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The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
*PPR lack the ''*eu'' to *''jau'' sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
*PPR lacked the ''*eu'' to *''jau'' sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
<!--
<!--
*PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
*PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
Line 132: Line 132:
| *wilh'''ai'''
| *wilh'''ai'''
| *wilh'''ōu'''
| *wilh'''ōu'''
| *wilh'''aisu'''
| *wilh'''aizu'''
| *jūk'''ai'''
| *jūk'''ai'''
| *jūk'''ōu'''
| *jūk'''ōu'''
| *jūk'''aisu'''
| *jūk'''aizu'''
|}
 
There was a rare class of ''a''-stems with contractions (from earlier stems ending in ''aj'') known as ''ā''-stems.<!--, ''ê''-stems, and ''ô'' stems (e.g. ''hrôz'')-->. They decline as below:
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *pāz ''m.'' "battle" || colspan="3"| *twą̄ ''n.'' "pair"
|-
! Nominative
| *p'''āz'''
| rowspan="3"| *p'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *p'''āi'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''ą̄'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''āi'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''ô'''
|-
! Vocative
| *p'''ai'''
|-
! Accusative
| *p'''ą̄'''
| *p'''ônz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *p'''ô'''
| *p'''ôu'''
| *p'''ǫ̂'''
| *tw'''ô'''
| *tw'''ôu'''
| *tw'''ǫ̂'''
|-
! Dative
| *p'''ôi'''
| *p'''āmō'''
| *p'''āmaz'''
| *tw'''ôi'''
| *tw'''āmō'''
| *tw'''āmaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *p'''āi'''
| *p'''āmō'''
| *p'''ôiz'''
| *tw'''āi'''
| *tw'''āmō'''
| *tw'''ôiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *p'''āi'''
| *p'''ôu'''
| *p'''āizu'''
| *tw'''āi'''
| *tw'''ôu'''
| *tw'''āizu'''
|}
|}


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Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).
Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).
There were also contracted ''ō''-stems known as ''ô''-stems. They were declined by replacing the ''-ō-'' in endings with ''-ô-'' (and ''-ǭ'' with ''-ǫ̂''). For example, ''*skwô'' "needle (botany)".


====''ē''-stems====
====''ē''-stems====
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Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *ahmô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
! !! colspan="3"| *hamô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *ahm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *ham'''inī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''iniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''iniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
Line 340: Line 395:
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *ahm'''inį'''
| *ham'''inį'''
| *ahm'''ininz'''
| *ham'''ininz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *ahm'''iniz'''
| *ham'''iniz'''
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ahm'''inǭ'''
| *ham'''inǭ'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inau'''
Line 352: Line 407:
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *ham'''inī'''
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ahm'''immaz'''
| *ham'''immaz'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immō'''
Line 360: Line 415:
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *ahm'''immi'''
| *ham'''immi'''
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ahm'''immīz'''
| *ham'''immīz'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immīz'''
| *imm'''immīz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *ham'''inī'''
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ahm'''inzu'''
| *ham'''inzu'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inau'''
Line 443: Line 498:


====''r''-stems====
====''r''-stems====
Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Masculine and feminine were declined the same. <!--Declension patterns are shown below:-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *prōþê ''m.'' "brother"
! !! colspan="3"| *prōþê ''m.'' "brother"
Line 680: Line 735:


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation.<!-- The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.-->
<!--
<!--
'''Note:''' Like with ''ō''-stem nouns, the strong feminine genitive (both singular and plural) had alternative ''*s'' and ''*z'' forms (i.e. ''*-ōs'' or ''*-ōz'' in the singular, and ''*-ōsą'' or ''*-ōzą''). Only the ''*s'' forms are shown below for brevity. The ''*z'' forms can be derived simply by replacing the ''*s'' in the endings with ''*z''.-->
'''Note:''' Like with ''ō''-stem nouns, the strong feminine genitive (both singular and plural) had alternative ''*s'' and ''*z'' forms (i.e. ''*-ōs'' or ''*-ōz'' in the singular, and ''*-ōsą'' or ''*-ōzą''). Only the ''*s'' forms are shown below for brevity. The ''*z'' forms can be derived simply by replacing the ''*s'' in the endings with ''*z''.-->
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! colspan="7"| *twenaz "good"
|+ Declension of ''mōlaz'' "small"
! colspan="10"| Strong
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Strong
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! Nominative
|-
| *mōl'''az'''
! Nominative/<br />Vocative
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō'''
| *twen'''az'''
| *mōl'''ai'''
| *twen'''ai'''
| *mōl'''ō'''
| *twen'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōi'''
| *twen'''ōi'''
| *mōl'''ōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ą, -at'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''(a)'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *twen'''an'''
| *mōl'''an'''
| *twen'''anz'''
| *mōl'''ōnz'''
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *mōl'''ǭ'''
| *twen'''ōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *twen'''as'''
| *mōl'''as'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *mōl'''āu'''
| *twen'''ōz''', *twen'''azjōz'''
| *mōl'''aizǭ'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *mōl'''azjōz'''
| *twen'''as''', *twen'''azjas'''
| *mōl'''ōu'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *mōl'''ōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''as'''
| *mōl'''āu'''
| *mōl'''aizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *twen'''ammai'''
| *mōl'''ammai'''
| *twen'''abiz'''
| *mōl'''aimō'''
| *twen'''ōz'''
| *mōl'''aimaz'''
| *twen'''ōbiz'''
| *mōl'''azjōi'''
| *twen'''ammai'''
| *mōl'''ōmō'''
| *twen'''abiz'''
| *mōl'''ōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ammai'''
| *mōl'''aimō'''
| *mōl'''aimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *twen'''ô'''
| *mōl'''ammi'''
| *twen'''abaz'''
| *mōl'''aimō'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *mōl'''aimīz'''
| *twen'''ōbaz'''
| *mōl'''ǭ'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *mōl'''ōmō'''
| *twen'''abaz'''
| *mōl'''ōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ammi'''
| *mōl'''aimō'''
| *mōl'''aimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ammi'''
| *mōl'''āu'''
| *mōl'''aizu'''
| *mōl'''ōi'''
| *mōl'''ōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzu'''
| *mōl'''ammi'''
| *mōl'''āu'''
| *mōl'''aizu'''
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative/<br />Vocative
! Nominative
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *mōl'''aziz'''
| *twen'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *mōl'''aiz'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''anō'''
| *mōl'''ōzōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *twen'''anį'''
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *twen'''aninz'''
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *twen'''ōnį'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *twen'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *twen'''anǭ'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
| *twen'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzizōz'''
| *twen'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''awjōu'''
| *twen'''anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *twen'''anī'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *twen'''ambiz'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *twen'''ōnī'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *twen'''ōmbiz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōi'''
| *twen'''anī'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *twen'''ambiz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *twen'''ani'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *twen'''ambaz'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *twen'''ōni'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *twen'''ōmbaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *twen'''ani'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *twen'''ambaz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
|-
|}
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
 
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.
 
====''i''-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
 
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.
 
====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
 
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.
 
===Pronouns===
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="3"| First person !! colspan="3"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *ēzų
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *mit
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| *mez; *miz
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *þū
| *mōl'''ōnjō'''
| *jut
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnjōi'''
| *jūz; *juz
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| —
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ani'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *men; *mį
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *nō
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *nōz
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *þen; *þį
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
| *wō
| *wōz
| *sen; *sį
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
|  
| *mōl'''aniz'''
|
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
|  
| *mōl'''anjǭ'''
|  
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
|
| *mōl'''ōnjōu'''
|  
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
|  
| *mōl'''aniz'''
|-
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *mōl'''anǭ'''
|-
! Dative
! Dative
|  
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
|
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
|  
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|  
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
|
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
|  
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
|  
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
|  
| *mōl'''anai'''
|
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
|  
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|  
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
|
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
|  
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
|  
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
|  
| *mōl'''anai'''
|
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
|  
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|  
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
|
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
|  
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
|  
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
|-
! Possessive adj.
<!--
| *māz
! colspan="10"| Weak
|
| *nōzjaz
| *þwāz
|
| *wōzjaz
| *swāz
|-
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.
====3rd person pronoun====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
!  
! Nominative
|}
| *mōl'''anaz'''
 
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
| *mōl'''anai'''
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
! colspan="7"| Strong
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''aną'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! Accusative
| *mōl'''aną'''
| *mōl'''anōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Dative
| *safsaz
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *safsai
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *safsō
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *safsōi
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Instrumental
| *safsan
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *safsanz
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *safsǭ
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *safsōnz
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Locative
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! Dative
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| *safsammai
| *safsabiz
| *safsōi
| *safsōbiz
| *safsammai
| *safsabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Nominative
| *safsō
| *mōl'''az anaz'''
| *safsabaz
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *safsô
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *safsōbaz
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *safsō
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *safsabaz
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! Accusative
| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmaz anōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Instrumental
| *safsǭ
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *safsaniz
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *safsǭ
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
| *safsōniz
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
| *mōl'''ōmīz anōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzu anōzu'''
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *mōl'''aziz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''aiz'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *safsanį
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *safsaninz
| *mōl'''ōninz'''
| *safsōnį
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *safsōniz
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *safsaniz
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *safsanǭ
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *safsōniz
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
| *safsōnǭ
| *mōl'''ōzizjōz'''
| *safsaniz
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *safsanǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsanī
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *safsambiz
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *safsōnī
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *safsōmbiz
| *mōl'''ōjjizjōi'''
| *safsanī
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *safsambiz
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''azizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''azizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
!  Nominative
| *mōl'''azjaz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''āi'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
! Accusative
| *mōl'''anją'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjazjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''azjas'''
| *mōl'''āwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjazjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōmômō'''
| *mōl'''ōmazjōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsani
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *safsambaz
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *safsōni
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *safsōmbaz
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *safsani
| *mōl'''ōmôimō'''
| *safsambaz
| *mōl'''ōmīzjōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
|-
|-
-->
|}
|}


====Neutral demonstrative====
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. <!--However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.-->


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
====''ā/ô''-stem adjectives====
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
These were a subset of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with lengthened endings. They arose by contraction from adjectives whose stems originally ended in ''-aj-'', after the loss of intervocalic ''-j-''.
|-
 
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
<!--====''i''-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
-
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.-->
 
<!--====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
-
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.-->
 
===Pronouns===
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="3"| First person !! colspan="3"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *saz
| *ēzų
| *sai
| *wet; *wit
| *sō
| *mez; *miz
| *sōi
| *þū; *þu
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| *jūt; *jut
| rowspan="2"| *sō
| *jūz; *juz
| —
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *san
| *mēn; *miz
| *sanz
| *nō
| *sǭ
| *nōz
| *sōnz
| *þēn; *þiz
| *wō
| *wōz
| *sēn; *siz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *sas, *sazjas
| *mīniz; *mī
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *nōu
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *nōzǭ
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *þīwiz; *þī
| *sas, *sazjas
| *wōu
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *wōzǭ
| *sīwiz; *sī
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *sammai
| *mīnī; *mī
| *sabiz
| *nōmō
| *sōi
| *nōmaz
| *sōbiz
| *þīwī; *þī
| *sammai
| *wōmō
| *sabiz
| *wōmaz
| *sīwī; *sī
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *sō
| *mīnimi
| *sabaz
| *nōmō
| *sô
| *nōmīz
| *sōbaz
| *þīwimi
| *sō
| *wōmō
| *sabaz
| *wōmīz
| *sīwimi
|-
! Locative
| *mīnī
| *nōu
| *nōzu
| *þīwī
| *wōu
| *wōzu
| *sīwī
|-
! Possessive adj.
| *mīnaz
| *nōwaz
| *nōzijaz
| *þīwaz
| *wōwaz
| *wōzijaz
| *sīwaz
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Notes:'''
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.
====Other pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *þaz
| *þaz
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| *þai
| *þai
| *þō
| *þō
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| *þōz
| rowspan="2"| *þa
| rowspan="2"| *þai
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *þan
| *þan
| *þanz
| *þōnz
| *þǭ
| *þǭ
| *þōnz
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þāu
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *þaizǭ
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þazjōz
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōu
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þōzǭ
| *þas
| *þāu
| *þaizǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *þammai
| *þammai
| *þabiz
| *þaimō
| *þōi
| *þaimaz
| *þōbiz
| *þazjōi
| *þōmō
| *þōmaz
| *þammai
| *þammai
| *þabiz
| *þaimō
| *þaimaz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þō
| *þammi
| *þabaz
| *þaimō
| *þô
| *þaimīz
| *þōbaz
| *þǭ
| *þō
| *þōmō
| *þabaz
| *þōmīz
| *þammi
| *þaimō
| *þaimīz
|-
! Locative
| *þammi
| *þāu
| *þaizu
| *þōi
| *þōu
| *þōzu
| *þammi
| *þāu
| *þaizu
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *izaz
| *siz
| *izai
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| *izō
| *sīz
| *izōi
| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *sijōi
| rowspan="2"| *izō
| *sijōz
| rowspan="2"| *si
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *sī
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *izan
| *sin
| *izanz
| *sinz
| *izǭ
| *sijǭ
| *izōnz
| *sijōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *izas, *izazjas
| *ses
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *sijau
| *izōz, *izazjōz
| *sezǭ
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *sizjōz
| *izas, *izazjas
| *sijōu
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *sijōzǭ
| *ses
| *sijau
| *sezǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *izammai
| *simmai
| *izabiz
| *sīmō
| *izōi
| *sīmaz
| *izōbiz
| *sizjōi
| *izammai
| *sijōmō
| *izabiz
| *sijōmaz
| *simmai
| *sīmō
| *sīmaz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izō
| *simmi
| *izabaz
| *sīmō
| *izô
| *sīmīz
| *izōbaz
| *sijǭ
| *izō
| *sijōmō
| *izabaz
| *sijōmīz
| *simmi
| *sīmō
| *sīmīz
|-
! Locative
| *simmi
| *sijau
| *sīzu
| *sijōi
| *sijōu
| *sijōzu
| *simmi
| *sijau
| *sīzu
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Near demonstrative====
====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
 
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! colspan="7"| Strong
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
Line 1,123: Line 1,467:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *istaz
| *safsaz
| *istai
| *safsai
| *istō
| *safsō
| *istōi
| *safsōi
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
| rowspan="2"| *istō
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *istan
| *safsan
| *istanz
| *safsanz
| *istǭ
| *safsǭ
| *istōnz
| *safsōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *istas, *istazjas
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *istōz, *istazjōz
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *istas, *istazjas
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *istammai
| *safsammai
| *istabiz
| *safsabiz
| *istōi
| *safsōi
| *istōbiz
| *safsōbiz
| *istammai
| *safsammai
| *istabiz
| *safsabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *istō
| *safsō
| *istabaz
| *safsabaz
| *istô
| *safsô
| *istōbaz
| *safsōbaz
| *istō
| *safsō
| *istabaz
| *safsabaz
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
|-
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
Line 1,168: Line 1,511:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *gehaz
| *safsǭ
| *gehai
| *safsaniz
| *gehō
| *safsǭ
| *gehōi
| *safsōniz
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *gehan
| *safsanį
| *gehanz
| *safsaninz
| *gehǭ
| *safsōnį
| *gehōnz
| *safsōniz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *safsaniz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *safsanǭ
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
| *safsōniz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *safsōnǭ
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *safsaniz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *safsanǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gegammai
| *safsanī
| *gegabiz
| *safsambiz
| *gegōi
| *safsōnī
| *gegōbiz
| *safsōmbiz
| *gegammai
| *safsanī
| *gegabiz
| *safsambiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gegō
| *safsani
| *gegabaz
| *safsambaz
| *gegô
| *safsōni
| *gegōbaz
| *safsōmbaz
| *gegō
| *safsani
| *gegabaz
| *safsambaz
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


====Far demonstrative====
====Neutral demonstrative====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 1,214: Line 1,558:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *allaz
| *saz
| *allai
| *sai
| *allō
| *sō
| *allōi
| *sōi
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| rowspan="2"| *allō
| rowspan="2"| *sō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *allan
| *san
| *allanz
| *sanz
| *allǭ
| *sǭ
| *allōnz
| *sōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *allas, *allazjas
| *sas, *sazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *allōz, *allazjōz
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *allas, *allazjas
| *sas, *sazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *allammai
| *sammai
| *allabiz
| *sabiz
| *allōi
| *sōi
| *allōbiz
| *sōbiz
| *allammai
| *sammai
| *allabiz
| *sabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *allō
| *sō
| *allabaz
| *sabaz
| *allô
| *sô
| *allōbaz
| *sōbaz
| *allō
| *sō
| *allabaz
| *sabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Interrogative pronouns====
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 1,261: Line 1,603:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *hwai
| *þaz
| *hwēz
| *þai
| *hwōi
| *þō
| *hwēz
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *hwat
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *hwō
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *hwan
| *þan
| *hwanz
| *þanz
| *hwǭ
| *þǭ
| *hwōnz
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *þas, *þazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *hwōz, *hwazjōz
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *þas, *þazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *hwammai
| *þammai
| *hwabiz
| *þabiz
| *hwōi
| *þōi
| *hwōbiz
| *þōbiz
| *hwammai
| *þammai
| *hwabiz
| *þabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *hwō, *hwī
| *þō
| *hwabaz
| *þabaz
| *hwô, *hwī
| *þô
| *hwōbaz
| *þōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *þō
| *hwabaz
| *þabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
 
<!--
 
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
|-
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
|-
**''*hwan'' "when"
! Nominative
**''*hwadī'' "where"
| *izaz
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
| *izai
 
| *izō
====Other pronouns====
| *izōi
<!--
| rowspan="2"| *izat
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
| rowspan="2"| *izō
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
|-
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
! Accusative
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
| *izan
*''*allaz'' "all"
| *izanz
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
| *izǭ
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
| *izōnz
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
**''*þan'' "then"
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
 
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.
 
===Numerals===
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier
|-
|-
! 1
! Genitive
| *ainaz
| *izas, *izazjas
| *frīsimaz, *framaz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *semēlą
| *izōz, *izazjōz
| *simflaz, *singilaz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *izas, *izazjas
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
|-
|-
! 2
! Dative
| *twō
| *izammai
| *alþeraz
| *izabiz
| *twis
| *izōi
| *twiflaz
| *izōbiz
| *izammai
| *izabiz
|-
|-
! 3
! Instrumental
| *þrēz
| *izō
| *þriþjǭ
| *izabaz
| *þris
| *izô
| *þriflaz
| *izōbaz
| *izō
| *izabaz
|-
|-
! 4
|}-->
| *hwettwōr
 
| *hwetwarþǭ
====Near demonstrative====
| *hwitris
<!--
| *hwitriflaz
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 5
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhtǭ
| *hwinhwis
| *hwinhwiflaz
|-
|-
! 6
! Nominative
| *sehs
| *istaz
| *sehstǭ
| *istai
| *sehsis
| *istō
| *sehsiflaz
| *istōi
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *istō
|-
|-
! 7
! Accusative
| *siftį
| *istan
| *siftimǭ
| *istanz
| *siftis
| *istǭ
| *siftiflaz
| *istōnz
|-
|-
! 8
! Genitive
| *ahtō
| *istas, *istazjas
| *ahtōwǭ
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *ahtis
| *istōz, *istazjōz
| *ahtōflaz
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istas, *istazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
|-
|-
! 9
! Dative
| *nawį
| *istammai
| *naunǭ
| *istabiz
| *nawis
| *istōi
| *nawiflaz
| *istōbiz
| *istammai
| *istabiz
|-
|-
! 10
! Instrumental
| *tihį
| *istō
| *tihimǭ
| *istabaz
| *tihis
| *istô
| *tihiflaz
| *istōbaz
| *istō
| *istabaz
|-
|-
! 11
|}
| *ainatigį
 
| *ainatihimǭ
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|
|-
|-
! 12
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *twatigį
| *twatihimǭ
|
|
|-
|-
! 13
! Nominative
| *þritigį
| *gehaz
| *þritihimǭ
| *gehai
|
| *gehō
|
| *gehōi
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
|-
|-
! 14
! Accusative
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *gehan
| *hwettwōrtihimǭ
| *gehanz
|
| *gehǭ
|
| *gehōnz
|-
|-
! 15
! Genitive
| *hwinhtigį
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *hwinhtihimǭ
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
|
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
|
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
|-
|-
! 16
! Dative
| *sehstigį
| *gegammai
| *sehstihimǭ
| *gegabiz
|
| *gegōi
|
| *gegōbiz
| *gegammai
| *gegabiz
|-
|-
! 17
! Instrumental
| *siftintigį
| *gegō
| *siftintihimǭ
| *gegabaz
|
| *gegô
|
| *gegōbaz
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
|-
|-
! 18
|}-->
| *ahtōtigį
 
| *ahtōtihimǭ
====Far demonstrative====
|
<!--
|
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! 19
| *nawintigį
| *nawintijimǭ
|
|
|-
|-
! 20
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *wīginþī
| *wīginsǭ
|
|
|-
|-
! 30
! Nominative
| *þrīginþō
| *allaz
| *þrīginsǭ
| *allai
|
| *allō
|
| *allōi
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| rowspan="2"| *allō
|-
|-
! 40
! Accusative
| *hwetrōginþō
| *allan
| *hwetrōginsǭ
| *allanz
|
| *allǭ
|
| *allōnz
|-
|-
! 50
! Genitive
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *allas, *allazjas
| *hwinhwōginsǭ
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
|
| *allōz, *allazjōz
|
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allas, *allazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
|-
|-
! 60
! Dative
| *sehsōginþō
| *allammai
| *sehsōginsǭ
| *allabiz
|
| *allōi
|
| *allōbiz
| *allammai
| *allabiz
|-
|-
! 70
! Instrumental
| *seftumōginþō
| *allō
| *seftumōginsǭ
| *allabaz
|
| *allô
|
| *allōbaz
| *allō
| *allabaz
|-
|-
! 80
|}-->
| *ahtōginþō
 
| *ahtōginsǭ
====Interrogative pronouns====
|
<!--
|
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 90
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *naunōginþō
| *naunōginsǭ
|
|
|-
|-
! 100
! Nominative
| *hinþą
| *hwai
| *hinsǭ
| *hwēz
|
| *hwōi
|
| *hwēz
| rowspan="2"| *hwat
| rowspan="2"| *hwō
|-
|-
! 1000
! Accusative
| *smīgillī
| *hwan
| *smīgillidǭ
| *hwanz
|
| *hwǭ
|
| *hwōnz
|-
|-
|}-->
! Genitive
 
| *hwas, *hwazjas
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
| *hwōz, *hwazjōz
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
|-
|-
! 1
! Dative
| *ainaz
| *hwammai
| *frīsimaz<!--or *frīsmaz-->, *framaz
| *hwabiz
| *hwōi
| *hwōbiz
| *hwammai
| *hwabiz
|-
|-
! 2
! Instrumental
| *twō
| *hwō, *hwī
| *alþeraz
| *hwabaz
| *hwô, *hwī
| *hwōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwabaz
|-
|-
! 3
|}
| *þrēz
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
| *þriþjǭ
<!--
|-
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
! 4
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
| *hwettwōr
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
| *hwadurþǭ<!-- or *hwetwarþǭ-->
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
|-
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
! 5
**''*hwan'' "when"
| *hwinhw
**''*hwadī'' "where"
| *hwinhtǭ
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
 
====Other pronouns====
<!--
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
*''*allaz'' "all"
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
**''*þan'' "then"
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
 
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.
 
===Numerals===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier !! Collective !! Fractional
|-
|-
! 6
! 1
| *sehs
| *ainaz
| *sehstǭ
| *firmaz
|
|
|
|
|-
! 2
| *twō
| *anþeraz
|
| *twāz
| *twimaz
| *pahaz
|-
! 3
| *þrīz
| *þridjaz
|
| *þrāz
| *þrimaz
|-
! 4
| *hidwiriz
| *hidwirþaz
|
| *hedweraz
| *hedwerumaz
|-
! 5
| *finhiz
| *finhtaz
|
| *finhteraz
| *finhumaz
|-
! 6
| *swes
| *swestaz
|
| *swesteraz
| *swesumaz
|-
|-
! 7
! 7
| *siftį
| *siftį
| *siftumǭ
| *seftundaz
|
| *seftunderaz
| *seftumaz
|-
|-
! 8
! 8
| *ahtō
| *ahtō
| *ahtōwǭ
| *ahtundaz
|
| *ahtunderaz
| *ahtumaz
|-
|-
! 9
! 9
| *nawį
| *niwin
| *naunǭ
| *niwindaz
|
| *niwinderaz
| *niwinumaz
|-
|-
! 10
! 10
| *tihį
| *tisin
| *tehumǭ
| *tisindaz
|
| *tisinderaz
| *tisinumaz
|-
|-
! 11
! 11
| *ainatigį
| *ainalig
| *ainatehumǭ
|
|
|
| *analigumaz
|-
|-
! 12
! 12
| *twatigį
| *twalig
| *twatehumǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 13
! 13
| *þritigį
| *þrilig
| *þritehumǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 14
! 14
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *hidwirlig
| *hwettwōrtehumǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 15
! 15
| *hwinhtigį
| *finhlig
| *hwinhtehumǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 16
! 16
| *sehstigį
| *sislig
| *sehstehumǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 17
! 17
| *siftintigį
| *siftinlig
| *siftintehumǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 18
! 18
| *ahtōtigį
| *ahtōlig
| *ahtōtehumǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 19
! 19
| *nawintigį
| *niwinlig
| *nawintehumǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 20
! 20
| *twīginþī
| *twitisin
| *twīginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 30
! 30
| *þrīginþō
| *þritisin
| *þrīginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 40
! 40
| *hwetrōginþō
| *hidwirtisin
| *hwetrōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 50
! 50
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *finhtisin
| *hwinhwōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 60
! 60
| *sehsōginþō
| *sistisin
| *sehsōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 70
! 70
| *seftumōginþō
| *siftintisin
| *seftumōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 80
! 80
| *ahtōginþō
| *ahtōtisin
| *ahtōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 90
! 90
| *naunōginþō
| *niwintisin
| *naunōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 100
! 100
| *hinþą
| *sinþą
| *hinsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 1000
! 1000
| *smīgillī <!-- or something from *smīgzlī-->
| *þūsandiz
| *smīgillisimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
 
*''*ainaz'' "one" was declined as an ''a/ō''-stem adjective.
===Verbs===
*''*twō'' "two" was declined as below:
====Strong verbs====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
<!--
|+ Declension of *''twō'' "two" (pl.)
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
|-
! Nominative
| *-ai || *-istai || *- || *-amaz || *-istiz || *-ēri
| *twō, *twai
| *twōi
| *twō
|-
|-
! Accusative
|}
| *twanz
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
| *twōnz
 
| *twō
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
#'''Class 1:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-i-''. It had two subclasses:
#:'''a.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ai-'' — e.g. ''*'''wit'''ēō'' "I see" > ''*'''wait'''ai'' "I saw", ''*'''wis'''saz'' "seen"
#:'''b.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ī-'' — e.g. ''*'''winh'''ō'' "I conquer" > ''*'''wīh'''ai'' "I conquered", ''*'''wih'''taz'' "conquered"
#'''Class 2:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-u-'' which changed to *''-au-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''buk'''jō'' "I flee" > ''*'''bauk'''ai'' "I fled", ''*'''buk'''adaz'' "fled"
#'''Class 3:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'', *''-e-'', or *''-i-'' that became *''-ē-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''dah'''jō'' "I do" > ''*'''dēh'''ai'' "I did", ''*'''dah'''taz'' "done"
#'''Class 4:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'' that became *''-ō-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''skab'''ō'' "I scratch" > ''*'''skōb'''ai'' "I scratched", ''*'''skab'''adaz'' "scratched"
#'''Class 5:''' The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. ''*'''fip'''ō'' "I drink" > ''*'''fip'''ai'' "I drank", ''*'''fip'''adaz'' "drunk"
#<b>Class 6:</b> The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *''-s-'' — e.g. ''*<b>þrag</b>ō'' "I drag" > ''*<b>þrahs</b>ai'' "I dragged", ''*'''þrah'''taz'' "dragged"
#'''Class 7:''' The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by ''-e-''. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *''-e/i-'' to *''-a-'') — e.g. ''*'''han'''ō'' "I sing" > ''*'''hehan'''ai'' "I sang"
#'''Irregular:''' The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. ''*'''stê'''ō'' "I stand" > ''*'''steþ'''ai'' "I stood"
 
Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:
# A ''j''-suffix. Such verbs are said to be ''j''-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
#An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
#A vowel suffix (usually *''-ō-'' or *''-ē-''). Such verbs are called ''ō''-presents or ''ē''-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb ''*stêsi'' which had the suffix *''-ê-''.
 
The past participle of all verbs was formed with the suffix *''-þaz'' which, depending on the environment, could become *''-taz'', *''-daz'', or *''-saz''. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually *''-a-'' (or *''-i-'' in the case of ''j''-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.
 
The infinitive was formed with the suffix *''-mį'' added to the present stem (including any irregularities). ''j''-presents used a connector vowel of *''-i-'' (light) or *''-ī-'' (heavy). Otherwise, if the present stem did not end in a vowel, the connector vowel *''-a-'' was used.
 
'''Example (class 3): *''akamį'' "to do, act"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *ak'''amį'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *twōsą
| colspan="3"| *ak'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *twōbiz
| colspan="3"| *ah'''taz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
| colspan="3"| *twōbaz
|-
|-
|}
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
*''*þrēz'' "three" was declined as below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of *''þrēz'' "three" (pl.)
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
|-
! Nominative
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
| colspan="2"| *þrēz
| rowspan="2"| *þrijō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! 1S
| colspan="2"| *þrinz
| *ak'''jō'''
| *ak'''jōr'''
| *ak'''jǭ'''
| *ak'''jār'''
| *ēk'''ai'''
| *ēk'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! 2S
| colspan="3"| *þrijǭ, *þrēsą
| *ak'''iz'''
| *ak'''izar'''
| *ak'''jāz'''
| *ak'''jāzar'''
| *ēk'''istai'''
| *ēk'''izēs'''
| *ak
|-
|-
! Dative
! 3S
| colspan="3"| *þribiz, *þrēbiz
| *ak'''id'''
|-
| *ak'''idar'''
! Instrumental
| *ak'''jā'''
| colspan="3"| *þribaz, *þrēbaz
| *ak'''jādar'''
|-
| *ēk''' '''
|}
| *ēk'''izē'''
*Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
| *ak'''idō'''
*''*hinþą'' "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
|-
*''*smīgillī'' "thousand" was declined as an ''ī/jō''-stem feminine noun.
! 1P
*Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending *''-ǭ'') except for 1st and 2nd.
| *ak'''jamaz'''
*The following adverbial numbers are reconstructed:
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''iminai'''
**''*ainas, *sims'' "once"
| *ak'''jāmaz'''
**''*twis'' "twice"
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''jāminai'''
**''*þris'' "thrice"
| *ēk'''amaz'''
**''*hwadurs'' "four times"
| *ēk'''izēmaz'''
*The following multiplicative numbers are reconstructed: 
**''*simflaz, *simflegz, *singlaz'' "single"
**''*twiflaz, *twiflegz'' "double"
**''*þriflaz, *þriflegz'' "triple"
**''*hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz'' "quadruple"
*The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
**''*sem/sim-'' "uni-, mono-, one, once"
**''*twi-'' "bi-, di-, two, twice"
**''*þri-'' "tri-, three, thrice"
**''*hwadur-'' "quadri-, tetra-, four"
**''*sēmi-'' "semi-, half"
*The following collective numerals are reconstructed:
**''*ambō'' (declined as ''*twō'') "both"
**''*twiznaz'' "pair"
**''*þriznaz'' "set of three"
**''*hwadurznaz'' "set of four"
 
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
|-
| *-ai || *-istai || *- || *-amaz || *-istiz || *-ēri
! 2P
| *ak'''idiz'''
| *ak'''jādiz'''
| *ēk'''istiz'''
| *ēk'''izēþiz'''
| *ak'''id'''
|-
|-
|}
! 3P
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
| *ak'''jand'''
 
| *ak'''jān'''
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
| *ēk'''ēri'''
#'''Class 1:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-i-''. It had two subclasses:
| *ēk'''izēn'''
#:'''a.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ai-'' — e.g. ''*'''wit'''ēō'' "I see" > ''*'''wait'''ai'' "I saw", ''*'''wis'''saz'' "seen"
| *ak'''jandō'''
#:'''b.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ī-'' — e.g. ''*'''winh'''ō'' "I conquer" > ''*'''wīh'''ai'' "I conquered", ''*'''wih'''taz'' "conquered"
|-
#'''Class 2:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-u-'' which changed to *''-au-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''buk'''jō'' "I flee" > ''*'''bauk'''ai'' "I fled", ''*'''buk'''adaz'' "fled"
|}
#'''Class 3:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'', *''-e-'', or *''-i-'' that became *''-ē-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''dah'''jō'' "I do" > ''*'''dēh'''ai'' "I did", ''*'''dah'''taz'' "done"
#'''Class 4:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'' that became *''-ō-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''skab'''ō'' "I scratch" > ''*'''skōb'''ai'' "I scratched", ''*'''skab'''adaz'' "scratched"
#'''Class 5:''' The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. ''*'''fip'''ō'' "I drink" > ''*'''fip'''ai'' "I drank", ''*'''fip'''adaz'' "drunk"
#<b>Class 6:</b> The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *''-s-'' — e.g. ''*<b>þrag</b>ō'' "I drag" > ''*<b>þrahs</b>ai'' "I dragged", ''*'''þrah'''taz'' "dragged"
#'''Class 7:''' The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by ''-e-''. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *''-e/i-'' to *''-a-'') — e.g. ''*'''han'''ō'' "I sing" > ''*'''hehan'''ai'' "I sang"
#'''Irregular:''' The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. ''*'''stê'''ō'' "I stand" > ''*'''steþ'''ai'' "I stood"


Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:
'''Example (class 3, light ''j''-present): *''dahimį'' "to do, make"'''
# A ''j''-suffix. Such verbs are said to be ''j''-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
#An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
#A vowel suffix (usually *''-ō-'' or *''-ē-''). Such verbs are called ''ō''-presents or ''ē''-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb ''*stêsi'' which had the suffix *''-ê-''.
 
The past participle of all verbs was formed with the suffix *''-þaz'' which, depending on the environment, could become *''-taz'', *''-daz'', or *''-saz''. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually *''-a-'' (or *''-i-'' in the case of ''j''-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.
 
The infinitive was formed with the suffix *''-mį'' added to the present stem (including any irregularities). ''j''-presents used a connector vowel of *''-i-'' (light) or *''-ī-'' (heavy). Otherwise, if the present stem did not end in a vowel, the connector vowel *''-a-'' was used.
 
'''Example (class 3): *''akamį'' "to do, act"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *ak'''amį'''
| colspan="3"| *dah'''imį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *ak'''inþs'''
| colspan="3"| *dag'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *ah'''taz'''
| colspan="3"| *dah'''taz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,757: Line 2,218:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *ak'''jō'''
| *dah'''jō'''
| *ak'''jōr'''
| *dah'''jōr'''
| *ak'''jǭ'''
| *dah'''jǭ'''
| *ak'''jār'''
| *dah'''jār'''
| *ēk'''ai'''
| *dēh'''ai'''
| *ēk'''izǭ'''
| *dēg'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *ak'''iz'''
| *dah'''iz'''
| *ak'''izar'''
| *dah'''izar'''
| *ak'''jāz'''
| *dah'''jāz'''
| *ak'''jāzar'''
| *dag'''jāzar'''
| *ēk'''istai'''
| *dēg'''istai'''
| *ēk'''izēs'''
| *dēg'''izēs'''
| *ak
| *dah
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *ak'''id'''
| *dah'''id'''
| *ak'''idar'''
| *dah'''idar'''
| *ak'''jā'''
| *dah'''jā'''
| *ak'''jādar'''
| *dag'''jādar'''
| *ēk''' '''
| *dēh''' '''
| *ēk'''izē'''
| *dēg'''izē'''
| *ak'''idō'''
| *dah'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *ak'''jamaz'''
| *dah'''jamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''iminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''iminai'''
| *ak'''jāmaz'''
| *dag'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''jāminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''jāminai'''
| *ēk'''amaz'''
| *dēh'''amaz'''
| *ēk'''izēmaz'''
| *dēg'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *ak'''idiz'''
| *dah'''idiz'''
| *ak'''jādiz'''
| *dag'''jādiz'''
| *ēk'''istiz'''
| *dēg'''istiz'''
| *ēk'''izēþiz'''
| *dēg'''izēþiz'''
| *ak'''id'''
| *dah'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *ak'''jand'''
| *dah'''jand'''
| *ak'''jān'''
| *dah'''jān'''
| *ēk'''ēri'''
| *dēg'''ēri'''
| *ēk'''izēn'''
| *dag'''izēn'''
| *ak'''jandō'''
| *dag'''jandō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Example (class 3, light ''j''-present): *''dahimį'' "to do, make"'''
'''Example: *''þragamį'' (class 6) "to drag"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *dah'''imį'''
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''amį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *dag'''inþs'''
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *dah'''taz'''
| colspan="3"| *þrah'''taz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,824: Line 2,285:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *dah'''jō'''
| *þrag'''ō'''
| *dah'''jōr'''
| *þrag'''ōr'''
| *dah'''jǭ'''
| *þrag'''ǭ'''
| *dah'''jār'''
| *þrag'''ār'''
| *dēh'''ai'''
| *þrahs'''ai'''
| *dēg'''izǭ'''
| *þrahs'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *dah'''iz'''
| *þrag'''iz'''
| *dah'''izar'''
| *þrag'''izar'''
| *dah'''jāz'''
| *þrag'''āz'''
| *dag'''jāzar'''
| *þrag'''āzar'''
| *dēg'''istai'''
| *þrahs'''istai'''
| *dēg'''izēs'''
| *þrahs'''izēs'''
| *dah
| *þrag
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *dah'''id'''
| *þrag'''id'''
| *dah'''idar'''
| *þrag'''idar'''
| *dah'''jā'''
| *þrag'''ā'''
| *dag'''jādar'''
| *þrag'''ādar'''
| *dēh''' '''
| *þrahs''' '''
| *dēg'''izē'''
| *þrahs'''izē'''
| *dah'''idō'''
| *þrag'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *dah'''jamaz'''
| *þrag'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''iminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''iminai'''
| *dag'''jāmaz'''
| *þrag'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''jāminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''āminai'''
| *dēh'''amaz'''
| *þrahs'''amaz'''
| *dēg'''izēmaz'''
| *þrahs'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *dah'''idiz'''
| *þrag'''idiz'''
| *dag'''jādiz'''
| *þrag'''ādiz'''
| *dēg'''istiz'''
| *þrahs'''istiz'''
| *dēg'''izēþiz'''
| *þrahs'''izēþiz'''
| *dah'''id'''
| *þrag'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *dah'''jand'''
| *þrag'''and'''
| *dah'''jān'''
| *þrag'''ān'''
| *dēg'''ēri'''
| *þrahs'''ēri'''
| *dag'''izēn'''
| *þrahs'''izēn'''
| *dag'''jandō'''
| *þrag'''andō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Example: *''þragamį'' (class 6) "to drag"'''
'''Example: *''hanamį'' (class 7) "to sing"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''amį'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''amį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''inþs'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *þrah'''taz'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''þaz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,891: Line 2,352:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *þrag'''ō'''
| *han'''ō'''
| *þrag'''ōr'''
| *han'''ōr'''
| *þrag'''ǭ'''
| *han'''ǭ'''
| *þrag'''ār'''
| *han'''ār'''
| *þrahs'''ai'''
| *hehan'''ai'''
| *þrahs'''izǭ'''
| *hegan'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *þrag'''iz'''
| *han'''iz'''
| *þrag'''izar'''
| *han'''izar'''
| *þrag'''āz'''
| *han'''āz'''
| *þrag'''āzar'''
| *han'''āzar'''
| *þrahs'''istai'''
| *hegan'''istai'''
| *þrahs'''izēs'''
| *hegan'''izēs'''
| *þrag
| *han
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *þrag'''id'''
| *han'''id'''
| *þrag'''idar'''
| *han'''idar'''
| *þrag'''ā'''
| *han'''ā'''
| *þrag'''ādar'''
| *han'''ādar'''
| *þrahs''' '''
| *hehan''' '''
| *þrahs'''izē'''
| *hegan'''izē'''
| *þrag'''idō'''
| *han'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *þrag'''amaz'''
| *han'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''iminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''iminai'''
| *þrag'''āmaz'''
| *han'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''āminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''āminai'''
| *þrahs'''amaz'''
| *hegan'''amaz'''
| *þrahs'''izēmaz'''
| *hegan'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *þrag'''idiz'''
| *han'''idiz'''
| *þrag'''ādiz'''
| *han'''ādiz'''
| *þrahs'''istiz'''
| *hegan'''istiz'''
| *þrahs'''izēþiz'''
| *hegan'''izēþiz'''
| *þrag'''id'''
| *han'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *þrag'''and'''
| *han'''and'''
| *þrag'''ān'''
| *han'''ān'''
| *þrahs'''ēri'''
| *hegan'''ēri'''
| *þrahs'''izēn'''
| *hegan'''izēn'''
| *þrag'''andō'''
| *han'''andō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Example: *''hanamį'' (class 7) "to sing"'''
'''Example (class 7, heavy ''j''-present): *''bargīmį'' "to stuff"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *han'''amį'''
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īmį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *han'''inþs'''
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īnþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *han'''þaz'''
| colspan="3"| *barh'''taz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,958: Line 2,419:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *han'''ō'''
| *barh'''ijō'''
| *han'''ōr'''
| *barh'''ijōr'''
| *han'''ǭ'''
| *barh'''ijǭ'''
| *han'''ār'''
| *barh'''ijār'''
| *hehan'''ai'''
| *bebarh'''ai'''
| *hegan'''izǭ'''
| *bebarg'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *han'''iz'''
| *barh'''īz'''
| *han'''izar'''
| *barg'''īzar'''
| *han'''āz'''
| *barh'''ijāz'''
| *han'''āzar'''
| *barg'''ijāzar'''
| *hegan'''istai'''
| *bebarg'''istai'''
| *hegan'''izēs'''
| *bebarg'''izēs'''
| *han
| *barh
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *han'''id'''
| *barh'''īd'''
| *han'''idar'''
| *barg'''īdar'''
| *han'''ā'''
| *barh'''ijā'''
| *han'''ādar'''
| *barg'''ijādar'''
| *hehan''' '''
| *bebarh''' '''
| *hegan'''izē'''
| *bebarg'''izē'''
| *han'''idō'''
| *barh'''īdō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *han'''amaz'''
| *barg'''ijamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''iminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''īminai'''
| *han'''āmaz'''
| *barg'''ijāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''āminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''ijāminai'''
| *hegan'''amaz'''
| *bebarh'''amaz'''
| *hegan'''izēmaz'''
| *bebarg'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *han'''idiz'''
| *barg'''īdiz'''
| *han'''ādiz'''
| *barg'''ijādiz'''
| *hegan'''istiz'''
| *bebarg'''istiz'''
| *hegan'''izēþiz'''
| *bebarg'''izēþiz'''
| *han'''id'''
| *barg'''īþ'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *han'''and'''
| *barh'''ijand'''
| *han'''ān'''
| *barh'''ijān'''
| *hegan'''ēri'''
| *bebarg'''ēri'''
| *hegan'''izēn'''
| *bebarg'''izēn'''
| *han'''andō'''
| *barg'''ijandō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Example (class 7, heavy ''j''-present): *''bargīmį'' "to stuff"'''
'''Example: *''stêmį'' (irregular, present suffix ''-ê-'') "to stand"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īmį'''
| colspan="3"| *st'''êmį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īnþs'''
| colspan="3"| *st'''ênþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barh'''taz'''
| colspan="3"| *sta'''þaz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 2,025: Line 2,486:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *barh'''ijō'''
| *st'''êō'''
| *barh'''ijōr'''
| *st'''êōr'''
| *barh'''ijǭ'''
| *st'''êǭ'''
| *barh'''ijār'''
| *st'''êār'''
| *bebarh'''ai'''
| *steþ'''ai'''
| *bebarg'''izǭ'''
| *stid'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *barh'''īz'''
| *st'''ês'''
| *barg'''īzar'''
| *st'''êsar'''
| *barh'''ijāz'''
| *st'''êāz'''
| *barg'''ijāzar'''
| *st'''êāzar'''
| *bebarg'''istai'''
| *stid'''istai'''
| *bebarg'''izēs'''
| *stid'''izēs'''
| *barh
| *st'''ê'''
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *barh'''īd'''
| *st'''êþ'''
| *barg'''īdar'''
| *st'''êþar'''
| *barh'''ijā'''
| *st'''êā'''
| *barg'''ijādar'''
| *st'''êādar'''
| *bebarh''' '''
| *steþ''' '''
| *bebarg'''izē'''
| *stid'''izē'''
| *barh'''īdō'''
| *st'''êdō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *barg'''ijamaz'''
| *st'''êmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''īminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êminai'''
| *barg'''ijāmaz'''
| *st'''êāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''ijāminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êāminai'''
| *bebarh'''amaz'''
| *steþ'''amaz'''
| *bebarg'''izēmaz'''
| *stid'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *barg'''īdiz'''
| *st'''êþiz'''
| *barg'''ijādiz'''
| *st'''êādiz'''
| *bebarg'''istiz'''
| *stid'''istiz'''
| *bebarg'''izēþiz'''
| *stid'''izēþiz'''
| *barg'''īþ'''
| *st'''êd'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *barh'''ijand'''
| *st'''ênþ'''
| *barh'''ijān'''
| *st'''êān'''
| *bebarg'''ēri'''
| *sted'''ēri'''
| *bebarg'''izēn'''
| *stid'''izēn'''
| *barg'''ijandō'''
| *st'''êndō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


'''Example: *''stêmį'' (irregular, present suffix ''-ê-'') "to stand"'''
====Weak verbs====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
<!--
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
| colspan="3"| *st'''êmį'''
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *-bǭ || *-bōs || *-bō || *-bōmaz || *-bōþiz || *-bōn
| colspan="3"| *st'''ênþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
|}
| colspan="3"| *sta'''þaz'''
The *''-b-'' was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the verb's class. The same connector vowel was also used to form the infinitive.
|-
 
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
|-
<!--
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
Weak verbs can be categorized into the following classes:
|-
<!--
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
#'''Class 1:'''
|-
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
! 1S
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
| *st'''êō'''
====='''Class 1'''=====
| *st'''êōr'''
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
| *st'''êǭ'''
 
| *st'''êār'''
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-(i)ja-'', while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *''-i/ī-''. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.
| *steþ'''ai'''
 
| *stid'''izǭ'''
====='''Class 2'''=====
|-
Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:
! 2S
*The present stem ended in *''-ō-'', which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *''-ō-'' to *''-ô-''. In the present subjunctive, expected **''-ōǭ'' contracted to *''-ǫ̂'', while expected **''-ōā-'' became *''-ōē-''.
| *st'''ês'''
*The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *''-ō-'', as in the present stem.
| *st'''êsar'''
 
| *st'''êāz'''
====='''Class 3'''=====
| *st'''êāzar'''
There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
| *stid'''istai'''
 
| *stid'''izēs'''
The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *''-ē-'', which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *''-ō-'' of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle dropped the *''-ē-'' suffix and instead had the connector vowel *''-a-''.
| *st'''ê'''
 
|-
The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *''-ē-'' and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *''-i-''.
! 3S
 
| *st'''êþ'''
====='''Class 4'''=====
| *st'''êþar'''
Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-''j''-stem strong verbs.
| *st'''êā'''
 
| *st'''êādar'''
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
| *steþ''' '''
-->
| *stid'''izē'''
 
| *st'''êdō'''
====Preterite-present verbs====
|-
<!--
! 1P
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
| *st'''êmaz'''
 
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êminai'''
For example:
| *st'''êāmaz'''
*''*menamį'' "to remember", ''*memanai'' "I remember", ''*menabǭ'' "I remembered", ''*minþaz'' "remembered"
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êāminai'''
*''*ōtamį'' "to hate", ''*ōtai'' "I hate", ''*ōtabǭ'' "I hated", ''*ōsaz'' "hated"
| *steþ'''amaz'''
*''*(ga)knōmį'' "to know, be familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōai'' "I know, am familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōbǭ'' "I knew, was familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōþaz'' "known"
| *stid'''izēmaz'''
*''*(ga)swedamį'' "to be used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedai'' "I am used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedabǭ'' "I was used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swessaz'' "accustomed"
*''*emamį'' "to have, own", ''*ēmai'' "I have, own", ''*emabǭ'' "I had, owned", ''*imþaz'' "had, owned"
*''*simį'' "to be allowed", ''*sisai'' "I am allowed", ''*sibǭ'' "I was allowed", ''*siþaz'' "allowed"
*''*hrimį'' "to be determined", ''*hrisai'' "I am determined", ''*hribǭ'' "I was determined", ''*hriþaz'' "determined"
*''*(ga)flēmį'' "to suffice, be enough", ''*(ga)flēai'' "I suffice, am enough", ''*(ga)flēþaz'' "sufficed, enough"
*''*þelamį'' "to owe, have to", ''*þeþalai'' "I owe, have to", ''*þelabǭ'' "I owe, had to", ''*þelþaz'' "owed, had to"
*''*afamį'' "to be necessary/suitable", ''*ēfai'' "I am necessary/suitable", ''*afabǭ'' "I was necessary/suitable", ''*aftaz'' "necessary/suitable"
<!--
*''jawōmį'' "to be suitable", ''*jawazai'' "I am suitable", ''*jawōbǭ'' "-->
 
====The verb "to be"====
<!--
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*bū/bus-''.<!-- They can be treated as two separate verbs sharing past indicative and imperative forms.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *immį
| colspan="2"| *būamį
|-
|-
! 2P
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *st'''êþiz'''
| colspan="2"| *sinþs
| *st'''êādiz'''
| colspan="2"| *būinþs
| *stid'''istiz'''
|-
| *stid'''izēþiz'''
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| *st'''êd'''
| colspan="2"| —
| colspan="2"| *būadaz
|-
|-
! 3P
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
| *st'''ênþ'''
| *st'''êān'''
| *sted'''ēri'''
| *stid'''izēn'''
| *st'''êndō'''
|-
|-
|}
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
 
====Weak verbs====
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
|-
| *-bǭ || *-bōs || *-bō || *-bōmaz || *-bōþiz || *-bōn
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' 1 !! ''*būamį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį''
|-
|-
|}
! 1S
The *''-b-'' was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the verb's class. The same connector vowel was also used to form the infinitive.
| *izą
 
| *būō
The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
| *buzą
<!--
| *sijǭ
Weak verbs can be categorized into the following classes:
| *buzǭ
<!--
| *bebūai
#'''Class 1:'''
| *issǭ
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
| *bebūizǭ
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
|-
-
! 2S
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
| *iz
====='''Class 1'''=====
| *būiz
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
| *buz
 
| *sijēz
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-(i)ja-'', while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *''-i/ī-''. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.
| *buzāz
 
| *bebūistai
====='''Class 2'''=====
| *issēz
Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:
| *bebūizēz
*The present stem ended in *''-ō-'', which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *''-ō-'' to *''-ô-''. In the present subjunctive, expected **''-ōǭ'' contracted to *''-ǫ̂'', while expected **''-ōā-'' became *''-ōē-''.
| *bū
*The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *''-ō-'', as in the present stem.
|-
 
! 3S
====='''Class 3'''=====
| *ist
There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
| *būid
 
| *bust
The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *''-ē-'', which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *''-ō-'' of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle dropped the *''-ē-'' suffix and instead had the connector vowel *''-a-''.
| *sijē
 
| *buzā
The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *''-ē-'' and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *''-i-''.
| *bebū
 
| *issē
====='''Class 4'''=====
| *bebūizē
Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-''j''-stem strong verbs.
| *būidō
 
|-
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
! 1P
 
| *samaz
====Preterite-present verbs====
| *būamaz
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
| *buzamaz
 
| *sīmaz
For example:
| *buzāmaz
*''*menamį'' "to remember", ''*memanai'' "I remember", ''*menabǭ'' "I remembered", ''*minþaz'' "remembered"
| *bebūamaz
*''*ōtamį'' "to hate", ''*ōtai'' "I hate", ''*ōtabǭ'' "I hated", ''*ōsaz'' "hated"
| *issēmaz
*''*(ga)knōmį'' "to know, be familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōai'' "I know, am familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōbǭ'' "I knew, was familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōþaz'' "known"
| *bebūizēmaz
*''*(ga)swedamį'' "to be used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedai'' "I am used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedabǭ'' "I was used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swessaz'' "accustomed"
*''*emamį'' "to have, own", ''*ēmai'' "I have, own", ''*emabǭ'' "I had, owned", ''*imþaz'' "had, owned"
*''*simį'' "to be allowed", ''*sisai'' "I am allowed", ''*sibǭ'' "I was allowed", ''*siþaz'' "allowed"
*''*hrimį'' "to be determined", ''*hrisai'' "I am determined", ''*hribǭ'' "I was determined", ''*hriþaz'' "determined"
*''*(ga)flēmį'' "to suffice, be enough", ''*(ga)flēai'' "I suffice, am enough", ''*(ga)flēþaz'' "sufficed, enough"
*''*þelamį'' "to owe, have to", ''*þeþalai'' "I owe, have to", ''*þelabǭ'' "I owe, had to", ''*þelþaz'' "owed, had to"
*''*afamį'' "to be necessary/suitable", ''*ēfai'' "I am necessary/suitable", ''*afabǭ'' "I was necessary/suitable", ''*aftaz'' "necessary/suitable"
<!--
*''jawōmį'' "to be suitable", ''*jawazai'' "I am suitable", ''*jawōbǭ'' "-->
 
====The verb "to be"====
<!--
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*bū/bus-''.<!-- They can be treated as two separate verbs sharing past indicative and imperative forms.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *immį
| colspan="2"| *būamį
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 2P
| colspan="2"| *sinþs
| *istiz
| colspan="2"| *būinþs
| *būidiz
| *bustiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebūistiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebūizēþiz
| *būid
|-
! 3P
| *sind
| *būind
| *buzind
| *sijēn
| *buzān
| *bebūēri
| *issēn
| *bebūizēn
| *būindō
|-
|}
 
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *immį
| colspan="2"| *biumį
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="4"| *beunþs
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| colspan="2"| —
| colspan="4"| *beudaz
| colspan="2"| *būadaz
|-
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
Line 2,219: Line 2,699:
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
|-
|-
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' 1 !! ''*būamį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį''
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' 1 !! ''*biumį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį''
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *izą
| *izą
| *būō
| *bewō
| *buzą
| *buzą
| *sijǭ
| *sijǭ
| *buzǭ
| *buzǭ
| *bebūai
| *bebewai
| *issǭ
| *issǭ
| *bebūizǭ
| *bebeuzǭ
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *iz
| *iz
| *būiz
| *beuz
| *buz
| *buz
| *sijēz
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *buzāz
| *bebūistai
| *bebeustai
| *issēz
| *issēz
| *bebūizēz
| *bebeuzēz
| *bū
| *beu
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *ist
| *ist
| *būid
| *beud
| *bust
| *bust
| *sijē
| *sijē
| *buzā
| *buzā
| *bebū
| *bebeu
| *issē
| *issē
| *bebūizē
| *bebeuzē
| *būidō
| *beudō
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *samaz
| *samaz
| *būamaz
| *beumaz
| *buzamaz
| *buzamaz
| *sīmaz
| *sīmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebūamaz
| *bebeumaz
| *issēmaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebūizēmaz
| *bebeuzēmaz
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *istiz
| *istiz
| *būidiz
| *beudiz
| *bustiz
| *bustiz
| *sīþiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebūistiz
| *bebiustiz
| *issēþiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebūizēþiz
| *bebeuzēþiz
| *būid
| *beud
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *sind
| *sind
| *būind
| *beund
| *buzind
| *buzind
| *sijēn
| *sīn
| *buzān
| *buzān
| *bebūēri
| *bebewēri
| *issēn
| *issēn
| *bebūizēn
| *bebeuzēn
| *būindō
| *beundō
|-
|-
|}-->
|}-->


The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
==Syntax==
 
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*hēsaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
|+ Seasons - ''*katō hēsai''
| colspan="2"| *immį
! English !! Proto-Rugic
| colspan="2"| *biumį
|-
| spring || *westrō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| summer || *laidą (''n.'', ''a''-stem)
| colspan="4"| *beunþs
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| fall || *aziniz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
| colspan="4"| *beudaz
|-
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
| winter || *dīmō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
|}
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
|-
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' 1 !! ''*biumį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį''
| January ||
|-
|-
! 1S
| February ||  
| *izą
| *bewō
| *buzą
| *sijǭ
| *buzǭ
| *bebewai
| *issǭ
| *bebeuzǭ
|-
|-
! 2S
| March ||  
| *iz
| *beuz
| *buz
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *bebeustai
| *issēz
| *bebeuzēz
| *beu
|-
|-
! 3S
| April ||  
| *ist
| *beud
| *bust
| *sijē
| *buzā
| *bebeu
| *issē
| *bebeuzē
| *beudō
|-
|-
! 1P
| May ||  
| *samaz
| *beumaz
| *buzamaz
| *sīmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebeumaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebeuzēmaz
|-
|-
! 2P
| June ||  
| *istiz
| *beudiz
| *bustiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebiustiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebeuzēþiz
| *beud
|-
|-
! 3P
| July ||  
| *sind
| *beund
| *buzind
| *sīn
| *buzān
| *bebewēri
| *issēn
| *bebeuzēn
| *beundō
|-
|-
|}
| August ||  
 
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*þimfaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''*jōras þimfizō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
|-
| spring || *wesar (*wesn-; ''n.'', ''r/n''-stem)
| September ||  
|-
|-
| summer || *aisōþs (''f.'', cons.-stem)
| October ||  
|-
|-
| fall || *missiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
| November ||  
|-
|-
| winter || *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; ''f.'', cons.-stem)
| December ||  
|-
|-
|}
|}
<!--
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - '' ''
|+ Days of the week - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| January ||
|-
| February ||
|-
| March ||
|-
| April ||
|-
| May ||
|-
| June ||
|-
| July ||
|-
| August ||
|-
| September ||
|-
| October ||
|-
| November ||
|-
| December ||
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
|-
Line 2,446: Line 2,841:
-->
-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tē₂wiz farþēz''
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tīnō tailai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-  
|-  
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem<sup><small>1</small></sup>)
| day || *tīnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| dawn || *ausōz (''f.'', ''z''-stem)
| dawn || *garjō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| morning || *mōdūraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| morning || *austrō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
Line 2,461: Line 2,856:
|-
|-
-->
-->
| evening || *wesperaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| evening || *weheraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
Line 2,467: Line 2,862:
|-
|-
-->
-->
| night || *nahts (''f.'', cons.-stem)
| night || *nahtiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
Line 2,473: Line 2,868:
-->
-->
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Expected **''-ea-'' was coalesced to *''-ē₂-'' (e.g. nominative plural was ''*tē₂wiz'' rather than ''*teawiz'').


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''*þimfiziz mēþēz''
|+ Units of time - ''*hēsō mēþīz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-  
|-  
Line 2,489: Line 2,881:
| hour ||  
| hour ||  
|-
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem, irregular)
| day || *tīnaz (''m.'', ''o''-stem)
|-
|-
| week || *sirį̄ (''f.'', ''īn''-stem)
| week || *seftumō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| month || *mēns (*mēns-, ''m.'', cons.-stem)
| month || *mēnsiz (''m.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
| season || *þimfaz (''n.'', ''z''-stem)
| season || *hēsaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| year || *aþnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem); *jōraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| year || *kataz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''*þimfiziz werdō''
|+ Time adverbs - ''*hēsō wardō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
|-
| now || *nu, *nū
| now || *nu, *nū
|-
|-
| then || *þan
| then || *þat
|-
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||  
| recently, a short time ago ||  
|-
|-
| earlier || *anþ
| earlier ||  
|-
|-
| soon, shortly || *mahs
| soon, shortly ||  
|-
|-
| later ||  
| later ||  
|-
|-
| always || *simfer
| always || *wist
|-
|-
| often || *saif
| often || *hinstō
|-
|-
| sometimes ||  
| sometimes ||  
Line 2,525: Line 2,917:
| rarely ||  
| rarely ||  
|-
|-
| never || *ne aiwą
| never || *ne waihaz
|-
|-
| ever || *aiwą
| ever || *waihaz
|-
|-
| still, yet || *int
| still, yet || *esk
|-
|-
| already || *anþ
| already || *jau(k)
<!--
<!--
|-
|-
Line 2,539: Line 2,931:
-->
-->
|-
|-
| yesterday || *gizi; *gester-
| yesterday ||  
<!--
<!--
|-
|-
Line 2,545: Line 2,937:
-->
-->
|-
|-
| tomorrow || *hrōz
| tomorrow ||  
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
Line 2,558: Line 2,950:
| last week ||  
| last week ||  
|-
|-
| next week ||  
| next week ||  
|-
|-
-->
-->
|}
|}
 
 
===Colours - ''*helaziz''===
===Colours - ''*hwaidai''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''*helaziz''
|+ Colours - ''*hwaidai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
|-
| white || *albaz
| white || *palaz; *plaitaz
|-
|-
| grey || *hasnaz
| grey || *sīwaz
|-
|-
| black || *ōþraz
| black || *hirznaz
|-
|-
| red || *raudaz, *rausaz
| red || *rautaz; *rūtijaz
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
| orange ||
| orange ||
|-
|-
-->
-->
| brown || *patjaz, *duswaz
| brown || *pēraz
|-
|-
| yellow || *gelwaz, *blāwaz
| yellow || *kildaz; *falwaz
|-
|-
| green || *wīsidaz
| green || *krēnaz; *daljaz
|-
|-
| blue || *hilizijaz
| blue || *matraz
|-
|-
<!--
| pink ||
|-
| purple ||
|-
| golden ||
|-
-->
|}
 
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
<!--
<!--
| pink ||
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ.
|-
| purple ||
|-
| golden ||
|-
-->
|}
 
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ-->.


'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
Line 2,618: Line 3,011:




[[Category:Proto-Tungric]]
[[Category:Proto-Rugic]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Italic languages]]
[[Category:Balto-Slavic languages]]
Shariifka
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