West Carpathian grammar
In this article various aspects of West Carpathian grammar are discussed. Unlike the neighbouring languages, such as Slovak and Polish, which are the Slavic languages, West Carpathian belongs to the Oronaic language family, and is typologically between fusional and agglutinative languages.
Nouns
The West Carpathian language has no gender category in nouns or even in personal pronouns, similarly to neighbouring Hungarian: sun is "he", "she", or "it", depending on the referent. There are no articles, meaning the definiteness is not distinguished.
Cases
West Carpathian has eleven cases: six grammatical cases, three locative cases, three directional cases. The most typical case endings for singular (sg) and plural (pl) numbers are shown in the table below:
| Case | Ending | Example | Translation | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| sg | pl | sg | pl | ||
| Grammatical | |||||
| nominative | – | -k | oiva | oivak | (a) head |
| accusative | different | -mma | oivā | oivamma | head (as an object) |
| genitive | -ui/-ū/-ju | -dū | oivū | oivadū | of (a) head |
| dative | -id/-cid | -īd/-ecid | oivid | oivīd | head (as an indirect object) |
| instrumental | -inä/-ina | -kīn/-kain | oivina | oivakain | by means of (a) head |
| essive | -pä/-pa | -ipä/-upa | oivapa | oivaupa | as (a) head |
| Locative | |||||
| inessive | -utu | -eutui/-autui | oivautu | oivautui | in (a) head |
| adessive | -ie/-uo | -kke/-kko | oivuo | oivakko | on (a) head |
| apudessive | -ve/-vo | -uhe/-uho | oivavo | oivauho | at/near (a) head |
| Directional | |||||
| illative | -ēn/-oan | -kēn/-kōn | oivoan | oivakōn | into (a) head |
| lative | -ivä/-iva | -kua | oivaiva | oivakua | to (a) head |
| allative | -hei/-hō | -kei/-kō | oivahō | oivakō | onto (a) head |
Possessive suffixes
Instead of separate possessive pronouns, like English "my" or "her", West Carpathian uses special suffixes. The number of possessors and their person are distinguished. The notable feature is that if a possession is a subject or a direct object of a sentence, it would take a different possessive suffix, than a word in an another case (like genitive or dative). The following are the forms of oiva "head", declined to show possession:
| Person | Number | Subject | Object | Other cases | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| first person | singular | oivasā | oivame | oiv(a)-vjad | my head |
| plural | oivatōk | oivammō | oiv(a)-vnad | our head | |
| second person | singular | oivasa | oivama | oiv(a)-vja | your (sing.) head |
| plural | oivakēk | oivammē | oiv(a)-vna | your (pl.) head | |
| third person | singular | oivasau | oivamau | oiv(a)-vjau | his/her/its head |
| plural | oivapōk | oivammou | oiv(a)-vnou | their head |
Words written through the hyphen (-) indicates an insertion of a case ending. When used with cases other than nominative or accusative, a possessive suffix always comes after a case ending, so it is sometimes called a postfix. For example: utuovjau - "on his/her hand". When a plural number of a possession must be indicated, a plural ending is used instead of a singular one. If a word is a subject or a direct object of a sentence, then a corresponding plural ending is added before a possessive suffix: oivakēk - "their head", oivahkēk - "their heads" (the nominative plural ending -k changes into -h- due to a consonant gradation).
Declension types
There are as many as 20 noun declension types (called otnevinsātuarek "word bending patterns"). Most of these forms are archaic and more common ones are used instead by analogy. Words in nominative, accusative, genitive, dative and illative cases are represented in the table below. Here are some of the most common patterns:
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Pronouns
Verbs
Verbs in West Carpathian belong to one of ten main groups depending on the stem type. Nine types are called the regular types and have the same set of personal endings, but the stems undergo different changes when inflected, while the last one is the irregular type and can have different endings. The first two and the tenth types are called simple and the rest are compound, because they are created with a special suffix.
Conjugation
As an example a I type verb māli "to talk" and its negative counterpart ēmai "not to talk" are given in the table below. The first verb is regular and it is easy to show different personal endings, using it, while the second verb has an irregular -k- in some endings. Only tenses of an indicative mood are listed here.
| indicative mood | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| present tense | past tense | perfect | pluperfect | ||||||
| person | number | affirmative | negative | affirmative | negative | affirmative | negative | affirmative | negative |
| 1st | sg. | mālel | ēmal | māllō | ēmālō | mālilid | ēmailid | ian mālinna | ian ēmainna |
| 2nd | māles | ēmas | mālsē | ēmāsē | mālisī | ēmaisī | iak mālinna | iak ēmainna | |
| 3rd | māľu | ēmāču | māluvā | ēmākuvā | māliňu | ēmaiňu | īka mālinna | īka ēmainna | |
| 1st | pl. | mālelki | ēmalki | mālulki | ēmākulki | mālluok | ēmāluok | iskau mālinna | iskau ēmainna |
| 2nd | māleski | ēmaski | māluski | ēmākuski | mālseik | ēmāseik | ingak mālinna | ingak ēmainna | |
| 3rd | māluki | ēmauki | mālumpā | ēmākumpā | mālpou | ēmāpou | īhka mālinna | īhka ēmainna | |
The pluperfect (almost the same as English past perfect) uses the auxillary verb īkai, which can be translated as "to have been/done" in English, and and an infinitive V of verbs, which in this case is similar to an active participle, like English "talking".
Other moods
The three other moods are conditional, potential and imperative.
| Imperative mood | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| imperfect | perfect | |||
| person | affirmative | negative | affirmative | negative |
| 1st sg. | mālkōnō | ēmakkōnō | ihōnō mālinna | ihōnō ēmāinna |
| 2nd sg. | mālkē | ēmakkē | ihē mālinna | ihē ēmainna |
| 3rd sg. | mālkājā | ēmakkājā | ījā mālinna | ījā ēmainna |
| 1st pl. | mālkoskō | ēmakoskō | ihoskō mālinna | ihoskō ēmainna |
| 2nd pl. | mālkēnek | ēmakkēnek | ihēnek mālinna | ihēnek ēmainna |
| 3rd pl. | mālenkai | ēmankai | īhenkai mālinna | īhenkai ēmainna |
When used with the third person the verb corresponds to English "let him/her (do)", while an imperative for the first person is usually called optative and is treated as a separate mood, for example the translation of mālkōnō in English is "I wish I will talk (to somebody)", and ihōnō mālinna - "If only I talked (to somebody)".
| Conditional mood | Potential mood | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| imperfect | perfect | imperfect | perfect | |||||
| person | affirmative | negative | affirmative | negative | affirmative | negative | affirmative | negative |
| 1st sg. | mālcal | ēmahcal | mālcihō | ēmahcihō | mālansel | ēmānsel | mālanšō | ēmānšō |
| 2nd sg. | mālcas | ēmahcas | mālcihē | ēmahcihē | mālanses | ēmānses | mālanšē | ēmānšē |
| 3rd sg. | mālcaju | ēmahcaju | mālciuhā | ēmahciuhā | mālaňšu | ēmāňšu | mālanšā | ēmānšā |
| 1st pl. | mālcelka | ēmahcelka | mālcihōlka | ēmahcihōlka | mālansalke | ēmāsalke | mālanšōlke | ēmānšōlke |
| 2nd pl. | mālceska | ēmahceska | mālcihōska | ēmahcihōska | mālansaske | ēmānsaske | mālanšōske | ēmānšōske |
| 3rd pl. | mālčauka | ēmahčauka | mālcihōpā | ēmahcihōpā | mālaňšauke | ēmāňšauke | mālanšōpā | ēmānšōpā |
The conditional mood corresponds mostly to "would" or "should" or to the past subjunctive in English. The potential mood describes things that might possibly happen, though its probability is not certain, similarly to English "may/might", and it is always formed agglutinatively in compound verbs. The imperfect forms of these moods are used to indicate present or future events, while perfect is used in sentences with verbs in the past tense. Compound verbs form differently: āsēni šeiteviu, tāpahtēlki - "If the weather is fine, we will go for a walk", where šeiteviu is formed from the adjective šeiti "fine, clear" by adding a suffix -evi meaning "to may be".
Infinitives
West Carpathian has ten infinitive forms, denoted with roman numerals or with typical verb endings.
Infinitive I
The infinitive I or the i-infinitive is a dictionary form of verbs. The ending of this infinitive is -i with a stem modification due to a consonant gradation and (seldom) alteration.
Verb stem Infinitive I English translation māl- māli to talk čēp- čēpi to boil īl- īli to hear
When a stem ends in a vowel, the suffix can become either -ji or -di, depending on what consonant was present in that place historically (weak grade consonant -g- was lost completely, but turned into -j- before this ending).
Verb stem Infinitive I English translation kui- kuoidi to melt ňei- ňieji to give kā- kāji to bake
If stems end with -v-, -ll-, -ss- -h-, then a strong grade (-hp-, -ht-, -hc-, -hk- respectively) will appear in the infinitive.
Verb stem Infinitive I English translation kōv- koahpi to dig nēll- niähti to wash kauss- kāvahci to feel tūh- tuohki to pull
Infinitive II
Also called the supine, the infinitive II is used to express a purpose of action and is usually translated as English "in order to". Its endings are -itān or -etān. These endings trigger the same gradation as the infinitive I with only few exceptions.
Verb stem Infinitive II English translation māl- māletān in order to talk nēll- niähtitān in order to wash īl- īlitān in order to hear
There are few irregular exceptions:
Verb stem Infinitive II English translation pirj- pirkitān in order to remain pao- poahotān in order to fall miänn- miänitān in order to recall
Infinitive III
The third infinitive expresses process of action and is equivalent to English "while/when doing". It can be recognized by the -mēn/-mōn ending. The gradation pattern is different from previous infinitives, since it triggers the weak grade.
Verb stem Infinitive I English translation māl- malmōn while talking kui- kuimōn while boiling pao- paomōn while falling
If the weak grade is a geminate consonant, or a consonant that would create a cluster difficult to pronounce, then -e- or -a- is inserted between them and the ending.
Verb stem Infinitive I English translation kōv- kōvamōn while digging nēll- nēllemēn while washing kauss- kaussemōn while feeling miänn- miännemēn while recalling
Infinitive IV
The infinitive IV is used to express the end of action and is equivalent to English "having done". The ending is -esta which triggers the same gradation as the infinitive I.
Verb stem Infinitive I English translation māl- malesta having talked miänn- miäntesta having recalled pao- poadesta having fallen
Infinitive V
This infinitive corresponds to the English gerund ("verb + -ing" form), and can behave as a noun in that it can be inflected. It is used to refer to a particular act or a manner of action (used in an instrumental case). The usual ending is -innä/-inna, which changes into -män-/-man- while declining.
Verb stem Infinitive II English translation māl- mālinna talking nēll- niähtimännä (the manner of) washing īl- īlinnä hearing kui- kuoidimanoan into (the process of) boiling
Infintive VI
The sixth infinitive has the stem ending -vet/-vat and indicates obligation and -vettēn/-vattoan, which expresses necessity. Nowadays the second suffix is rarely used, since there is a verb terväi "to need", which comes from a noun tervä "need", and can be used with the infinitive V. Infinitive VI triggers the same gradation as the infinitive III, with an exception of verb stems, that require an insertion of -e-.
Verb stem Infinitive II English translation parmāl- parmalvat must be talked about nēll- nēllevettēn it's necessary to wash sam- sammevat must be seen kui- kuivattoan it's necessary to boil
These endings are impersonal, but they can be used with any other person, for example: malvas hoa par "you must talk about it", īlivehcēn hoa - "you'd better hear this".
Infinitive VII
Infinitive VII can occasionally be used in folklore, but not in everyday speech. Its ending is -vassi and it is translated into English as "asked to do". It is used in the indirect speech, like in sun pilsē kuivassi sieceä "he/she asked to boil the water", and nowadays infinitive II would used in this place.
Infinitive VIII and IX
These are conditional and potential infinitives and are short forms of conditional and potential clauses, for example pelcin - "if to sing (imperfect)" and pelcihēn - "if to have sung (perfect)". Endings -anset and -anšōn are used for infintive IX, but its usage is uncommon in modern day speech. But infinitive VIII is seldom used, like in āsēni hārācin, tolātelki dāva "weather permitting, we will be there in time. (āsēni šeiteviu - "if the weather is fine" can also be used instead, but literally it would be translated as "weather may (or may not) be fine").
Infinitive X
The infintive X is obsolete in modern day speech and can often be found only in one verb jiedi "to know", the infinitive of which is jīnki and means "as far as it is known". Personal endings can be added to it (this feature developed later after the division of the Carpathian languages), the most commonly used jīngin "as far as I know" or jīnginka "as far as we know".
Verb types
There are ten inflection verb types. Every verb belongs to a certain type according to its verb stem. Nine types are regular, since verbs belonging to these types have predictable basic changes in conjugation. The following table shows some of these changes, which define the conjugation pattern (vinsatuare):
| Type | Example | 1sg Pres. | 3sg Past | 2sg Imp. | Infinitive III | Infinitive V | Infinitive I | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| I-a | māli | mālel | māluvā | mālkē | malmōn | mālinna | -i | to talk |
| I-b | kuoidi | kuil | kuoiduvā | kuoikē | kuimōn | kuoinna | -ji/-di | to melt |
| I-c | niähti | nēllel | niähtuvā | nēlkē | nēllemēn | niähtinnä | -hpi/-hti/-hci/-hki | to give |
| I-d | miänti | miännel | miäntuvā | miänkē | miännemēn | miäntinnä | -mpi/-nti/-nki/-sti | to recall |
| II | poadi | paol | poaduvā | poadekē | paomōn | poadinna | -ädi/-adi | to fall |
| II-b | pirki | piril | pirjivā | pirjikē | pirimēn | pirkinnä | -rki/-lki/-ski | to remain |
| III | kārui | kārul | kāruvā | kārukē | kārumōn | kāruinna | -ei/-ui | to be green |
| IV | ňiheškai | ňiheššal | ňiheškavā | ňiheškakē | ňiheššamōn | ňiheškainna | -kai | to have fish |
| V | varvekui | varveul | varvekuvā | varvekukē | varveumōn | varvekuinna | -kui | to paint |
| VI | rūhtei | rūkkēl | rūhtevā | rūhtekē | rūkkēmōn | rūhteinna | -tei | to make clothes |
| VII | soveähtei | soveällel | soveähtevā | soveähtekē | soveällemōn | soveähteinna | -ahtei | to go skiing |
| VIII | näissi | näisel | näissevā | näiskē | näisemēn | näissinnä | -ssi | to be able to swim |
| IX | pellekei | pellekil | pellekeivā | pelleikkē | pellekimōn | pellekīnna | -kei | to want to sing |
| X | terväi | tervän | terväjä | tervē | tervämēn | terväinnä | -äi/-ai | to need |