Western Scots Norse

From Linguifex
Jump to navigation Jump to search


Western Scots Norse
Veastagharsc
Pronunciation[ˌvɛst.əːɾsk]
Created byMelinoë
Native toSiarègh
EthnicityNorse Scots
Native speakers(L1) 1,500 (2020)
(L2) < 20,000
Early forms
Dialects
  • Northwestern
  • Southwestern
Official status
Official language in
Scotland
Scots Norse is classified as critically endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Western Scots Norse (endonym: Veastagharsc; /ˌvɛst.əːɾsk/) is the dialect continuum used throughout Veastaghar, or the Outer Hebrides. It has the heavier influence of the two continuums from Gàidhlig, this can be seen largely through vocab. It is one of two main dialect continuums, the other being Eastern Scots Norse, corresponding to the Inner and Outer Hebrides. Western Scots Norse is further divided into two groups, Noveastagharsc and Suveastagharsc, or Northwestern and Southwestern respectively. These too are then further divided into the specific dialects. Under Northwestern is Lewis and Harris, while Southwestern is split between Uist and Barra. Within Uist there is also the primary religious dialect, Hèdhnarsc, spoken by the pagans throughout the Outer Hebrides.

Phonology

All colloquial western dialects share the following features:

  • Old Norse's front round vowels become back vowels, thus words like "systir" become siuest, as opposed to Eastern saiast.
  • The /ɪ/-/ɛ/ merger, always to /ɛ/ when stressed, and slender /ə/ when unstressed. (Slender /ə/ is thus spelt "i", while broad /ə/ is "a").
  • loss of dental fricatives through merging variably with ⟨s, z⟩ or ⟨(c)h, gh⟩. (Always with ⟨(c)h, gh⟩ when slender)
  • denasalization of nasal vowels, giving varying values throughout the dialects.
  • merger of the R's, /r/ and /ɾ/, to /ɾ/
  • Broad A/À rather than the slender A and plain À of Inner dialects.
  • no a-e merger, keeping ⟨a⟩ as /ə/, thus words like "hvelpr" and "hvalpa" become velp and valp, rather than merging to valp as in Eastern.
  • no à > /o/ shift, keeping ⟨à⟩ as /ɑ/. Thus /ˈɑv/ (àv) for Eastern /ˈovʲ/ (àev)
  • ⟨a⟩ for Old Norse ⟨ǫ⟩, where Inner has ⟨o⟩.

Novestèghsc

Novestèghsc, or Northwestern Scots Norse, is spoken on Leòdhas 's Hearadh, or Lewis and Harris.

labial alveolar velar
broad slender broad slender broad slender
Nasal m mʲ n ɲ
Stop Unvoiced p p͡f t t͡ʃ k c
Voiced b b͡v d d͡ʒ g ɟ
Fricative Unvoiced f f(j)~ç s ʃ x ç
Voiced v v(j)~ʝ z ʒ ɣ ʝ
Approximant w ɾ ɾʲ j
  1. The dental fricatives merge with /x, ɣ/
  2. The lateral approximants vocalize to /j, w/
Front Back
High i u
Near-High ɤ
Mid e o
Low ɛ ɔ~ɒ
  1. /ə/ is the unstressed realization of /ɛ, ɔ/. (differing by slender vs broad)

"Nasal" vowels are typically realized as centering diphthongs.

Front Back
High iɪ̯̈ uʊ̯̈
Near-High ɤʊ̯̈~ʊ̈ː
Mid eɪ̯̈ oʊ̯̈
Low ɛɪ̯̈ ɔʊ̯̈
  1. /əɪ̯̈/ is the unstressed realization of /ɜˑ, ɞˑ/. (differing by slender vs broad)

Suvestèghsc

Suveastèghsc, or Southwestern Scots Norse, is spoken on the islands of Ìvist 's Baraegh, or Uist and Barra.

Ìvistèghsc

Ìvistèghsc, or Uist Scots Norse, is spoken on the islands of Ìvist, or Uist.

labial alveolar velar
broad slender broad slender broad slender
Nasal m mʲ n ɲ
Stop Unvoiced p p͡f t t͡ʃ k c
Voiced b b͡v d d͡ʒ g ɟ
Fricative Unvoiced f f(j) s ʃ x ç
Voiced v v(j) z ʒ ɣ ʝ
Approximant r, ɫ rʲ, ʎ j
Front Back
High i u
Near-High ɤ
Mid e o
Low ɛ ɔ~ɒ
  1. /ə/ is the unstressed realization of /ɛ, ɔ/. (differing by slender vs broad)

"Nasal" vowels in Uist Norse are typically realized slightly centralized and longer.

Front Back
High ɪ̈ˑ ʊ̈ˑ
Mid ɘˑ ɵˑ
Low ɜˑ ɞˑ
  1. /əˑ/ is the unstressed realization of /ɜˑ, ɞˑ/. (differing by slender vs broad)

Prosody

The rules for stress are very slightly more complex than they were in Old Norse, but not by much.

Stress always goes on the left-most syllable possible. When there are vowels with a grave, stress goes to the first one, skipping over all vowels without one. (so sudhraèir is stressed on "aèi")

Mutation

Since Old Norse, initial consonant mutation has developed. Scots Norse has three forms:

radical (basic)
lenition
eclipsis

The following gives each form of tàl:

tàlir /ˈtɑ.ʎəɾʲ/
dàlir /ˈdɑ.ʎəɾʲ/
thàlir /ˈxɑ.ʎəɾʲ/

Orthography

(not updated)

Morphology

Most parts of speech are split among three "types" or "classes" based on the mutation they cause in the following word, these are called "radical", "lenite", and "eclipse", and they generally don't affect the word itself. Verbs form the primary exception, as they very consistently follow a single pattern, with the dictionary form (the infinitive) always being a lenite.

Pronouns

Scots Norse personal pronouns
plain emphatic possessive
sg. 1st mic mìnhich mì E
2nd tic tìda L tì E
3rd m ha E haza E haz
f hành L henha E henhar
pl. 1st och ochuith ochar
2nd uech uechith uechar
3rd tèr tèrthir tèor

L Triggers lenition   E Triggers eclipsis

Nouns

Nouns have been reduced down to a basic singular/plural distinction, with the gender distinction effectively lost, only being maintained by the pronouns used for the words. Nouns have also dropped their definite forms in favor of an independent article, hi.

Plurals of native words are almost always formed with -ar, though remnants of umlaut also exist. Nouns from Gàidhlig most often instead use -an.


With the general loss of gender, the suffix -al developed. Originally a feminine diminutive, it was analogized to the masculine and became an agent suffix, then a general suffix for forming feminine nouns. In the plural, it appears as -lar.

Adjectives

Adjectives, like nouns, have been heavily reduced, down to the positive, comparative, and superlative forms. The comparative and superlative are formed with -ir and -ist respectively.

Numerals

1 è
2 tfè(r)
3 trì
4 fiòer
5 fi
6 siach
7 siò
8 àth
9 niù
10 tiù
11 èliovh
12 tòlvh

Prepositions

Scots Norse has a very, very simple system of inflected prepositions, only inflecting for person and number.

A large amount of speakers simply don't use inflected prepositions.

Inflection of i (class 3)
plain emphatic
singular 1st inì E inìnhic
2nd idì E idìda
3rd m ighaz ighaza E
f ighenh ighenha E
plural 1st inhach inhachúith
2nd inhich inhichith
3rd idèor L idèorthi

E: Triggers eclipsis L: Triggers lenition


Inflection of til (class 1)
plain emphatic
singular 1st tilmì E tilmìnhic
2nd tiltì E tiltìda
3rd m tilaz tilaza E
f tilenh tilenha E
plural 1st tilach tilachúith
2nd tilich tilichith
3rd tiltèor L tiltèorthi

E: Triggers eclipsis L: Triggers lenition

Verbs

Many significant changes have happened to the verb system since Old Norse, notably both the mood and voice distinctions have been lost. The active indicative has descended into the present and past tense, while the active subjunctive was lost entirely. The mediopassive became the future and imperative (the mood distinction in the mediopassive largely having already collapsed in Old Norse). The reciprocal, original formed through the mediopassive, has entirely been replaced by hinhar. The original imperative is seemingly preserved as the impersonal form (hence the "-sc-"), later having the endings appended to it after they became generally leveled to a single regular pattern.

Verbs have reduced to such a limited number of forms that analogy and sound changes have leveled them all down to essentially one pattern (excluding a few irregular verbs), which seemingly descends from Old Norse's weak class 2 pattern.


Conjugation of tàl (regular)
infinitive tàl(ich)
pres. part. tàlin
past part. tàladh
positive negative
personal impersonal personal impersonal
ind. pres. tàlir tàltir è thàlir è thàltir
past tàlaidhir tàltaidhir è thàlaidhir è thàltaidhir
fut. tàlist tàltist è thàlist è thàltist
cond. tàlaidhist tàltaidhist è thàlaidhist è thàltaidhist
cont. pres. tàlireu tàltireu è thàlireu è thàltireu
past tàlaidhireu tàltaidhireu è thàlaidhireu è thàltaidhireu
fut. tàlisteu tàltisteu è thàlisteu è thàltisteu
cond. tàlaidhisteu tàltaidhisteu è thàlaidhisteu è thàltaidhisteu
perf. pres. tàliriò tàltiriò è thàliriò è thàltiriò
past tàlaidhiriò tàltaidhiriò è thàlaidhiriò è thàltaidhiriò
fut. tàlistiò tàltistiò è thàlistiò è thàltistiò
cond. tàlaidhistiò tàltaidhistiò è thàlaidhistiò è thàltaidhistiò
imp. tàl tàlt è thàl è thàlt
Conjugation of mèl (regular)
infinitive mèl(ich)
pres. part. mèlin
past part. mèladh
positive negative
personal impersonal personal impersonal
ind. pres. mèlir mèltir è mhèlir è mhèltir
past mèlaidhir mèltaidhir è mhèlaidhir è mhèltaidhir
fut. mèlist mèltist è mhèlist è mhèltist
cond. mèlaidhist mèltaidhist è mhèlaidhist è mhèltaidhist
cont. pres. mèlireu mèltireu è mhèlireu è mhèltireu
past mèlaidhireu mèltaidhireu è mhèlaidhireu è mhèltaidhireu
fut. mèlisteu mèltisteu è mhèlisteu è mhèltisteu
cond. mèlaidhisteu mèltaidhisteu è mhèlaidhisteu è mhèltaidhisteu
perf. pres. mèliriò mèltiriò è mhèliriò è mhèltiriò
past mèlaidhiriò mèltaidhiriò è mhèlaidhiriò è mhèltaidhiriò
fut. mèlistiò mèltistiò è mhèlistiò è mhèltistiò
cond. mèlaidhistiò mèltaidhistiò è mhèlaidhistiò è mhèltaidhistiò
imp. mèl mèlt è mhèl è mhèlt
Conjugation of àgh (regular)
infinitive àgh(ich)
pres. part. àghin
past part. àghadh
positive negative
personal impersonal personal impersonal
ind. pres. àghir àghtir è h'àghir è h'àghtir
past àghaidhir àghtaidhir è h'àghaidhir è h'àghtaidhir
fut. àghist àghtist è h'àghist è h'àghtist
cond. àghaidhist àghtaidhist è h'àghaidhist è h'àghtaidhist
cont. pres. àghireu àghtireu è h'àghireu è h'àghtireu
past àghaidhireu àghtaidhireu è h'àghaidhireu è h'àghtaidhireu
fut. àghisteu àghtisteu è h'àghisteu è h'àghtisteu
cond. àghaidhisteu àghtaidhisteu è h'àghaidhisteu è h'àghtaidhisteu
perf. pres. àghiriò àghtiriò è h'àghiriò è h'àghtiriò
past àghaidhiriò àghtaidhiriò è h'àghaidhiriò è h'àghtaidhiriò
fut. àghistiò àghtistiò è h'àghistiò è h'àghtistiò
cond. àghaidhistiò àghtaidhistiò è h'àghaidhistiò è h'àghtaidhistiò
imp. àgh àght è h'àgh è h'àght

Suppletive verbs

There are very few known suppletive verbs in Scots Norse, the main one being the copula vèr, and even it has been leveled by many speakers.


Conjugation of vèr (suppletive)
present past future
infinitive vèr(ich) vèradh vèrast
participle vèrin vèra vèranist
positive negative
personal impersonal personal impersonal
pos. pres. vèrir vèrscir ibèrir ibèrscir
past vèradhir vèrscadhir ibèradhir ibèrscadhir
fut. vèrist vèrscist ibèrist ibèrscist
imp. vèradhist vèrscadhist ibèradhist ibèrscadhist
cont. pres. i bèrir u i bèrscir u i n'ibèrir u i n'ibèrscir u
past i bèradhir u i bèrscadhir u i n'ibèradhir u i n'ibèrscadhir u
fut. i bèrist u i bèrscist u i n'ibèrist u i n'ibèrscist u
imp. i bèradhist u i bèrscadhist u i n'ibèradhist u i n'ibèrscadhist u
perf. pres. as vèrir u as vèrscir u as ibèrir u as ibèrscir u
past as vèradhir u as vèrscadhir u as ibèradhir u as ibèrscadhir u
fut. as vèrist u as vèrscist u as ibèrist u as ibèrscist u
imp. as vèradhist u as vèrscadhist u as ibèradhist u as ibèrscadhist u

"er" and "var" are the more prevalent forms, but the regularized forms "vèrir" and "vèradhir" are also rather common.

Syntax

Word order

Scots Norse word order is incredibly strict, relying more on particles than word order for changing the sentence type. The typical order is:

  1. Preverbal particle
  2. Verb
  3. Postverbal particle(s)
  4. Subject
  5. Preposition(s) (usually)
  6. Direct object or predicate adjective
  7. Indirect object

Prepositions are placed largely as in English, but the usage can often differ, eg. "i" ("in") goes before the direct object, but is also used for "under" as in "i miùeghi" ("under construction", literally "in building").

An example:

(1)

er

be.PRES

Agharsc

Scots_Norse

Vheostnariòzc

West_Norse

h'u

of

ghi

the

nAghar.

Hebrides

er Agharsc Vheostnariòzc h'u ghi nAghar.

be.PRES Scots_Norse West_Norse of the Hebrides

Scots Norse is a West Nordic language spoken in the Hebrides

Questions and answers

Scots Norse lacks a true equivalent to "no", the closest thing being "è(gh)" ("not"), which can often be used on it's own when a form of "be" + "not" suffices for an answer, as in:

(2)

vàrth

Q

mèlir

speak.PRES

tù

2sg

vid

with

mic?

1sg

vàrth mèlir tù vid mic?

Q speak.PRES 2sg with 1sg

Will you speak with me?

 (2.1)

ègh

NEG

ègh

NEG

I won't

Following this usage of "ègh", "ghià" (Old Norse "já") is often used as an affirmative, as in:

(3)

vàrth

Q

èthist

speak.FUT

tù

2sg

màenhmhàth

dinner

vid

with

mic?

1sg

vàrth èthist tù màenhmhàth vid mic?

Q speak.FUT 2sg dinner with 1sg

Will you eat dinner with me?

 (3.1)

ghià!

AFF

ghià!

AFF

I will!

As has likely been noticed by now, questions consistently contain "vàrth" at the beginning, this is a general question particle, akin to Gàidhlig "an".

"To be"

The stative

Scots Norse has several things fulfilling the function of "to be". In the descriptive role (eg. "I am happy") the stative of a verb is used (eg. "sèladhist").

(4)

tiòemhadhist

empty.STAT

hi

the

ger

box

tiòemhadhist hi ger

empty.STAT the box

The box is empty

Existential bì

Likely under the influence of Irish, the verb "bìodh" (Old Norse "bíða") shifted to an existential copula, rather than an impersonal one, while an odd development, the extreme influence of the Gaelic languages does well explain it, in this sense it's most often spelt "bì", with the various endings being appended with an apostrophe, as in "bì'ir" or "bì'adhist", in these forms it is often pronounced /bj-/, thus /bjəjʃt/ for "bì'adhist".

Texts

UDHR Article 1

Original (English)

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Old Norse (modern translation)

Allir menn eru bornir frjálsir ok jafnir at virðingu ok réttum. Þeir eru allir viti gœddir ok samvizku, ok skulu gøra hvárr til annars bróðurliga.

Scots Norse

arr manarr al bhori mhriàl h-o hiavn, vèrann vhirrdhing o rhèt h-atharr. vèrann gaèdhadh h-o shanvisc h-atharr, o shcùl ghèor hanna thil bròdhligh.
arr manarr al bhori mhriàl h-o hiavn, vèrann vhirrdhing o rhèt h-atharr. vèrann gaèdhadh h-o shanvisc h-atharr, o shcùl ghèor hanna thil bròdhligh.

English translation
lit: "all men are born free and equal, being dignity and rights at them. being reason and conscience at them, and should act to brotherhood at each other"
"all men are born free and equal, having dignity and rights. they have reason and conscience, and should act to eachother as a brotherhood"

Deor

Old English

Welund him be wurman
wræces cunnade,
anhydig eorl
earfoþa dreag,
hæfde him to gesiþþe
sorge and longaþ,
wintercealde wræce,
wean oft onfond
siþþan hine Niðhad on
nede legde,
swoncre seonobende
on syllan monn.
Þæs ofereode,
þisses swa mæg.

Scots Norse

Vòluenn shi, thur ròvnirr
cvàlarr cenn,
ànar iall
arrvidh thoeld,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
ta h-oevgangtirr,
tash thil mègh.

(lines with "-" are yet to be translated)

Lexical comparison

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Western_Scots_Norse&oldid=523025"