Tigol/Proto-Tigol: Difference between revisions

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{{private}}{{construction}}


{{ClassMeter
|Name      = {{PAGENAME}}
|NativeName = gávthȁ themsármā
|Type      = Fusional
|Alignment  = Nominative-accusative
|adjective = first
|adposition = first
|adverb= mixed
|article= first
|relativeclause = first
|nounclause = first
|order = VSO
|Tonal      = Yes
|Genders    = 2
|Declined  = Yes
|Conjugated = Yes
|Case  = no
|Number = Yes
|Definiteness = Yes
|Gender = Yes
|Voice  = Yes
|Mood  = Yes
|Person = Yes
|Number = Yes
|Tense  = Yes
|Aspect = Yes
|}}
==Background==
The Themsaran language constitutes a separate branch of the Zachydic language family, along with other para-Themsaran languages. Themsaran is a typological and lexical outlier in its family due to its long period of isolation and substrate influence. The language possesses strongly head-initial syntax, head-marking in both clauses and possessive NPs, mixed fusional and agglutinative inflection, and nominative-accusative morphosyntax. This article describes Classical Themsaran.
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="graytable lightgraybg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 68px; "|
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial
! style="width: 68px; " |Labio-dental
! style="width: 68px; " |Dental
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Post-alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 68px; " |Dorsal
! style="width: 68px; " |Radical
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal
|-
! style="" |Nasal
| m
|
| n
|
|
|
| ŋ
|
|
|-
! style="" |Plosive
| p b
|
|
| t d
|
|
| k g
| (ʡ)
| (ʔ)
|-
! style="" |Fricative
|
| f v
| θ ⟨th⟩
| s z
| ʃ ⟨š⟩ ʒ ⟨ž⟩
|
| x ⟨ch⟩
| ħ~ʜ~ʢ ⟨ħ⟩
| h~ɦ ⟨h⟩
|-
! style="" |Affricate
|
|
|
|
| tʃ ⟨ť⟩
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Approximant
|
| (ʋ)
|
|
|
| j
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Trill
|
|
|
| r
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Lateral app.
|
|
|
| l
|
| ʎ ⟨ļ⟩
|
|
|
|}
[ʔ] may occur only in morpheme boundaries.
====Conditioned allophony====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="graytable lightgraybg" style="width: 570px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 120px; "|Phoneme
! style="width: 120px; " |Allophone
! style="width: 120px; " |Condition(s)
|-
| rowspan="2"| /ħ/
| [ħ~ʜ]
| #_, C[+voiceless]_
|-
| [ʡ~ʢ]
| V_V, C[+voiced]_
|-
| /h/
| [ɦ]
| V_V, C[+voiced]_
|-
| C[+obstruent, ±voiced]
| C[+obstruent, ∓voiced]
| _C[+obstruent, -guttural, ∓voiced]
|}
===Vowels===
Themaran has six vowels, short and long. Short vowels have one mora, and long vowels have two morae.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="graytable lightgraybg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; " |Front
! style="width: 90px; " |Central
! style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
! style="" |Close
| i ⟨i⟩ iː ⟨ī⟩
| ʉ ⟨y⟩ ʉː ⟨ȳ⟩
| u ⟨u⟩ uː ⟨ū⟩
|-
! style="" |Mid
| e ⟨e⟩ eː ⟨ē⟩
|
| o ⟨o⟩ oː ⟨ō⟩
|-
! style="" |Open
|
| a ⟨a⟩ aː ⟨ā⟩
|
|}
The following are the diphthongs, all falling: /ai au ei ie~ia uo~ua/ ⟨ai au ei ie ua⟩. All diphthongs are bimoraic.
===Pitch accent===
Pitch accent, or tone, is phonemic in Themsaran. The following is the notation for tones:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="graytable lightgraybg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; " |Short
! style="width: 90px; " |Long
! style="width: 90px; " |Diphthong
|-
! style="" |Unmarked
| '''a'''
| '''ā'''
| '''ai'''
|-
! style="" |High
| '''á'''
| '''a̋'''
| '''ái'''
|-
! style="" |Low
| '''à'''
| '''ȁ'''
| '''ài'''
|-
! style="" |Falling
| -
| '''â'''
| '''âi'''
|-
! style="" |Rising
| -
| '''ǎ'''
| '''ǎi'''
|}
The pitch accent of a word (of more than one mora) consists of two components: the lexical tone, and the position of the downstep (the latter is confined to appear after the 3rd-to-last mora). A high-tone word is consistently high until the downstep, whereafter the pitch drops sharply. A low-tone word starts low and has the highest pitch at the tonic mora, which is immediately before the downstep.
The following are the rules governing the marking Themsaran pitch accent:
#High lexical tone is marked in the initial syllable; low tone is not marked, unless necessitated by rule 2.
#The tonic syllable is always marked:
##If the downstep occurs after a long syllable (syllable with a long vowel or diphthong), the syllable is rising in a low-tone word, and high in a high-tone word. 
##If the downstep occurs between the two morae of a long syllable, the syllable has falling tone.
#If the first syllable has high tone and precedes a downstep, the second syllable is marked as low.
If the downstep occurred word-finally, the first syllable of a following high tone word would have slightly lower pitch. In [[w:Pausa|pausa]], a word final high short syllable is realized as a falling, short vowel.
==Orthography==
==Grammar==
'''NB.'''' In structural glosses, ''a, b, c...'' are coreference indices, and ''i, j, k...'' are agreement indices.
===Nouns===
Nouns and adjectives have a rich morphology, albeit less ornate than verbs. They inflect for number, definiteness and possessedness, but not for case. Nouns have two genders, masculine and feminine. In third-person possessed forms, Themsaran makes a distinction, realized tonally, between the ''absolute'' possessed form, which indicates a noun possessed by a pronoun, and the ''conjunct'' possessed form, used to indicate a possessive relationship between two nouns and agreeing with the gender of the possessor.
====First declension====
The first declension consists primarily of masculine nouns.
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 660px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''First declension'''
|-
! rowspan="3"|
! colspan="8"|
|-
! colspan="4" scope="col"|Singular
! colspan="4" scope="col"|Plural
|-
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Indefinite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Definite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Indefinite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Definite
|-
!scope="row"|Unpossessed
|colspan="2"|-Ø
|colspan="2"|''-ē''
|colspan="2"|''-ach''
|colspan="2"|''-ō''
|-
!scope="row"|1sg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-n''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2sg.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2sg.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3sg.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-u''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3sg.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-i''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4sg.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-thu''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4sg.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-thi''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|1ex
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|1in
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2pl.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2pl.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3pl.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-ech''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3pl.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-er''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4pl.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-thech''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4pl.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-ther''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}
====Second declension====
The second declension consists primarily of feminine nouns.
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 660px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''Second declension'''
|-
! rowspan="3"|
! colspan="8"|
|-
! colspan="4" scope="col"|Singular
! colspan="4" scope="col"|Plural
|-
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Indefinite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Definite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Indefinite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Definite
|-
!scope="row"|Unpossessed
|colspan="2"|''-e''
|colspan="2"|''-ā''
|colspan="2"|''-ir''
|colspan="2"|''-enā''
|-
!scope="row"|1sg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-an''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2sg.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2sg.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3sg.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-au''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3sg.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-ai''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4sg.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-ath''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4sg.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-eth''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|1ex
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|1in
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2pl.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2pl.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3pl.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-āch''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3pl.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4pl.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4pl.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}
====Third declension====
The third declension consists mainly of mass, collective and abstract nouns of both genders.
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 660px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''Third declension'''
|-
! rowspan="3"|
! colspan="8"|
|-
! colspan="4" scope="col"|Singular
! colspan="4" scope="col"|Plural
|-
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Indefinite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Definite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Indefinite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Definite
|-
!scope="row"|Unpossessed
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|1sg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2sg.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2sg.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3sg.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3sg.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4sg.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4sg.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|1ex
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|1in
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2pl.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2pl.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3pl.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3pl.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4pl.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4pl.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}
====Tonal patterns of nominals====
Every noun falls under one of three tonal paradigms.
====Irregular nouns====
===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in not only number, definiteness and gender with their heads, but also in possessedness. Adjectival declension disagrees with nouns in that absolute possessive form of adjectives modifies the conjunct possessive of nouns. Adjectives also take degree inflection (positive, "less/least", "more/most", elative, "X enough", "too X"). Adjectives exhibit tonal ablaut like those of nouns.
====Declension====
====Degree====
Adjectives with degree inflections may be nominalized to derive, for example, meanings such as "supreme strength" from "the very strongest".
====Irregular adjectives====
===Pronouns===
====Personal====
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''Personal pronouns'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
''na̋''
|
<!--pl-->
''châm''
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
''táŋên''
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
''zéi''
|
<!--pl-->
''srâs''
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
''véi''
|
<!--pl-->
''srâth''
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
''žá''
|
<!--pl-->
''žû''
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
''žî''
|
<!--pl-->
''žân''
|-
!|4.m
|
<!--sg-->
''ťá''
|
<!--pl-->
''ťû''
|-
!|4.f
|
<!--sg-->
''ťî''
|
<!--pl-->
''ťân''
|}
====Demonstrative====
The demonstratives have identical endings to personal pronouns in feminine singular and the plural. The adnominal demonstratives are ''mé'' (near speaker), ''ħé'' (near hearer), and ''ťá'' (distal; identical to 4th person pronoun), and the pronominal demonstratives are ''ím(e)'', ''íž(a)'', and ''íť(a)''.
When a demonstrative modifies a noun phrase, the noun and adjective modified take the indefinite form if unpossessed, and the definite form if possessed.
====Reflexive====
====Reciprocal====
The reciprocal pronoun, "each other", is ''nadnék''. It originated from an adverb that was later reanalyzed as a pronoun.
===Table of correlatives===
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 600px; text-align: center;"
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Interrogative
!style="width: 120px; "|Near speaker
!style="width: 120px; "|Near hearer
!style="width: 120px; "|Distal
!style="width: 120px; "|Existential
!style="width: 120px; "|Negational
!style="width: 120px; "|Elective
!style="width: 120px; "|Collective
!style="width: 120px; "|Distributive
|}
===Verbs===
Finite verbs are marked for TAM, degree (positive, "more/most"), voice (active and mediopassive), the subject's person, number, and gender and, if the direct object is definite, is obligatorily marked with the (usually direct) object's person, number, and gender in most TAMs, except in the imperative. The verb may agree with an indirect object (which is typically animate) instead of with the direct object. Verbs also have several non-finite forms, used with various subordinating conjunctions and relative clauses.
====Tense-aspect-mood====
=====Imperative=====
The imperative is used to issue positive, direct orders.
=====Jussive=====
The jussive bears a wide range of uses:
* optatives (wishes), polite requests and hortatives (urging);
* prohibitions, with the prohibitive marker (Don't walk!);
* imperatives in indirect speech, with a complementizer ("He ordered me to go back");
* purpose clauses, as relative clauses or as subordinated or coordinated clauses; ("the word to say").
=====Non-finite forms=====
The non-finite forms are participles and two infinitives.
The participle, which is available for all verbal categories, is used to construct VOS clauses, where O and S are full noun phrases, or O is a noun and S is a third- or fourth-person pronoun. VOS sentences lend more emphasis to the predicate than the neutral VSO.
The possessor of the first infinitive represents the verb's object.
The possessor of the second infinitive represents the verb's subject.
====Conjugation of the active====
The active voice is the default voice, used when the subject is the agent of the verb.
The three conjugations of Themsaran verbs are demonstrated below respectively with the verbs ''mól'' - 'thank', ''chrīgá'' - 'walk backwards', ''ga̋le'' - 'sing'. The first conjugation subsumes ''ħ''-stem verbs, where the ''ħ'' assimilates into any consonant that begins an ending, and ''h''-stem verbs, for which only fricative-beginning endings are so geminated, and for other consonants, undergoes compensatory lengthening of the vowel preceding the ending.
=====Subject affixes=====
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''Imperative'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--sg-->
-
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''èns'''!''<br/>
''chrǐg'''ans'''!''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êns'''!''
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
''mól!''<br/>
''chrǐg'''a'''!''<br/>
''ga̋l'''e'''!''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''èls'''!''<br/>
''chrǐg'''als'''!''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êls'''!''
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''t'''!''<br/>
''chrǐg'''at'''!''<br/>
''ga̋l'''ét'''!''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''èrs'''!''<br/>
''chrǐg'''ars'''!''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êrs'''!''
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''Present'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''ȉ'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''ai'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''ei'''''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''mà'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''ama'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êma'''''
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''ènse'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''anse'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''ênse'''''
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''èr'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''ar'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êr'''''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''èlse'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''alse'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êlse'''''
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''ȅ'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''ā'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''îe'''''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''èrse'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''arse'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êrse'''''
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''è'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''à'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''ê'''''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''vì'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''avi'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''évi'''''
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''ìs'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''àis'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''ìes'''''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''tì'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''ati'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''éti'''''
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''Jussive'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
=====Non-finite forms=====
The non-finite forms are participles and two infinitives.
The participle is formed by infixing ⟨''an''⟩ before the nucleus of the first syllable of the stem.
The first infinitive is formed by suffixing ''-s'' to the 2nd person masculine singular imperative.
====Conjugation of the mediopassive====
The mediopassive marks the subject as a patient of the verb. Apart from passivity, mediopassives may have a derivational function; they may indicate reflexive action or change of state. As such there are quite a few deponent verbs, verbs that are inherently mediopassive, and also mediopassive counterparts of active intransitive verbs.
=====Subject affixes=====
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''Imperative'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''Present'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''Jussive'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
====Object affixes====
The object affixes combine at the end of the verb, sometimes in less predictable ways, to agree with the direct object.
{| class="graytable lightgraybg " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''Object affixes'''
|-
!|1sg
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|3sg.m
!|3sg.f
!|4sg.m
!|4sg.f
!|1ex
!|1in
!|2pl.m
!|2pl.f
!|3pl.m
!|3pl.f
!|4pl.m
!|4pl.f
|-
|''-(e)n''
|''-ze''
|''-ve''
|''-(j)u''
|''-(j)i''
|''-thu''
|''-thi''
|''-am''
|''-(e)nt''
|''-sŋa''
|''-sŋe''
|''-(e)ch''
|''-(e)r''
|''-thech''
|''-ther''
|}
====Non-finite forms====
====Tonal patterns====
====Applicative====
The applicative suffix, placed after the masculine singular imperative, is ''-t''.
===Prepositions===
===Numerals===
{| class="graytable lightgraybg" style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Cardinal
!style="width: 120px; "|Ordinal
!style="width: 120px; "|Multiple
!style="width: 120px; "|Distributive
!style="width: 120px; "|Fractional
|}
==Syntax==
The default constituent order is verb-subject-pronominal oblique object-direct object. The subject or the direct object can be topicalized or focalized by being placed in front of the verb.
===Noun phrases===
Numerals precede nouns; possessors follow their possessa; demonstratives occur after attributive adjectives, which follow nouns. Whether a quantifier precedes or follows the noun depends on the specific quantifier. Within these boundaries there is a lot of leeway; an attributive adjective or a demonstrative can occupy any position between its head and the relative clause.
====Distributive possession====
To express the meaning of "our/your/their respective NP", the last noun of the NP is reduplicated in absolute possessed forms. The plural persons are decomposed as follows:
*1{{sc|ex.m}}: noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-3{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} or noun-3{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}}
*1{{sc|ex.f}}: noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-3{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} or noun-3{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}}
*1{{sc|in.m}}: noun-2{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} or noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-2{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}}
*1{{sc|in.f}}: noun-2{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} or noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-2{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}}
*2{{sc|pl.m}}: noun-2{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-2{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}}
*2{{sc|pl.f}}: noun-2{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-2{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}}
*3{{sc|pl.m}}: noun-3{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-3{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}}
*3{{sc|pl.f}}: noun-3{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-3{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}}
*4{{sc|pl.m}}: noun-4{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-4{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}}
*4{{sc|pl.f}}: noun-4{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-4{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}}
These exact forms are always used disregarding the finer aspects of gender composition in the group. Thus, for example, if the only male in a group speaks of "our (exclusive) respective villages", he will still say "my village his village".
===Equational sentences===
The copula ''vák'' is rarely used in the present tense. Instead, a 3rd- or a 4th-person pronoun (cliticized and therefore toneless) agreeing with the subject may be used anywhere in the sentence, or omitted. Both subject-predicate and predicate-subject orders may be found. The predicate-subject order tends to indicate a more permanent state of being, while the subject-predicate order denotes a more temporary state. When the subject is a pronoun, the uncliticized pronoun is used.
===Coreferentiality===
There are several situations where the strictly head-marking language tracks coreferentiality, or which agreeing noun a verb or pronoun taking a given agreement refers to, with fourth person pronouns or by other means.
====Across clauses====
====Content questions====
The fourth person object suffix is used on the verb, not the third person, when the interrogative word is the direct object.
{{Gloss|phrase = Jé henesan{{blue|ú}}?|IPA=/jéꜜ hènesanuꜜ/|morphemes = jé ⟨he⟩nesa⟨n⟩-{{blue|u}} |gloss = who ⟨PAST.PFV⟩kill.animate.subject⟨PAST.PFV.3SG.M.NOM⟩-{{blue|3SG.M.OBJ}}  |translation = Who killed him?}}
{{Gloss|phrase = Jé henesan{{blue|thú}}?|IPA=/jéꜜ hènesanθuꜜ/|morphemes = jé ⟨he⟩nesa⟨n⟩-{{blue|thu}} |gloss = who ⟨PAST.PFV⟩kill.animate.subject⟨PAST.PFV.3SG.M.NOM⟩-{{blue|4SG.M.OBJ}}  |translation = Whom did he kill?/Who is it he killed?}}
====Possessives====
If an absolute possessed noun has a possessor who is the subject of the clause it is in, the third person is used. All other possessors of the same gender and number are in the fourth person.
====Relative clauses====
Any pronoun which corefers with the head of the relative clause is in the fourth person. The non-resumptive third-person pronouns are all ordinary third person.
====Indirect speech====
If the complement clause's subject corefers with the subject of the main clause, it is left unstated in the complement clause. Otherwise the third- or fourth-person pronoun is used as the subject as appropriate.
==="Impersonal" sentences===
There exists impersonal pronouns (identical to the interrogative "who"/"what", and distinguished by not being fronted), but it is only used as an intransitive subject. In other cases, the verb is put into the mediopassive (or mediopassive of causative or applicative, as appropriate).
==Derivational morphology==
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A priori]]

Latest revision as of 16:14, 12 April 2022

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