaces as [ʹhu.hɐ]. The word for ''air'' is '''ιιι''' which initially syllabifies as /ʹhuh.ha/ but then degeminates to [ʹhu.hɐ] being pronounced identically with the word for ''to sleep''. | |||
====Grammatical /a/==== | |||
A grammatical /a/ can be inserted (which will take the word stress). This is shown in the orthography by placing an acute accent above the consonant it precedes. ''I am hungry'' is for example '''ɷ́on'''. As the acute accent is above the '''ɷ''' we must insert /a/ before this sound. This gives us the modified root of aMPC. Starting from this /a/ we then syllabify /ʹam.bic/. ''You are hungry'' translates as '''ɷón''' will insert /a/ before the second syllable giving the modified root of MaPC which syllabifies as /ʹmap.ca/. And finally ''(s)he is hungry'' translates as '''ɷoń''' giving the modified root as MPaC. Again starting from the left we start with /mV/ The vowel will be /u/ because of the following non-coronal sound, but the /p/ will not complete the syllable, but rather forms the onset of the following consonant, giving the syllabification of /muʹbac/. | |||
====Irregularities===== | |||
There are a number of words with irregular pronunciations which are not indicated in the orthography and a learner must just learn them. The word '''onυ''' can mean both ''book'' and ''ghost''. For the meaning ''book'' it is pronounced regularly as [ʹpiɟ.lɐ]. For the meaning of ''ghost'' it is pronounced irregularly as [ʹpuɟ.lɐ]. It is because of such words that /i/ and /u/ are generally accepted as separate phonemes, however the amount of such irregularities are very limited. | |||
Verbs have often become irregular in their past or future tenses. This is also not shown in the orthography, so the verb ''to sleep'' ιυι has the present tense form as the regularly pronounced '''ʌ:ιυι''' [iʹhu.hɐ], but the irregularly pronounced past and future forms (spelt regularly) as '''ω:ιυι''' [inʹhu.hu] and '''ι:ιυι''' [uʹhu] respectively. | |||
====Romanisation==== | |||
The Romanisation of Mila follows more closely the final pronunciation than the underlying phonological structure. So degeminated consonants as well as elided liquids are not shown, whilst voiced obstruents are shown as voiced. Unstressed [ɐ] is shown as 'a'. Stress is not normally indicated, as it is usually predictable based on the word root, but it may be indicated with an acute accent above the stressed syllable. The romanisation has the advantage that it allows for irregularities to be shown, such that the past and future tenses of ''to sleep'' as given in the previous section are shown as 'inhuhu' and 'uhu' respectively. | |||
===Morphophonology=== | ===Morphophonology=== | ||
Mila has a series of affixes, either prefixes or suffixes. In the orthography these are shown separated from the root with the symbol ''':'''. Syllabification of suffixes is a continuation of the syllabification process of the root. Prefixes are syllabified in the form VC. A word such as ''closed''-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span> is ʌ:cιɾ:ω which syllabifies prior to phonological processes as /irʹsuh.tin/ but will surface as [iʹzuh.tin]. Because of the syllabification rules any affix may have a number of allomorphs. The dubitative suffix is ''':o''' /-p/ which may surfaces as [-up] if following an onset consonant, [-pa] if following a voiceless coda and [-ba] if following a voiced coda. | |||
==Morphology== | ==Morphology== | ||
Word formation in Mila is based around the semantically relevant triconsonantal roots. Words rarely occur in their base form and will usually be inflected to show their part of speech. As series of affixes are attached to show case. | |||
===Nouns=== | |||
The following is an overview of the affixes which can be used to modify nouns. | |||
====Subject==== | |||
The subject of a sentence is indicated with the suffix ''':n''' [-ic ~ -ca ~ -ɟa]. The subject in Mila usually indicates the actor of a sentence, although when an intransitive verb is used which modifies another verb the subject of the sentence may appear in the predicate position. As such the language may be analysed as showing syntactic ergativity. | |||
:::υɾn''':n'''-ɾɾɾ́-ʌ:ɷωʌ | |||
:::[ʹlit.c'''ic''' da iʹmin.ra] | |||
:::child-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> it.present.3 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-cry | |||
:::''This child is crying.'' | |||
====Locative==== | |||
The locative is used to indicate position, both physical and temporal and can be translated as at, in, on, by, near etc. It is formed by the prefix '''ʌ:''' /i(r)-/ placed directly on the noun it refers to. It never takes stress and so the stress will remain on the syllable it would appear on if the prefix were not present. | |||
:::onυ:n-'''ʌ:'''ɔυɷ-nnń | |||
:::[ʹpiɟ.lic '''i'''ʹgu.ma ɟa] | |||
:::book-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">loc</span>-table it.visible.3 | |||
:::''The book is there on the table.'' | |||
====Supraessive==== | |||
The supraessive prefix '''ɔ:''' is used to indicate position above the noun it modifies. As with the locative it does not affect stress placement. So '''ɔ:ιnc''' /ukʹhicsa/ '<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">spre</span>-cloud' means simply ''above the clouds''. It usually refers to position without physical contact, though occasionally it may have a similar meaning to ''on top of'' or ''at the top of''. An example of this is '''ʌ:'''ɔυn /iʹguɟa/ which, by using the locative here, means ''at/on the mountain''. By using the supraessive, though, we have '''ɔ:'''ɔυn /uʹkuɟa/ which would mean ''at the top of the mountain''. Another example would be '''ʌ:'''ɔυɷ /iʹguma/ which can mean ''on the table'' but could equally indicate ''at'' or ''by the table'' using the locative, but '''ɔ:'''ɔυɷ /uʹkuma/ takes away the ambiguity and can only mean ''on (top of) the table''. | |||
It can also be used for figurative purposes, so a king could be spoken about as being ‘on top of the people’ '''ɔ:υυυ''' /ugʹlula/. Some of these words have taken on derivational meanings, so the example just given '''ɔ:υυυ''' also means ''haughty'' and as such has become confused with the identical verbal prefix ɔ: (see below) which is used for iteration, such that the homonym '''ɔ:υυυ''' can also mean ''crowded''. | |||
====Predicate==== | |||
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