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West Carpathian grammar (view source)

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In this article various aspects of [[West Carpathian]] grammar are discussed. Unlike the neighbouring languages, such as Slovak and Polish, which are the Slavic languages, West Carpathian belongs to the [[w:Alpatho-Hirtic languages|Oronaic]] language family, and is typologically between fusional and agglutinative languages.
In this article various aspects of [[West Carpathian]] grammar are discussed. Unlike the neighbouring languages, such as Slovak and Polish, which are the Slavic languages, West Carpathian belongs to the [[w:Alpatho-Hirtic languages|Oronaic]] language family, and is typologically between fusional and agglutinative languages.
==Nouns==
==Nouns==
The West Carpathian language has gender category in nouns or even in personal pronouns, similarly to neighbouring Hungarian: ''sun'' is "he", "she", or "it", depending on the referent. There are no articles, meaning the definiteness is not distinguished.
The West Carpathian language has no gender category in nouns or even in personal pronouns, similarly to neighbouring Hungarian: ''sun'' is "he", "she", or "it", depending on the referent. There are no articles, meaning the definiteness is not distinguished.
===Cases===
===Cases===
West Carpathian has eleven cases: six grammatical cases, three locative cases, three directional cases. The most typical case endings for singular ('''sg''') and plural ('''pl''') numbers are shown in the table below:
West Carpathian has eleven cases: six grammatical cases, three locative cases, three directional cases. The most typical case endings for singular ('''sg''') and plural ('''pl''') numbers are shown in the table below:
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===Declension types===
===Declension types===
There are as many as 20 noun declension types (called ''onnevinsātuarek'' "word bending patterns"). Most of these forms are archaic and more common ones are used instead by analogy. Words in nominative, accusative, genitive, dative and illative cases are represented in the table below. Here are some of the most common patterns:
There are as many as 20 noun declension types (called ''otnevinsātuarek'' "word bending patterns"). Most of these forms are archaic and more common ones are used instead by analogy. Words in nominative, accusative, genitive, dative and illative cases are represented in the table below. Here are some of the most common patterns:
{|
{|
|
|
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|
|
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Tuare 2, pärä - "bark"
|+ Tuare 2, piärä - "bark"
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Case
! rowspan="2" | Case
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! sg !! pl
! sg !! pl
|-
|-
| [[w:Nominative case|nominative]] || ''pärä'' || ''päräk''  
| [[w:Nominative case|nominative]] || ''piärä'' || ''piäräk''  
|-
|-
| [[w:Accusative case|accusative]] || ''päreä'' || ''pärämme''  
| [[w:Accusative case|accusative]] || ''piäreä'' || ''piärämme''  
|-
|-
| [[w:Genitive case|genitive]] || ''pärui'' || ''pärädui''  
| [[w:Genitive case|genitive]] || ''piärui'' || ''piärädui''  
|-
|-
| [[w:Dative case|dative]] || ''päräid'' || ''pärīd''  
| [[w:Dative case|dative]] || ''piäräid'' || ''piärīd''  
|-
|-
| [[w:Illative case|illative]] || ''pärēn'' || ''päräkēn''  
| [[w:Illative case|illative]] || ''piärēn'' || ''piäräkēn''  
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|
|
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Tuare 5, lakō - "small"
|+ Tuare 5, lākō - "small"
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Case
! rowspan="2" | Case
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! sg !! pl
! sg !! pl
|-
|-
| [[w:Nominative case|nominative]] || ''lakō'' || ''laok''  
| [[w:Nominative case|nominative]] || ''lākō'' || ''laok''  
|-
|-
| [[w:Accusative case|accusative]] || ''lakauta'' || ''laomma''  
| [[w:Accusative case|accusative]] || ''lākauta'' || ''laomma''  
|-
|-
| [[w:Genitive case|genitive]] || ''lakauju'' || ''lakōdū''  
| [[w:Genitive case|genitive]] || ''lākauju'' || ''lākōdū''  
|-
|-
| [[w:Dative case|dative]] || ''laojcid'' || ''laojdid''  
| [[w:Dative case|dative]] || ''laojcid'' || ''laojdid''  
|-
|-
| [[w:Illative case|illative]] || ''lakavōn'' || ''laovkōn''  
| [[w:Illative case|illative]] || ''lākavōn'' || ''laovkōn''  
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
|}
|}
The pluperfect (almost the same as English past perfect) uses the auxillary verb ''īkā'', which can be translated as "to have been/done" in English, and and an infinitive V of verbs, which in this case is similar to an active participle, like English "talking".
The pluperfect (almost the same as English past perfect) uses the auxillary verb ''īkai'', which can be translated as "to have been/done" in English, and and an infinitive V of verbs, which in this case is similar to an active participle, like English "talking".
 
===Other moods===
===Other moods===
The three other moods are conditional, potential and imperative.
The three other moods are conditional, potential and imperative.
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|-
|-
! 1st sg.
! 1st sg.
| mālkōnō || ēmakkōnō || ihōnō mālinna || ihōnō ēmālō
| mālkōnō || ēmakkōnō || ihōnō mālinna || ihōnō ēmāinna
|-
|-
! 2nd sg.
! 2nd sg.
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|-
|-
! 3rd sg.
! 3rd sg.
| mālkājā || ēmkkājā || ījā mālinna || ījā ēmainna  
| mālkājā || ēmakkājā || ījā mālinna || ījā ēmainna  
|-
|-
! 1st pl.
! 1st pl.
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|-
|-
! 1st sg.
! 1st sg.
| mālcal || ēmahcal || mālcihō || ēmahcihō || mālansel || ēmākansel || mālanšō || ēmākanšō
| mālcal || ēmahcal || mālcihō || ēmahcihō || mālansel || ēmānsel || mālanšō || ēmānšō
|-
|-
! 2nd sg.
! 2nd sg.
| mālcas || ēmahcas || mālcihē || ēmahcihē || mālanses || ēmākanses || mālanšē || ēmākanšē
| mālcas || ēmahcas || mālcihē || ēmahcihē || mālanses || ēmānses || mālanšē || ēmānšē
|-
|-
! 3rd sg.
! 3rd sg.
| mālcaju || ēmahcaju || mālciuhā || ēmahciuhā || mālaňšu || ēmākaňšu || mālanšā || ēmākanšā
| mālcaju || ēmahcaju || mālciuhā || ēmahciuhā || mālaňšu || ēmāňšu || mālanšā || ēmānšā
|-
|-
! 1st pl.
! 1st pl.
| mālcelka || ēmahcelka || mālcihōlka || ēmahcihōlka || mālansalke || ēmākansalke || mālanšōlke || ēmākanšōlke
| mālcelka || ēmahcelka || mālcihōlka || ēmahcihōlka || mālansalke || ēmāsalke || mālanšōlke || ēmānšōlke
|-
|-
! 2nd pl.
! 2nd pl.
| mālceska || ēmahceska || mālcihōska || ēmahcihōska || mālansaske || ēmākansaske || mālanšōske || ēmākanšōske
| mālceska || ēmahceska || mālcihōska || ēmahcihōska || mālansaske || ēmānsaske || mālanšōske || ēmānšōske
|-
|-
! 3rd pl.
! 3rd pl.
| mālčauka || ēmahčauka || mālcihōpā || ēmahcihōpā || mālaňšauke || ēmākaňšauke || mālanšōpā || ēmākanšōpā
| mālčauka || ēmahčauka || mālcihōpā || ēmahcihōpā || mālaňšauke || ēmāňšauke || mālanšōpā || ēmānšōpā
|-
|-
|}
|}
The conditional mood corresponds mostly to "would" or "should" or to the past subjunctive in English. The potential mood describes things that might possibly happen, though its probability is not certain, similarly to English "may/might", and it is always formed agglutinatively in compound verbs. The imperfect forms of these moods are used to indicate present or future events, while perfect is used in sentences with verbs in the past tense. Compound verbs form differently: ''āsēni šeiteviu, tāpahtēlki'' - "If the weather is fine, we will go for a walk", where ''šeiteviu'' is formed from the adjective ''šeiti'' "fine, clear" by adding a suffix ''-evi'' meaning "to may be".
The conditional mood corresponds mostly to "would" or "should" or to the past subjunctive in English. The potential mood describes things that might possibly happen, though its probability is not certain, similarly to English "may/might", and it is always formed agglutinatively in compound verbs. The imperfect forms of these moods are used to indicate present or future events, while perfect is used in sentences with verbs in the past tense. Compound verbs form differently: ''āsēni šeiteviu, tāpahtēlki'' - "If the weather is fine, we will go for a walk", where ''šeiteviu'' is formed from the adjective ''šeiti'' "fine, clear" by adding a suffix ''-evi'' meaning "to may be".
===Infinitives===
West Carpathian has ten infinitive forms, denoted with roman numerals or with typical verb endings.
====Infinitive I====
The infinitive I or the i-infinitive is a dictionary form of verbs. The ending of this infinitive is ''-i'' with a stem modification due to a consonant gradation and (seldom) alteration.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb stem !! Infinitive I !! English translation
|-
| ''māl-'' || ''māli'' || to talk
|-
| ''čēp-'' || ''čēpi'' || to boil
|-
| ''īl-'' || ''īli'' || to hear
|}
When a stem ends in a vowel, the suffix can become either -ji or -di, depending on what consonant was present in that place historically (weak grade consonant ''-g-'' was lost completely, but turned into -j- before this ending).
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb stem !! Infinitive I !! English translation
|-
| ''kui-'' || ''kuoidi'' || to melt
|-
| ''ňei-'' || ''ňieji'' || to give
|-
| ''kā-'' || ''kāji'' || to bake
|}
If stems end with -v-, -ll-, -ss- -h-, then a strong grade (-hp-, -ht-, -hc-, -hk- respectively) will appear in the infinitive.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb stem !! Infinitive I !! English translation
|-
| ''kōv-'' || ''koahpi'' || to dig
|-
| ''nēll-'' || ''niähti'' || to wash
|-
| ''kauss-'' || ''kāvahci'' || to feel
|-
| ''tūh-'' || ''tuohki'' || to pull
|}
====Infinitive II====
Also called the supine, the infinitive II is used to express a purpose of action and is usually translated as English "in order to". Its endings are ''-itān'' or ''-etān''. These endings trigger the same gradation as the infinitive I with only few exceptions.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb stem !! Infinitive II !! English translation
|-
| ''māl-'' || ''māletān'' || in order to talk
|-
| ''nēll-'' || ''niähtitān'' || in order to wash
|-
| ''īl-'' || ''īlitān'' || in order to hear
|}
There are few irregular exceptions:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb stem !! Infinitive II !! English translation
|-
| ''pirj-'' || ''pirkitān'' || in order to remain
|-
| ''pao-'' || ''poahotān'' || in order to fall
|-
| ''miänn-'' || ''miänitān'' || in order to recall
|}
====Infinitive III====
The third infinitive expresses process of action and is equivalent to English "while/when doing". It can be recognized by the ''-mēn/-mōn'' ending. The gradation pattern is different from previous infinitives, since it triggers the weak grade.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb stem !! Infinitive I !! English translation
|-
| ''māl-'' || ''malmōn'' || while talking
|-
| ''kui-'' || ''kuimōn'' || while boiling
|-
| ''pao-'' || ''paomōn'' || while falling
|}
If the weak grade is a geminate consonant, or a consonant that would create a cluster difficult to pronounce, then -e- or -a- is inserted between them and the ending.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb stem !! Infinitive I !! English translation
|-
| ''kōv-'' || ''kōvamōn'' || while digging
|-
| ''nēll-'' || ''nēllemēn'' || while washing
|-
| ''kauss-'' || ''kaussemōn'' || while feeling
|-
| ''miänn-'' || ''miännemēn'' || while recalling
|}
====Infinitive IV====
The infinitive IV is used to express the end of action and is equivalent to English "having done". The ending is ''-esta'' which triggers the same gradation as the infinitive I.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb stem !! Infinitive I !! English translation
|-
| ''māl-'' || ''malesta'' || having talked
|-
| ''miänn-'' || ''miäntesta'' || having recalled
|-
| ''pao-'' || ''poadesta'' || having fallen
|}
====Infinitive V====
This infinitive corresponds to the English gerund ("verb + -ing" form), and can behave as a noun in that it can be inflected. It is used to refer to a particular act or a manner of action (used in an instrumental case). The usual ending is ''-innä/-inna'', which changes into ''-män-/-man-'' while declining.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb stem !! Infinitive II !! English translation
|-
| ''māl-'' || ''mālinna'' || talking
|-
| ''nēll-'' || ''niähtimännä'' || (the manner of) washing
|-
| ''īl-'' || ''īlinnä'' || hearing
|-
| ''kui-'' || ''kuoidimanoan'' || into (the process of) boiling
|}
====Infintive VI====
The sixth infinitive has the stem ending ''-vet/-vat'' and indicates obligation and ''-vettēn/-vattoan'', which expresses necessity. Nowadays the second suffix is rarely used, since there is a verb ''terväi'' "to need", which comes from a noun ''tervä'' "need", and can be used with the infinitive V. Infinitive VI triggers the same gradation as the infinitive III, with an exception of verb stems, that require an insertion of -e-.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb stem !! Infinitive II !! English translation
|-
| ''parmāl-'' || ''parmalvat'' || must be talked about
|-
| ''nēll-'' || ''nēllevettēn'' || it's necessary to wash
|-
| ''sam-'' || ''sammevat'' || must be seen
|-
| ''kui-'' || ''kuivattoan'' || it's necessary to boil
|}
These endings are impersonal, but they can be used with any other person, for example: ''malvas hoa par'' "you must talk about it", ''īlivehcēn hoa'' - "you'd better hear this".
====Infinitive VII====
Infinitive VII can occasionally be used in folklore, but not in everyday speech. Its ending is ''-vassi'' and it is translated into English as "asked to do". It is used in the indirect speech, like in ''sun pilsē kuivassi sieceä'' "he/she asked to boil the water", and nowadays infinitive II would used in this place.
====Infinitive VIII and IX====
These are conditional and potential infinitives and are short forms of conditional and potential clauses, for example ''pelcin'' - "if to sing (imperfect)" and ''pelcihēn'' - "if to have sung (perfect)". Endings ''-anset'' and ''-anšōn'' are used for infintive IX, but its usage is uncommon in modern day speech. But infinitive VIII is seldom used, like in ''āsēni hārācin, tolātelki dāva'' "weather permitting, we will be there in time. (''āsēni šeiteviu'' - "if the weather is fine" can also be used instead, but literally it would be translated as "weather may (or may not) be fine").
====Infinitive X====
The infintive X is obsolete in modern day speech and can often be found only in one verb ''jiedi'' "to know", the infinitive of which is ''jīnki'' and means "as far as it is known". Personal endings can be added to it (this feature developed later after the division of the Carpathian languages), the most commonly used ''jīngin'' "as far as I know" or ''jīnginka'' "as far as we know".
===Verb types===
There are ten inflection verb types. Every verb belongs to a certain type according to its verb stem. Nine types are regular, since verbs belonging to these types have predictable basic changes in conjugation. The following table shows some of these changes, which define the conjugation pattern (''vinsatuare''):
{| class="wikitable"
! class="hintergrundfarbe6" | Type
! class="hintergrundfarbe6" | Example
! class="hintergrundfarbe6" | 1<sup>sg</sup> Pres.
! class="hintergrundfarbe6" | 3<sup>sg</sup> Past
! class="hintergrundfarbe6" | 2<sup>sg</sup> Imp.
! class="hintergrundfarbe6" | Infinitive III
! class="hintergrundfarbe6" | Infinitive V
! class="hintergrundfarbe6" | Infinitive I
! class="hintergrundfarbe6" | Translation
|-
| I-a
| māli
| mālel
| māluvā
| mālkē
| malmōn
| mālinna
| -i
| to talk
|-
| I-b
| kuoidi
| kuil
| kuoiduvā
| kuoikē
| kuimōn
| kuoinna
| -ji/-di
| to melt
|-
| I-c
| niähti
| nēllel
| niähtuvā
| nēlkē
| nēllemēn
| niähtinnä
| -hpi/-hti/-hci/-hki
| to give
|-
| I-d
| miänti
| miännel
| miäntuvā
| miänkē
| miännemēn
| miäntinnä
| -mpi/-nti/-nki/-sti
| to recall
|-
| II
| poadi
| paol
| poaduvā
| poadekē
| paomōn
| poadinna
| -ädi/-adi
| to fall
|-
| II-b
| pirki
| piril
| pirjivā
| pirjikē
| pirimēn
| pirkinnä
| -rki/-lki/-ski
| to remain
|-
| III
| kārui
| kārul
| kāruvā
| kārukē
| kārumōn
| kāruinna
| -ei/-ui
| to be green
|-
| IV
| ňiheškai
| ňiheššal
| ňiheškavā
| ňiheškakē
| ňiheššamōn
| ňiheškainna
| -kai
| to have fish
|-
| V
| varvekui
| varveul
| varvekuvā
| varvekukē
| varveumōn
| varvekuinna
| -kui
| to paint
|-
| VI
| rūhtei
| rūkkēl
| rūhtevā
| rūhtekē
| rūkkēmōn
| rūhteinna
| -tei
| to make clothes
|-
| VII
| soveähtei
| soveällel
| soveähtevā
| soveähtekē
| soveällemōn
| soveähteinna
| -ahtei
| to go skiing
|-
| VIII
| näissi
| näisel
| näissevā
| näiskē
| näisemēn
| näissinnä
| -ssi
| to be able to swim
|-
| IX
| pellekei
| pellekil
| pellekeivā
| pelleikkē
| pellekimōn
| pellekīnna
| -kei
| to want to sing
|-
| X
| terväi
| tervän
| terväjä
| tervē
| tervämēn
| terväinnä
| -äi/-ai
| to need
|}


[[Category:Carpathian languages]]
[[Category:Carpathian languages]]
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