Proto-Settameric/Swadesh list

No.	English	PS	Notes
1	I	*n-	Appears as *-an (1st person transitive subject), *-kan (1st person intransitive subject).
2	you (sg.)	*ki-	Appears as *-akʷ (1st person transitive subject), *-kəxʷ (1st person intransitive subject).
3	we	*mi-
4	this	*ɣi	Proximal marker, contransted with *jooθə - another proximate marker, the difference between them is not established.
5	that	*ət	Distal marker, far from both speaker and listener. Contrasts with *da as the medial-distance marker, far from speaker but close to listener.
6	who	*kʷarsə	Higher animate (used when talking about humans), contrasts with *tʰam, used with nouns of a lower animacy.
7	what	*wat
8	not	*kää-	A prefix, used together with nominals.
9	all	*lčus, *nyumʼə
10	many	*səłku-(t/s)	The Western and the Far Eastern languages show a final *-t, while other languages point towards *-s instead.
11	one	*njeem
12	two	*meeja
13	big	*ɣʷiin
14	long	*kił
15	small	*iłiiqʰi
16	woman	*eełəŋ(kʼə)	*kʼ only shows in the Western languages and Šillai (a Southern language).
17	man	*jootuqʼee	Problematic, as most languages have different words, like *(i)nees, or *ajtax (this word probably originally meant "husband").
18	person	*nipeekʰ	Derives from *ni- and *weekʰu "people".
19	fish	*čʰuu, *qəqoon	*qəqoon probably meant "salmon" and kept its original meaning in Western languages.
20	bird	–	All branches show different words for "bird", such as *peeleeš, *lčaŋkłəs, or *cʼisqʷə.
21	horse	*ilaar	Dogs do not exist on Liifam, a word for "horse" is listed instead.
22	louse	*θirxee
23	tree	*čʰikʷee
24	seed	*θalču(jŋə)	The Western languages point to *θalču, while the Eastern languages point towards *θalčiiŋ.
25	leaf	*pəlaŋqʼa
26	root	*čʼəłəjip
27	bark (n.)	*xeerɣʷa
28	skin	*ʟuuqʼə, *θərə
29	meat	*dääw, *diɣʷ	Both *dääw and *diɣʷ gave words for "meat", but *dääw likely meant "cheek".
30	blood	–	Reflexes of three different roots are found among different languages: *arə, *ałkʷə and *cʰooxi.
31	bone	*łəqʷ, *xoockʼee
32	grease	*woolxə, *njooš	*nyooš likely had an adjectival meaning of "containing a lot of fat".
33	egg	*tqaalx	The root *nyujee, that evolved into words for "egg" in various languages, actually meant "caviar".
34	horn	*wiiʟ
35	tail	*čʼaakʼee, *ncaak	The most common root that gave words for "tail" is *njaɣə (more precisely its doublet *ŋaɣə) "fish tail", while *čʼaakʼee "animal tail" is found only in the Southern branch. The root *ncaak probably meant "back".
36	feather	*miixee, *miiqʷee	The western languages point towards *miiqʷee, while the Southern show reflexes of *miixee. Various Eastern languages have reflexes of *iłoop-čə instead.
37	hair	*ʟʼeepe
38	head	*tʼuqʷ	Various languages derive their words for "head" from *qams "face", *oori "forward", *čiiŋqə "forehead".
39	ear	*ʟʼaatə, *noo(tə)x	The root *noo(t)xə can not be easily reconstructed. It is only found among the Eastern languages and for some it can be reconstructed as *noox, while for others - *notxə. This is very likely a substrate word from an extinct lnguage.
40	eye	*qʰałee
41	nose	*łəqʼaw
42	mouth	*qʷeeθ, *ooł	The Far Eastern and the Southern langauges derive their word for "mouth" from *ʟʼeeqʷθə "throat".
43	tooth	–	Various languages show reflexes of different roots: *qiɣee, *xecas, *əlʼəwnux ("tip", "blade"). *xecas often has the meaning of "fangs", while *qiɣee gives words for "needle".
44	tongue	*qʰiił, *mqiił	The root *mqiił looks like an old derivation of *qʰiił and likely meant "chewing". The meaning of "speaking" probably appeared from the contamination of a similar root *mqal "language".
45	fingernail	–	Problematic, as various languages point to two roots *kʼwitʼə and *toonxə, both of which meant something related to animals, like"claws" or "scales".
46	foot	*θitʼeeł
47	knee	*pʼiqee, *aqeet	Both roots could have meant "knee", based on the data from modern descendants.
48	hand	*diim	Most languages derive their words for "hand" from *-nulkʼ- ("carrying in hands"), or *-iq ("by" or "with").
49	belly	*tʼaaka, *kʰis	The root *kʰis likely meant "body". The Western languages derive their words from *wulun "round" instead.
50	neck	*qʷaj	The Eastern languages point to *səkʷeen "the rotating one".
51	breast	*ipee
52	heart	*tʼiŋqee, *łəmcas	The Southern languages evolve their words for heart from *łəmcas, which meant "middle".
53	liver	*(r,ł)aaqʷa,	The Western languages show initial *r-, while the Eastern ones show *ł. The Southern branch derives their words from *łiqʷ "meat", or *tʰištə "spleen".
54	drink	*mɣoor
55	eat	*qʼancə	The Plain Eastern languages have *miis or *moos instead, the exact vowel can not be determined because of the sound change *oo>*ii in those languages. likely a substrate word.
56	bite	*łəθkoo
57	see	*noonʼə, *njən	Likely old imperfective and perfective roots respectively. Most languages derive their words from both roots.
58	hear	*meeʟʼ, *mi	Likely old imperfective and perfective roots respectively.
59	know	*qʰoom	The Western languages derive their words from *fis "understand" instead.
60	sleep	*kʼʷooł, *iłkʼʷə	The root *iłkʼʷə is likely a later derivation of *kʼʷooł, and meant "to dream".
61	die	*njapʰee, *likumʼə	The root *njapʰee probably meant "dying of unnatural causes", while *likumʼə was likely "dying of old age".
62	kill	*əłxəmʼa
63	swim	*moor, *ool	*ool meant "passive swimming" or "floating".
64	fly (v.)	*njool, *njil	Likely old imperfective and perfective roots respectively.
65	go	*wii, *haa
66	come	*θoonʼə
67	lie	*łiiʟʼee, *łooθa	*łooθa probably meant "to lie down", but its reflexes often mean "to lie" in the daughter languages.
68	sit	θliiqʷrə *θlaar	*θlaar was a perfective root and meant "to sit down".
69	stand	*ʟaa	The Southern languages don't show this root, instead their words for "to stand" are derived from *ɣaap.
70	give	–	No root can be reconstructed.
71	say	*qoołt
72	sun	*cos	All Eastern languages derive their word for "sun" from the root *kiŋ "day".
73	moon	*lʼunčə
74	star	*neejus
75	water	*qʷʰee, *wʼeep	The root *qʷʰee could mean "any liquid in general", not specifically "drinking water".
76	rain	*ijʼu	Some Southern languages point toward *jooɣʷ, which is the word for "dew" in the Western languages.
77	stone	*njiɣee, *čikʷee	The root *čikʷee probably meant "large rock".
78	sand	*qʼoop, *iłxiθ
79	land	*eemxə, *mʼee, *čakʰ	Roots *čakʰ and *eemxə likely meant "dirt".
80	cloud	*awʼaθa, *eensur	*eensur gave words for "sky" in various languages. Some also derive them from awʼiin, that likely contained the older root for "cloud *awʼ-.
81	smoke	*(a)wʼeečqee	It contains the old root *awʼ-, but the initial *a- was lost in most languages.
82	fire	*eeŋeeŋqʼʷə, *fleeŋqʼʷə	Both roots contain *-eeŋqʼʷə of an unknown meaning.
83	ashes	*kiflum, *pilaŋkʼee
84	burn	*pooł, *qʷʰał
85	path	*łəɣtə
86	mountain	*mooθum
87	red	*pʼač(-kə)
88	green	*qʼoomi, *tqʼoom, *quuł	Both *qʼoomi and *quuł often give words for "blue".
89	yellow	*riiqu
90	white	*eequ
91	black	*quɣu
92	night	*tʰax, *nääɣtə, *eetʰək
93	warm	*pacʰee, *kʷääxi	*kʷääxi meant "hot", while *pacʰee meant "mildly warm".
94	cold	*kʼiiwŋə, *ljirqə	*kʼiiwŋə meant "mildly cool", while *ljirqə meant "freezing, cold".
95	full	*njuši
96	new	*cʼiiwi, *setni
97	good	*qarsi
98	round	*wulun, *qʼʷeelxə, *duki
99	dry	*qʼaarkə
100	name	*qʰal	The Southern and Far Eastern langauges derive their words for "name" from *akł- "to call" with the addition of suffixes *-iin, *-tee, or *-kə.