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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name = Proto-Rugic
|name = Proto-Rugic
|nativename = *þiudiskaz
|nativename = *þaudiskaz
|pronunciation = ˈθɪuðiskɑz
|pronunciation = ˈθɑuðiskɑz
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|region = Europe
|region = Europe
Line 33: Line 33:


==Introduction==
==Introduction==
Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the [[w:Proto-Indo-European_language|PIE]] to [[w:Proto-Germanic_language|Proto-Germanic]] sound changes.
Proto-Rugic is the result of taking a Balto-Slavic base and applying a rough approximation of the [[w:Proto-Indo-European_language|PIE]] to [[w:Proto-Germanic_language|Proto-Germanic]] sound changes.


The Italic base of Proto-Tungric (known as Pre-Proto-Tungric, or PPT for short) had the following features:
The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
*PPT lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
*PPR lacked the ''*eu'' to *''jau'' sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
<!--
*PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
*The voicing of fricatives in PPT likely differed from what is usually reconstructed for Proto-Italic. In PPT, the fricatives besides /s/ are reconstructed as voiced in all positions (i.e. /ð, ɣʷ, β, ɣ/), while /s/ is reconstructed as unvoiced in most positions.
*The voicing of fricatives in PPT likely differed from what is usually reconstructed for Proto-Italic. In PPT, the fricatives besides /s/ are reconstructed as voiced in all positions (i.e. /ð, ɣʷ, β, ɣ/), while /s/ is reconstructed as unvoiced in most positions.
*PPT stress rules are constructed to have been similar to those of Classical Latin, however:
*PPT stress rules are constructed to have been similar to those of Classical Latin, however:
Line 42: Line 44:
**Few vowel contractions had taken place at the PPT stage (note that *''-eje-'' > *''-ē-'' did take place).
**Few vowel contractions had taken place at the PPT stage (note that *''-eje-'' > *''-ē-'' did take place).
**Some words had analogical or sporadic vowel changes and/or stress shifts.
**Some words had analogical or sporadic vowel changes and/or stress shifts.
*PPT lacked Classical Latin vowel weakenings.
*PPT lacked Classical Latin vowel weakenings.-->
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Example categories/headings:  
<!-- Example categories/headings:  
Line 86: Line 88:
Masculine or neuter.
Masculine or neuter.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *akraz ''m.'' "field" || colspan="2"| *juką ''n.'' "yoke"
! !! colspan="3"| *wilhaz ''m.'' "wolf" || colspan="3"| *jūką ''n.'' "yoke"
|-
! Nominative
| *wilh'''az'''
| rowspan="3"| *wilh'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *wilh'''ai'''
| rowspan="3"| *jūk'''ą'''
| rowspan="3"| *jūk'''ai'''
| rowspan="3"| *jūk'''ō'''
|-
! Vocative
| *wilh
|-
! Accusative
| *wilh'''ą'''
| *wilh'''ōnz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *wilh'''ō'''
| *wilh'''ōu'''
| *wilh'''ǭ'''
| *jūk'''ō'''
| *jūk'''ōu'''
| *jūk'''ǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *wilh'''ōi'''
| *wilh'''amō'''
| *wilh'''amaz'''
| *jūk'''ōi'''
| *jūk'''amō'''
| *jūk'''amaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *wilh'''ai'''
| *wilh'''amō'''
| *wilh'''ōiz'''
| *jūk'''ai'''
| *jūk'''amō'''
| *jūk'''ōiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *wilh'''ai'''
| *wilh'''ōu'''
| *wilh'''aizu'''
| *jūk'''ai'''
| *jūk'''ōu'''
| *jūk'''aizu'''
|}
 
There was a rare class of ''a''-stems with contractions (from earlier stems ending in ''aj'') known as ''ā''-stems.<!--, ''ê''-stems, and ''ô'' stems (e.g. ''hrôz'')-->. They decline as below:
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *pāz ''m.'' "battle" || colspan="3"| *twą̄ ''n.'' "pair"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *akr'''az'''
| *p'''āz'''
| rowspan="2"| *akr'''ōz, -ōs'''
| rowspan="3"| *p'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *juk'''ą'''
| rowspan="2"| *p'''āi'''
| rowspan="3"| *juk'''ō'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''ą̄'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''āi'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
| *akr
| *p'''ai'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *akr'''ą'''
| *p'''ą̄'''
| *akr'''anz'''
| *p'''ônz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *akr'''ī, -as'''
| *p'''ô'''
| *akr'''ǭ'''
| *p'''ôu'''
| *juk'''ī, -as'''
| *p'''ǫ̂'''
| *juk'''ǭ'''
| *tw'''ô'''
| *tw'''ôu'''
| *tw'''ǫ̂'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *akr'''ōi'''
| *p'''ôi'''
| *akr'''aiz, -abiz'''
| *p'''āmō'''
| *juk'''ōi'''
| *p'''āmaz'''
| *juk'''aiz, -abiz'''
| *tw'''ôi'''
| *tw'''āmō'''
| *tw'''āmaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *akr'''ō'''
| *p'''āi'''
| *akr'''aiz, -abaz'''
| *p'''āmō'''
| *juk'''ō'''
| *p'''ôiz'''
| *juk'''aiz, -abaz'''
| *tw'''āi'''
| *tw'''āmō'''
| *tw'''ôiz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
| *p'''āi'''
| *p'''ôu'''
| *p'''āizu'''
| *tw'''āi'''
| *tw'''ôu'''
| *tw'''āizu'''
|}
|}


====''ō''-stems====
====''ō''-stems====
Usually feminine (but sometimes masculine).
Feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *þaudō ''f.'' "people"
! !! colspan="3"| *þaudō ''f.'' "people"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ō'''
| rowspan="3"| *þaud'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ōz'''
|-
|-
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! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þaud'''ōz'''
| *þaud'''ōz'''
| *þaud'''ōsą'''
| *þaud'''ōu'''
| *þaud'''ǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *þaud'''ōi'''
| *þaud'''ōi'''
| *þaud'''ōbiz, -ōiz'''
| *þaud'''ōmō'''
| *þaud'''ōmaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þaud'''ô'''
| *þaud'''ǭ'''
| *þaud'''ōbaz, -ōiz'''
| *þaud'''ōmō'''
| *þaud'''ōmīz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
| *þaud'''ōi'''
| *þaud'''ōu'''
| *þaud'''ōzu'''
|}
|}


Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).
Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).


====''i''-stems====
There were also contracted ''ō''-stems known as ''ô''-stems. They were declined by replacing the ''-ō-'' in endings with ''-ô-'' (and ''-ǭ'' with ''-ǫ̂''). For example, ''*skwô'' "needle (botany)".
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
 
====''ē''-stems====
Feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *minþiz ''f.'' "mind" || colspan="2"| *mari ''n.'' "sea"
! !! colspan="3"| *demē ''f.'' "earth"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *minþ'''iz'''
| rowspan="2"| *dem'''ē'''
| rowspan="2"| *minþ'''ēz'''
| rowspan="3"| *dem'''ēi'''
| rowspan="3"| *mar'''i'''
| rowspan="2"| *dem'''ēz'''
| rowspan="3"| *mar'''jō'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *minþ'''į'''
| *dem'''ǭ'''
| *minþ'''inz'''
| *dem'''ēnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *minþ'''īz'''
| *dem'''ēz'''
| *minþ'''ijǭ'''
| *dem'''ēu'''
| *mar'''īz'''
| *dem'''ǭ'''
| *mar'''jǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *minþ'''ī'''
| *dem'''ēi'''
| *minþ'''ibiz'''
| *dem'''ēmō'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *dem'''ēmaz'''
| *mar'''ibiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *minþ'''ī'''
| *dem'''ǭ'''
| *minþ'''ibaz'''
| *dem'''ēmō'''
| *dem'''ēmīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *dem'''ēi'''
| *dem'''ēu'''
| *dem'''ēzu'''
|}
 
====''i''-stems====
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *ankliz ''f.'' "coal" || colspan="3"| *mari ''n.'' "sea"
|-
! Nominative
| *ankl'''iz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankl'''ī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ankl'''īz'''
| rowspan="3"| *mar'''i'''
| rowspan="3"| *mar'''ī'''
| rowspan="3"| *mar'''ī'''
|-
! Vocative
| *ankl'''ī'''
|-
! Accusative
| *ankl'''į'''
| *ankl'''inz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *ankl'''īz'''
| *ankl'''ijau'''
| *ankl'''ijǭ'''
| *mar'''īz'''
| *mar'''jau'''
| *mar'''jǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *ankl'''ī'''
| *ankl'''imō'''
| *ankl'''imaz'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *mar'''ibaz'''
| *mar'''imō'''
| *mar'''imaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *ankl'''imi'''
| *ankl'''imō'''
| *ankl'''imīz'''
| *mar'''imi'''
| *mar'''imō'''
| *mar'''imīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *ankl'''ēi'''
| *ankl'''ijau'''
| *ankl'''izu'''
| *mar'''ēi'''
| *mar'''jau'''
| *mar'''izu'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Note:''' The genitive plural and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative plural are subject to [[w:Siever's_law|Siever's law]].
'''Note:''' The genitive/locative dual and genutive plural are subject to [[w:Siever's_law|Siever's law]].


====''u''-stems====
====''u''-stems====
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *farþuz ''m.'' "port" || colspan="2"| *harnu ''n.'' "horn"
! !! colspan="3"| *sūnuz ''f.'' "son" || colspan="3"| *metu ''n.'' "honey"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *farþ'''uz'''
| *sūn'''uz'''
| rowspan="2"| *farþ'''awiz'''
| rowspan="3"| *sūn'''ū'''
| rowspan="3"| *harn'''u'''
| rowspan="2"| *sūn'''awiz'''
| rowspan="3"| *harn'''uwō'''
| rowspan="3"| *met'''u'''
| rowspan="3"| *met'''ū'''
| rowspan="3"| *met'''ū'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
| *sūn'''au'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *farþ'''ų'''
| *sūn'''ų'''
| *farþ'''unz'''
| *sūn'''unz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *farþ'''auz'''
| *sūn'''auz'''
| *farþ'''uwǭ'''
| *sūn'''awau'''
| *harn'''auz'''
| *sūn'''awǭ'''
| *harn'''uwǭ'''
| *met'''auz'''
| *met'''awau'''
| *met'''awǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *farþ'''awī'''
| *sūn'''awī'''
| *farþ'''ubiz'''
| *sūn'''umō'''
| *harn'''awī'''
| *sūn'''umaz'''
| *harn'''ubiz'''
| *met'''awī'''
| *met'''umō'''
| *met'''umaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *farþ'''ū'''
| *sūn'''umi'''
| *farþ'''ubaz'''
| *sūn'''umō'''
| *harn'''ū'''
| *sūn'''umīz'''
| *harn'''ubaz'''
| *met'''umi'''
| *met'''umō'''
| *met'''umīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *sūn'''awī'''
| *sūn'''awau'''
| *sūn'''uzu'''
| *met'''awī'''
| *met'''awau'''
| *met'''uzu'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


====''an''-stems====
====''n''-stems====
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *gamǭ ''m.'' "man" || colspan="2"| *ardijō ''m./f.'' "skilled person" || colspan="2"| *namǭ ''n.'' "name" || colspan="2"| *ankwǭ ''n.'' "fat, grease"
! !! colspan="3"| *hamô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''aniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ham'''inī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''ijǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''iniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''īniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''nō'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inō'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''anō'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *gam'''anį'''
| *ham'''inį'''
| *gam'''aninz'''
| *ham'''ininz'''
| *ard'''īnį'''
| *ard'''īninz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gam'''aniz'''
| *ham'''iniz'''
| *gam'''anǭ'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ard'''īniz'''
| *ham'''inǭ'''
| *ard'''īnǭ'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *nam'''niz'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *nam'''nǭ'''
| *imm'''inǭ'''
| *ankw'''aniz'''
| *ankw'''anǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gam'''anī'''
| *ham'''inī'''
| *gam'''ambiz'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ard'''īnī'''
| *ham'''immaz'''
| *ard'''īmbiz'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *nam'''nī'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *nam'''nibiz'''
| *imm'''immaz'''
| *ankw'''anī'''
| *ankw'''ambiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gam'''ani'''
| *ham'''immi'''
| *gam'''ambaz'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ard'''īni'''
| *ham'''immīz'''
| *ard'''īmbaz'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *nam'''ni'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *nam'''nibaz'''
| *imm'''immīz'''
| *ankw'''ani'''
|-
| *ankw'''ambiz'''
! Locative
| *ham'''inī'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ham'''inzu'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inzu'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
'''Note:'''  
'''Note:'''  
<!--
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
#''*ardijǭ'' is an example of a heavy ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stem, where expected **''-ijan/ijin-'' was contracted to *''-īn-''. Similarly, in light ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stems, expected **''-jan/jin-'' was contracted to *''-in-''.
#In heavy ''j''-suffixed ''n''-stems, expected **''-ijin-'' was contracted to *''-īn-''. Similarly, in light ''j''-suffixed ''n''-stems, expected **''-jin-'' was contracted to *''-in-''.
<!--
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending). An example of this is neuter ''r/n''-stems, which had a nominative-vocative-accusative in *''-ar''.<!--
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending). An example of this is neuter ''r/n''-stems, which had a nominative-vocative-accusative in *''-ar''.<!--
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.-->
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.-->


====''ōn''-stems====
<!--====''ōn''-stems====
Masculine or feminine (usually feminine).
Masculine or feminine (usually feminine).
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
Line 316: Line 466:
| *fihtij'''ōmbaz'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}-->
====''īn''-stems====
 
<!--====''īn''-stems====
Feminine.
Feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
Line 344: Line 495:
| *sir'''īmbaz'''
| *sir'''īmbaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


====''r''-stems====
====''r''-stems====
Masculine and feminine were declined the same. <!--Declension patterns are shown below:-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *prōþê ''m.'' "brother"
|-
! Nominative
| *prōþ'''ê'''
| rowspan="3"| *prōþ'''rī'''
| rowspan="2"| *prōþ'''riz'''
|-
! Vocative
| *prōþ'''er'''
|-
! Accusative
| *prōþ'''rį'''
| *prōþ'''rinz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *prōþ'''riz'''
| *prōþ'''rau'''
| *prōþ'''rǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *prōþ'''rī'''
| *prōþ'''rimō'''
| *prōþ'''rimaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *prōþ'''rimi'''
| *prōþ'''rimō'''
| *prōþ'''rimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *prōþ'''rī'''
| *prōþ'''rau'''
| *prōþ'''rizu'''
|-
|}
<!--
'''Note:'''
<!--
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.
#In heavy ''j''-suffixed ''n''-stems, expected **''-ijin-'' was contracted to *''-īn-''. Similarly, in light ''j''-suffixed ''n''-stems, expected **''-jin-'' was contracted to *''-in-''.
<!--
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending). An example of this is neuter ''r/n''-stems, which had a nominative-vocative-accusative in *''-ar''.<!--
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.-->
<!--
Masculine or feminine.
Masculine or feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
Line 384: Line 581:
|-
|-
|}
|}
'''Note:''' The nominative singular ended in either *''-ēr'' or *''-ōr''. Otherwise, the vowel *''-ē-'' or *''-ō-'' was dropped (as shown above) or, in the case of some nouns, shortened to *''-e-'' or *''-a-'' respectively.
'''Note:''' The nominative singular ended in either *''-ēr'' or *''-ōr''. Otherwise, the vowel *''-ē-'' or *''-ō-'' was dropped (as shown above) or, in the case of some nouns, shortened to *''-e-'' or *''-a-'' respectively.-->
 
====''z''-stems====
====''z''-stems====
Any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
Neuter.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *amōz ''m.'' "love" !! colspan="2"| *þimfaz ''n.'' "time"
! !! colspan="3"| *nepaz ''n.'' "cloud"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *am'''ōz'''
| rowspan="3"| *nep'''az'''
| rowspan="2"| *am'''aziz'''
| rowspan="3"| *nip'''izī'''
| rowspan="3"| *þimf'''az'''
| rowspan="3"| *nip'''izō'''
| rowspan="3"| *þimf'''izō'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *am'''azį'''
| *am'''azinz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *am'''aziz'''
| *nip'''iziz'''
| *am'''azǭ'''
| *nip'''izau'''
| *þimf'''iziz'''
| *nip'''izǭ'''
| *þimf'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *am'''azī'''
| *nip'''izī'''
| *am'''azibiz'''
| *nip'''immō'''
| *þimf'''izī'''
| *nip'''immaz'''
| *þimf'''izibiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *am'''azi'''
| *nip'''immi'''
| *am'''azibaz'''
| *nip'''immō'''
| *þimf'''izi'''
| *nip'''immīz'''
| *þimf'''izibaz'''
|-
! Locative
| *nip'''izi'''
| *nip'''izau'''
| *nip'''issu'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 448: Line 645:


====Consonant stems====
====Consonant stems====
Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *feþs ''m.'' "foot" || colspan="2"| *hafud ''n.'' "head"
! !! colspan="3"| *ahmô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *feþ'''s'''
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *ahm'''inī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''iniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inō'''
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Accusative
| *ahm'''inį'''
| *ahm'''ininz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *ahm'''iniz'''
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *ahm'''inǭ'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *ahm'''immaz'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *ahm'''immi'''
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *ahm'''immīz'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *ahm'''inzu'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inzu'''
|-
|}
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *feþs ''m.'' "foot" || colspan="2"| *hafud ''n.'' "head"
|-
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *feþ'''s'''
| rowspan="2"| *fiþ'''iz'''
| rowspan="2"| *fiþ'''iz'''
| rowspan="3"| *hafud
| rowspan="3"| *hafud
Line 481: Line 730:
| *hafud'''ibaz'''
| *hafud'''ibaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


'''Note:''' The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *''-s'' (after unvoiced consonants) or *''-z'' (after voiced consonants)<!-- (which often led to minor stem changes)-->, and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.
'''Note:''' The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *''-s'' (after unvoiced consonants) or *''-z'' (after voiced consonants)<!-- (which often led to minor stem changes)-->, and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation.<!-- The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.-->
<!--
<!--
'''Note:''' Like with ''ō''-stem nouns, the strong feminine genitive (both singular and plural) had alternative ''*s'' and ''*z'' forms (i.e. ''*-ōs'' or ''*-ōz'' in the singular, and ''*-ōsą'' or ''*-ōzą''). Only the ''*s'' forms are shown below for brevity. The ''*z'' forms can be derived simply by replacing the ''*s'' in the endings with ''*z''.-->
'''Note:''' Like with ''ō''-stem nouns, the strong feminine genitive (both singular and plural) had alternative ''*s'' and ''*z'' forms (i.e. ''*-ōs'' or ''*-ōz'' in the singular, and ''*-ōsą'' or ''*-ōzą''). Only the ''*s'' forms are shown below for brevity. The ''*z'' forms can be derived simply by replacing the ''*s'' in the endings with ''*z''.-->
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! colspan="7"| *twenaz "good"
|+ Declension of ''mōlaz'' "small"
! colspan="10"| Strong
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Strong
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! Nominative
|-
| *mōl'''az'''
! Nominative/<br />Vocative
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō'''
| *twen'''az'''
| *mōl'''ai'''
| *twen'''ai'''
| *mōl'''ō'''
| *twen'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōi'''
| *twen'''ōi'''
| *mōl'''ōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ą, -at'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''(a)'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *twen'''an'''
| *mōl'''an'''
| *twen'''anz'''
| *mōl'''ōnz'''
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *mōl'''ǭ'''
| *twen'''ōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *twen'''as'''
| *mōl'''as'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *mōl'''āu'''
| *twen'''ōz''', *twen'''azjōz'''
| *mōl'''aizǭ'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *mōl'''azjōz'''
| *twen'''as''', *twen'''azjas'''
| *mōl'''ōu'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *mōl'''ōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''as'''
| *mōl'''āu'''
| *mōl'''aizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *twen'''ammai'''
| *mōl'''ammai'''
| *twen'''abiz'''
| *mōl'''aimō'''
| *twen'''ōz'''
| *mōl'''aimaz'''
| *twen'''ōbiz'''
| *mōl'''azjōi'''
| *twen'''ammai'''
| *mōl'''ōmō'''
| *twen'''abiz'''
| *mōl'''ōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ammai'''
| *mōl'''aimō'''
| *mōl'''aimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *twen'''ô'''
| *mōl'''ammi'''
| *twen'''abaz'''
| *mōl'''aimō'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *mōl'''aimīz'''
| *twen'''ōbaz'''
| *mōl'''ǭ'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *mōl'''ōmō'''
| *twen'''abaz'''
| *mōl'''ōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ammi'''
| *mōl'''aimō'''
| *mōl'''aimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ammi'''
| *mōl'''āu'''
| *mōl'''aizu'''
| *mōl'''ōi'''
| *mōl'''ōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzu'''
| *mōl'''ammi'''
| *mōl'''āu'''
| *mōl'''aizu'''
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative/<br />Vocative
! Nominative
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *mōl'''aziz'''
| *twen'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *mōl'''aiz'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''anō'''
| *mōl'''ōzōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *twen'''anį'''
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *twen'''aninz'''
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *twen'''ōnį'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *twen'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *twen'''anǭ'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
| *twen'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzizōz'''
| *twen'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''awjōu'''
| *twen'''anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *twen'''anī'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *twen'''ambiz'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *twen'''ōnī'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *twen'''ōmbiz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōi'''
| *twen'''anī'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *twen'''ambiz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *twen'''ani'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *twen'''ambaz'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *twen'''ōni'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *twen'''ōmbaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *twen'''ani'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *twen'''ambaz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
|-
|-
|}
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.
====''i''-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.
====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.
===Pronouns===
<!--
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
! colspan="10"| Weak
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
|-
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="2"| First person !! colspan="2"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *ekō, *ikō
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *nōs, *nōz
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| *þū
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *wōs, *wōz
| *mōl'''ōnjō'''
| —
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ani'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mē
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *þē
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *sē
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *mīz
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *nasterą
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *þīz
| *mōl'''anjǭ'''
| *wasterą
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| *sīz
| *mōl'''ōnjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *mōl'''anǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *migī
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *nōbiz
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *þibī
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *wōbiz
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *sibī
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *met, *mit
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *nōbaz
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *þet, *þit
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *wōbaz
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *set, *sit
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
|-
! Possessive adj.
! Locative
| *mijaz
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *nasteraz
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *þawaz
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
| *wasteraz
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *sawaz
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
|-
|}
<!--
 
! colspan="10"| Weak
'''Notes:'''
|-
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.
 
====3rd person pronoun====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *iz
| *mōl'''anaz'''
| *ijai
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *ijō
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *ijōi
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| rowspan="2"| *it
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *ijō
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''aną'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *in
| *mōl'''aną'''
| *ijanz
| *mōl'''anōnz'''
| *ijǭ
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *ijōnz
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| <!--*es, -->*izjas
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| <!--*ijōz, -->*izjōz
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| <!--*es, -->*izjas
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *immai
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *izjaiz, *izjabiz
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *izjōi
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *immai
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *izjaiz, izjabiz
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izjō
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *izjaiz, *izjabaz
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *izjô
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *izjō
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *izjaiz, *izjabaz
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
|-
|}
! Locative
<!-- consider changing instrumental to *izô (with oblique stem renalyzed as iz) and genitive plural to sth based on eisom perhaps???-->
| *mōl'''anai'''
 
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
! colspan="7"| Strong
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *safsaz
| *mōl'''az anaz'''
| *safsai
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *safsō
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *safsōi
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *safsan
| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| *safsanz
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
| *safsǭ
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *safsōnz
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsammai
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *safsabiz
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *safsōi
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
| *safsōbiz
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *safsammai
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *safsabiz
| *mōl'''ōmaz anōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsō
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *safsabaz
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *safsô
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
| *safsōbaz
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *safsō
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *safsabaz
| *mōl'''ōmīz anōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzu anōzu'''
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
<!--
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *safsǭ
| *mōl'''aziz'''
| *safsaniz
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *safsǭ
| *mōl'''aiz'''
| *safsōniz
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
|-
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *safsanį
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *safsaninz
| *mōl'''ōninz'''
| *safsōnį
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *safsōniz
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *safsaniz
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *safsanǭ
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *safsōniz
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
| *safsōnǭ
| *mōl'''ōzizjōz'''
| *safsaniz
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *safsanǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsanī
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *safsambiz
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *safsōnī
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *safsōmbiz
| *mōl'''ōjjizjōi'''
| *safsanī
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *safsambiz
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsani
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *safsambaz
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *safsōni
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *safsōmbaz
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *safsani
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *safsambaz
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''azizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''azizu'''
|-
|-
|}
<!--
 
! colspan="9"| Weak
====Neutral demonstrative====
|-
 
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *saz
| *mōl'''azjaz'''
| *sai
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *sō
| *mōl'''āi'''
| *sōi
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *sō
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *san
| *mōl'''anją'''
| *sanz
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *sǭ
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *sōnz
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *sas, *sazjas
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōzjazjōz'''
| *sas, *sazjas
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''azjas'''
| *mōl'''āwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *sammai
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *sabiz
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *sōi
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *sōbiz
| *mōl'''ōjjazjōi'''
| *sammai
| *mōl'''ōmômō'''
| *sabiz
| *mōl'''ōmazjōmaz'''
|-
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *sō
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *sabaz
|-
| *sô
! Instrumental
| *sōbaz
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sō
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *sabaz
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōmôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōmīzjōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
|-
|-
-->
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. <!--However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.-->
|-
 
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
====''ā/ô''-stem adjectives====
|-
These were a subset of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with lengthened endings. They arose by contraction from adjectives whose stems originally ended in ''-aj-'', after the loss of intervocalic ''-j-''.
! Nominative
 
| *þaz
<!--====''i''-stem adjectives====
| *þai
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
| *þō
-
| *þōi
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.-->
| rowspan="2"| *þat
 
| rowspan="2"| *þō
<!--====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
-
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.-->
 
===Pronouns===
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="3"| First person !! colspan="3"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *ēzų
| *wet; *wit
| *mez; *miz
| *þū; *þu
| *jūt; *jut
| *jūz; *juz
| —
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *þan
| *mēn; *miz
| *þanz
| *nō
| *þǭ
| *nōz
| *þōnz
| *þēn; *þiz
| *wō
| *wōz
| *sēn; *siz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þas, *þazjas
| *mīniz; *mī
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *nōu
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *nōzǭ
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þīwiz; *þī
| *þas, *þazjas
| *wōu
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *wōzǭ
| *sīwiz; *sī
|-
! Dative
| *mīnī; *mī
| *nōmō
| *nōmaz
| *þīwī; *þī
| *wōmō
| *wōmaz
| *sīwī; *sī
|-
! Instrumental
| *mīnimi
| *nōmō
| *nōmīz
| *þīwimi
| *wōmō
| *wōmīz
| *sīwimi
|-
|-
! Dative
! Locative
| *þammai
| *mīnī
| *þabiz
| *nōu
| *þōi
| *nōzu
| *þōbiz
| *þīwī
| *þammai
| *wōu
| *þabiz
| *wōzu
| *sīwī
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Possessive adj.
| *þō
| *mīnaz
| *þabaz
| *nōwaz
| *þô
| *nōzijaz
| *þōbaz
| *þīwaz
| *þō
| *wōwaz
| *þabaz
| *wōzijaz
| *sīwaz
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Notes:'''
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.


====Other pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *izaz
| *þaz
| *izai
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| *izō
| *þai
| *izōi
| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *izō
| *þōz
| rowspan="2"| *þa
| rowspan="2"| *þai
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *izan
| *þan
| *izanz
| *þōnz
| *izǭ
| *þǭ
| *izōnz
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *izas, *izazjas
| *þas
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *þāu
| *izōz, *izazjōz
| *þaizǭ
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *þazjōz
| *izas, *izazjas
| *þōu
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *þōzǭ
| *þas
| *þāu
| *þaizǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *izammai
| *þammai
| *izabiz
| *þaimō
| *izōi
| *þaimaz
| *izōbiz
| *þazjōi
| *izammai
| *þōmō
| *izabiz
| *þōmaz
| *þammai
| *þaimō
| *þaimaz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izō
| *þammi
| *izabaz
| *þaimō
| *izô
| *þaimīz
| *izōbaz
| *þǭ
| *izō
| *þōmō
| *izabaz
| *þōmīz
| *þammi
| *þaimō
| *þaimīz
|-
! Locative
| *þammi
| *þāu
| *þaizu
| *þōi
| *þōu
| *þōzu
| *þammi
| *þāu
| *þaizu
|-
|-
|}
|}
====Near demonstrative====


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *istaz
| *siz
| *istai
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| *istō
| *sīz
| *istōi
| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *sijōi
| rowspan="2"| *istō
| *sijōz
| rowspan="2"| *si
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *sī
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *istan
| *sin
| *istanz
| *sinz
| *istǭ
| *sijǭ
| *istōnz
| *sijōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *istas, *istazjas
| *ses
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *sijau
| *istōz, *istazjōz
| *sezǭ
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *sizjōz
| *istas, *istazjas
| *sijōu
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *sijōzǭ
| *ses
| *sijau
| *sezǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *istammai
| *simmai
| *istabiz
| *sīmō
| *istōi
| *sīmaz
| *istōbiz
| *sizjōi
| *istammai
| *sijōmō
| *istabiz
| *sijōmaz
| *simmai
| *sīmō
| *sīmaz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *istō
| *simmi
| *istabaz
| *sīmō
| *istô
| *sīmīz
| *istōbaz
| *sijǭ
| *istō
| *sijōmō
| *istabaz
| *sijōmīz
| *simmi
| *sīmō
| *sīmīz
|-
! Locative
| *simmi
| *sijau
| *sīzu
| *sijōi
| *sijōu
| *sijōzu
| *simmi
| *sijau
| *sīzu
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! colspan="7"| Strong
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
Line 989: Line 1,467:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *gehaz
| *safsaz
| *gehai
| *safsai
| *gehō
| *safsō
| *gehōi
| *safsōi
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *gehan
| *safsan
| *gehanz
| *safsanz
| *gehǭ
| *safsǭ
| *gehōnz
| *safsōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gegammai
| *safsammai
| *gegabiz
| *safsabiz
| *gegōi
| *safsōi
| *gegōbiz
| *safsōbiz
| *gegammai
| *safsammai
| *gegabiz
| *safsabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gegō
| *safsō
| *gegabaz
| *safsabaz
| *gegô
| *safsô
| *gegōbaz
| *safsōbaz
| *gegō
| *safsō
| *gegabaz
| *safsabaz
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
|-
|-
|}
====Far demonstrative====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
Line 1,035: Line 1,511:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *allaz
| *safsǭ
| *allai
| *safsaniz
| *allō
| *safsǭ
| *allōi
| *safsōniz
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| rowspan="2"| *allō
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *allan
| *safsanį
| *allanz
| *safsaninz
| *allǭ
| *safsōnį
| *allōnz
| *safsōniz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *allas, *allazjas
| *safsaniz
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *safsanǭ
| *allōz, *allazjōz
| *safsōniz
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *safsōnǭ
| *allas, *allazjas
| *safsaniz
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *safsanǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *allammai
| *safsanī
| *allabiz
| *safsambiz
| *allōi
| *safsōnī
| *allōbiz
| *safsōmbiz
| *allammai
| *safsanī
| *allabiz
| *safsambiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *allō
| *safsani
| *allabaz
| *safsambaz
| *allô
| *safsōni
| *allōbaz
| *safsōmbaz
| *allō
| *safsani
| *allabaz
| *safsambaz
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


====Interrogative pronouns====
====Neutral demonstrative====
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 1,082: Line 1,558:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *hwai
| *saz
| *hwēz
| *sai
| *hwōi
| *sō
| *hwēz
| *sōi
| rowspan="2"| *hwat
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| rowspan="2"| *hwō
| rowspan="2"| *sō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *hwan
| *san
| *hwanz
| *sanz
| *hwǭ
| *sǭ
| *hwōnz
| *sōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *sas, *sazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *hwōz, *hwazjōz
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *sas, *sazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *hwammai
| *sammai
| *hwabiz
| *sabiz
| *hwōi
| *sōi
| *hwōbiz
| *sōbiz
| *hwammai
| *sammai
| *hwabiz
| *sabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *hwō, *hwī
| *sō
| *hwabaz
| *sabaz
| *hwô, *hwī
| *sô
| *hwōbaz
| *sōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *sō
| *hwabaz
| *sabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
<!--
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
**''*hwan'' "when"
**''*hwadī'' "where"
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->


====Other pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
<!--
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
*''*allaz'' "all"
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
**''*þan'' "then"
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
 
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.
 
===Numerals===
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier
|-
|-
! 1
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *ainaz
| *frīsimaz, *framaz
| *semēlą
| *simflaz, *singilaz
|-
|-
! 2
! Nominative
| *twō
| *þaz
| *alþeraz
| *þai
| *twis
| *þō
| *twiflaz
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! 3
! Accusative
| *þrēz
| *þan
| *þriþjǭ
| *þanz
| *þris
| *þǭ
| *þriflaz
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! 4
! Genitive
| *hwettwōr
| *þas, *þazjas
| *hwetwarþǭ
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *hwitris
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *hwitriflaz
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
|-
|-
! 5
! Dative
| *hwinhw
| *þammai
| *hwinhtǭ
| *þabiz
| *hwinhwis
| *þōi
| *hwinhwiflaz
| *þōbiz
| *þammai
| *þabiz
|-
|-
! 6
! Instrumental
| *sehs
| *þō
| *sehstǭ
| *þabaz
| *sehsis
| *þô
| *sehsiflaz
| *þōbaz
| *þō
| *þabaz
|-
|-
! 7
|}
| *siftį
 
| *siftimǭ
 
| *siftis
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
| *siftiflaz
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 8
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *ahtō
| *ahtōwǭ
| *ahtis
| *ahtōflaz
|-
|-
! 9
! Nominative
| *nawį
| *izaz
| *naunǭ
| *izai
| *nawis
| *izō
| *nawiflaz
| *izōi
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *izō
|-
|-
! 10
! Accusative
| *tihį
| *izan
| *tihimǭ
| *izanz
| *tihis
| *izǭ
| *tihiflaz
| *izōnz
|-
! 11
| *ainatigį
| *ainatihimǭ
|
|
|-
|-
! 12
! Genitive
| *twatigį
| *izas, *izazjas
| *twatihimǭ
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
|
| *izōz, *izazjōz
|
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *izas, *izazjas
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
|-
|-
! 13
! Dative
| *þritigį
| *izammai
| *þritihimǭ
| *izabiz
|
| *izōi
|
| *izōbiz
| *izammai
| *izabiz
|-
|-
! 14
! Instrumental
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *izō
| *hwettwōrtihimǭ
| *izabaz
|
| *izô
|
| *izōbaz
| *izō
| *izabaz
|-
|-
! 15
|}-->
| *hwinhtigį
 
| *hwinhtihimǭ
====Near demonstrative====
|
<!--
|
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 16
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *sehstigį
| *sehstihimǭ
|
|
|-
|-
! 17
! Nominative
| *siftintigį
| *istaz
| *siftintihimǭ
| *istai
|
| *istō
|
| *istōi
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *istō
|-
|-
! 18
! Accusative
| *ahtōtigį
| *istan
| *ahtōtihimǭ
| *istanz
|
| *istǭ
|
| *istōnz
|-
|-
! 19
! Genitive
| *nawintigį
| *istas, *istazjas
| *nawintijimǭ
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
|
| *istōz, *istazjōz
|
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istas, *istazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
|-
|-
! 20
! Dative
| *wīginþī
| *istammai
| *wīginsǭ
| *istabiz
|
| *istōi
|
| *istōbiz
| *istammai
| *istabiz
|-
|-
! 30
! Instrumental
| *þrīginþō
| *istō
| *þrīginsǭ
| *istabaz
|
| *istô
|
| *istōbaz
| *istō
| *istabaz
|-
|-
! 40
|}
| *hwetrōginþō
 
| *hwetrōginsǭ
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|
|-
|-
! 50
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *hwinhwōginsǭ
|
|
|-
|-
! 60
! Nominative
| *sehsōginþō
| *gehaz
| *sehsōginsǭ
| *gehai
|
| *gehō
|
| *gehōi
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
|-
|-
! 70
! Accusative
| *seftumōginþō
| *gehan
| *seftumōginsǭ
| *gehanz
|
| *gehǭ
|
| *gehōnz
|-
|-
! 80
! Genitive
| *ahtōginþō
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *ahtōginsǭ
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
|
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
|
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
|-
|-
! 90
! Dative
| *naunōginþō
| *gegammai
| *naunōginsǭ
| *gegabiz
|
| *gegōi
|
| *gegōbiz
| *gegammai
| *gegabiz
|-
|-
! 100
! Instrumental
| *hinþą
| *gegō
| *hinsǭ
| *gegabaz
|
| *gegô
|
| *gegōbaz
|-
| *gegō
! 1000
| *gegabaz
| *smīgillī
| *smīgillidǭ
|
|
|-
|-
|}-->
|}-->


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
====Far demonstrative====
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 1
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *ainaz
| *frīsimaz<!--or *frīsmaz-->, *framaz
|-
|-
! 2
! Nominative
| *twō
| *allaz
| *alþeraz
| *allai
| *allō
| *allōi
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| rowspan="2"| *allō
|-
|-
! 3
! Accusative
| *þrēz
| *allan
| *þriþjǭ
| *allanz
| *allǭ
| *allōnz
|-
|-
! 4
! Genitive
| *hwettwōr
| *allas, *allazjas
| *hwadurþǭ<!-- or *hwetwarþǭ-->
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allōz, *allazjōz
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allas, *allazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
|-
|-
! 5
! Dative
| *hwinhw
| *allammai
| *hwinhtǭ
| *allabiz
| *allōi
| *allōbiz
| *allammai
| *allabiz
|-
|-
! 6
! Instrumental
| *sehs
| *allō
| *sehstǭ
| *allabaz
| *allô
| *allōbaz
| *allō
| *allabaz
|-
|-
! 7
|}-->
| *siftį
 
| *siftumǭ
====Interrogative pronouns====
<!--
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 8
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *ahtō
| *ahtōwǭ
|-
|-
! 9
! Nominative
| *nawį
| *hwai
| *naunǭ
| *hwēz
| *hwōi
| *hwēz
| rowspan="2"| *hwat
| rowspan="2"| *hwō
|-
|-
! 10
! Accusative
| *tihį
| *hwan
| *tehumǭ
| *hwanz
| *hwǭ
| *hwōnz
|-
|-
! 11
! Genitive
| *ainatigį
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *ainatehumǭ
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
|-
| *hwōz, *hwazjōz
! 12
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *twatigį
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *twatehumǭ
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
|-
|-
! 13
! Dative
| *þritigį
| *hwammai
| *þritehumǭ
| *hwabiz
| *hwōi
| *hwōbiz
| *hwammai
| *hwabiz
|-
|-
! 14
! Instrumental
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwettwōrtehumǭ
| *hwabaz
| *hwô, *hwī
| *hwōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwabaz
|-
|-
! 15
|}
| *hwinhtigį
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
| *hwinhtehumǭ
<!--
|-
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
! 16
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
| *sehstigį
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
| *sehstehumǭ
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
|-
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
! 17
**''*hwan'' "when"
| *siftintigį
**''*hwadī'' "where"
| *siftintehumǭ
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
 
====Other pronouns====
<!--
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
*''*allaz'' "all"
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
**''*þan'' "then"
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
 
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.
 
===Numerals===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier !! Collective !! Fractional
|-
|-
! 18
! 1
| *ahtōtigį
| *ainaz
| *ahtōtehumǭ
| *firmaz
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 19
! 2
| *nawintigį
| *twō
| *nawintehumǭ
| *anþeraz
|
| *twāz
| *twimaz
| *pahaz
|-
|-
! 20
! 3
| *twīginþī
| *þrīz
| *twīginsimǭ
| *þridjaz
|
| *þrāz
| *þrimaz
|-
|-
! 30
! 4
| *þrīginþō
| *hidwiriz
| *þrīginsimǭ
| *hidwirþaz
|
| *hedweraz
| *hedwerumaz
|-
|-
! 40
! 5
| *hwetrōginþō
| *finhiz
| *hwetrōginsimǭ
| *finhtaz
|
| *finhteraz
| *finhumaz
|-
|-
! 50
! 6
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *swes
| *hwinhwōginsimǭ
| *swestaz
|
| *swesteraz
| *swesumaz
|-
|-
! 60
! 7
| *sehsōginþō
| *siftį
| *sehsōginsimǭ
| *seftundaz
|
| *seftunderaz
| *seftumaz
|-
|-
! 70
! 8
| *seftumōginþō
| *ahtō
| *seftumōginsimǭ
| *ahtundaz
|
| *ahtunderaz
| *ahtumaz
|-
|-
! 80
! 9
| *ahtōginþō
| *niwin
| *ahtōginsimǭ
| *niwindaz
|
| *niwinderaz
| *niwinumaz
|-
|-
! 90
! 10
| *naunōginþō
| *tisin
| *naunōginsimǭ
| *tisindaz
|
| *tisinderaz
| *tisinumaz
|-
|-
! 100
! 11
| *hinþą
| *ainalig
| *hinsimǭ
|
|
|
| *analigumaz
|-
|-
! 1000
! 12
| *smīgillī <!-- or something from *smīgzlī-->
| *twalig
| *smīgillisimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
|}
! 13
'''Notes:'''
| *þrilig
*''*ainaz'' "one" was declined as an ''a/ō''-stem adjective.
|
*''*twō'' "two" was declined as below:
|
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|
|+ Declension of *''twō'' "two" (pl.)
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
|-
! Nominative
! 14
| *twō, *twai
| *hidwirlig
| *twōi
|
| *twō
|
|
|-
|-
! Accusative
! 15
| *twanz
| *finhlig
| *twōnz
|
| *twō
|
|
|-
|-
! Genitive
! 16
| colspan="3"| *twōsą
| *sislig
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Dative
! 17
| colspan="3"| *twōbiz
| *siftinlig
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! 18
| colspan="3"| *twōbaz
| *ahtōlig
|
|
|
|-
|-
|}
! 19
*''*þrēz'' "three" was declined as below:
| *niwinlig
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|
|+ Declension of *''þrēz'' "three" (pl.)
|
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|
|-
! 20
| *twitisin
|
|
|
|-
! 30
| *þritisin
|
|
|
|-
! 40
| *hidwirtisin
|
|
|
|-
! 50
| *finhtisin
|
|
|
|-
! 60
| *sistisin
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Nominative
! 70
| colspan="2"| *þrēz
| *siftintisin
| rowspan="2"| *þrijō
|  
|
|
|-
|-
! Accusative
! 80
| colspan="2"| *þrinz
| *ahtōtisin
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Genitive
! 90
| colspan="3"| *þrijǭ, *þrēsą
| *niwintisin
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Dative
! 100
| colspan="3"| *þribiz, *þrēbiz
| *sinþą
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! 1000
| colspan="3"| *þribaz, *þrēbaz
| *þūsandiz
|
|
|
|-
|-
|}
|}
*Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
*''*hinþą'' "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
*''*smīgillī'' "thousand" was declined as an ''ī/jō''-stem feminine noun.
*Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending *''-ǭ'') except for 1st and 2nd.
*The following adverbial numbers are reconstructed:
**''*ainas, *sims'' "once"
**''*twis'' "twice"
**''*þris'' "thrice"
**''*hwadurs'' "four times"
*The following multiplicative numbers are reconstructed: 
**''*simflaz, *simflegz, *singlaz'' "single"
**''*twiflaz, *twiflegz'' "double"
**''*þriflaz, *þriflegz'' "triple"
**''*hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz'' "quadruple"
*The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
**''*sem/sim-'' "uni-, mono-, one, once"
**''*twi-'' "bi-, di-, two, twice"
**''*þri-'' "tri-, three, thrice"
**''*hwadur-'' "quadri-, tetra-, four"
**''*sēmi-'' "semi-, half"
*The following collective numerals are reconstructed:
**''*ambō'' (declined as ''*twō'') "both"
**''*twiznaz'' "pair"
**''*þriznaz'' "set of three"
**''*hwadurznaz'' "set of four"


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
====Strong verbs====
<!--
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
Line 1,537: Line 2,110:
|-
|-
|}
|}
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).


Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
Line 1,960: Line 2,533:
| *st'''êndō'''
| *st'''êndō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


====Weak verbs====
====Weak verbs====
<!--
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
Line 1,979: Line 2,553:
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
-
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
====='''Class 1'''=====
====='''Class 1'''=====
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
Line 2,002: Line 2,574:


The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
-->


====Preterite-present verbs====
====Preterite-present verbs====
<!--
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.


Line 2,106: Line 2,680:
| *būindō
| *būindō
|-
|-
|}-->
|}


The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
Line 2,191: Line 2,765:
| *beundō
| *beundō
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Line 2,201: Line 2,775:
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*þimfaz''===
===Time - ''*hēsaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''*jōras þimfizō''
|+ Seasons - ''*katō hēsai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
! English !! Proto-Rugic
|-
|-
| spring || *wesar (*wesn-; ''n.'', ''r/n''-stem)
| spring || *westrō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| summer || *aisōþs (''f.'', cons.-stem)
| summer || *laidą (''n.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| fall || *missiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
| fall || *aziniz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
| winter || *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; ''f.'', cons.-stem)
| winter || *dīmō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 2,267: Line 2,841:
-->
-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tē₂wiz farþēz''
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tīnō tailai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-  
|-  
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem<sup><small>1</small></sup>)
| day || *tīnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| dawn || *ausōz (''f.'', ''z''-stem)
| dawn || *garjō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| morning || *mōdūraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| morning || *austrō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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|-
|-
-->
-->
| evening || *wesperaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| evening || *weheraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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|-
|-
-->
-->
| night || *nahts (''f.'', cons.-stem)
| night || *nahtiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
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-->
-->
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Expected **''-ea-'' was coalesced to *''-ē₂-'' (e.g. nominative plural was ''*tē₂wiz'' rather than ''*teawiz'').


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''*þimfiziz mēþēz''
|+ Units of time - ''*hēsō mēþīz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-  
|-  
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| hour ||  
| hour ||  
|-
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem, irregular)
| day || *tīnaz (''m.'', ''o''-stem)
|-
|-
| week || *sirį̄ (''f.'', ''īn''-stem)
| week || *seftumō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| month || *mēns (*mēns-, ''m.'', cons.-stem)
| month || *mēnsiz (''m.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
| season || *þimfaz (''n.'', ''z''-stem)
| season || *hēsaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| year || *aþnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem); *jōraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| year || *kataz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''*þimfiziz werdō''
|+ Time adverbs - ''*hēsō wardō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
|-
| now || *nu, *nū
| now || *nu, *nū
|-
|-
| then || *þan
| then || *þat
|-
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||  
| recently, a short time ago ||  
|-
|-
| earlier || *anþ
| earlier ||  
|-
|-
| soon, shortly || *mahs
| soon, shortly ||  
|-
|-
| later ||  
| later ||  
|-
|-
| always || *simfer
| always || *wist
|-
|-
| often || *saif
| often || *hinstō
|-
|-
| sometimes ||  
| sometimes ||  
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| rarely ||  
| rarely ||  
|-
|-
| never || *ne aiwą
| never || *ne waihaz
|-
|-
| ever || *aiwą
| ever || *waihaz
|-
|-
| still, yet || *int
| still, yet || *esk
|-
|-
| already || *anþ
| already || *jau(k)
<!--
<!--
|-
|-
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-->
-->
|-
|-
| yesterday || *gizi; *gester-
| yesterday ||  
<!--
<!--
|-
|-
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-->
-->
|-
|-
| tomorrow || *hrōz
| tomorrow ||  
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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|}
|}


===Colours - ''*helaziz''===
===Colours - ''*hwaidai''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''*helaziz''
|+ Colours - ''*hwaidai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
|-
| white || *albaz
| white || *palaz; *plaitaz
|-
|-
| grey || *hasnaz
| grey || *sīwaz
|-
|-
| black || *ōþraz
| black || *hirznaz
|-
|-
| red || *raudaz, *rausaz
| red || *rautaz; *rūtijaz
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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|-
|-
-->
-->
| brown || *patjaz, *duswaz
| brown || *pēraz
|-
|-
| yellow || *gelwaz, *blāwaz
| yellow || *kildaz; *falwaz
|-
|-
| green || *wīsidaz
| green || *krēnaz; *daljaz
|-
|-
| blue || *hilizijaz
| blue || *matraz
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ-->.
<!--
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ.


'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
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[[Category:Proto-Tungric]]
[[Category:Proto-Rugic]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Italic languages]]
[[Category:Balto-Slavic languages]]
Shariifka
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