Linguifex

Proto-Rugic: Difference between revisions

Page Discussion

Proto-Rugic (view source)

Revision as of 17:23, 9 February 2025

5,380 bytes added ,  9 February
→‎Introduction
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit
 
(34 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 36: Line 36:


The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
*PPR lack the ''*eu'' to *''jau'' sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
*PPR lacked the ''*eu'' to *''jau'' sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
<!--
<!--
*PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
*PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
Line 382: Line 382:
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *ahmô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
! !! colspan="3"| *hamô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *ahm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *ham'''inī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''iniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''iniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
Line 395: Line 395:
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *ahm'''inį'''
| *ham'''inį'''
| *ahm'''ininz'''
| *ham'''ininz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *ahm'''iniz'''
| *ham'''iniz'''
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ahm'''inǭ'''
| *ham'''inǭ'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inau'''
Line 407: Line 407:
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *ham'''inī'''
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ahm'''immaz'''
| *ham'''immaz'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immō'''
Line 415: Line 415:
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *ahm'''immi'''
| *ham'''immi'''
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ahm'''immīz'''
| *ham'''immīz'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immō'''
Line 423: Line 423:
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *ham'''inī'''
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ahm'''inzu'''
| *ham'''inzu'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inau'''
Line 498: Line 498:


====''r''-stems====
====''r''-stems====
Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Masculine and feminine were declined the same. <!--Declension patterns are shown below:-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *prōþê ''m.'' "brother"
! !! colspan="3"| *prōþê ''m.'' "brother"
Line 820: Line 820:
| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
Line 827: Line 827:
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''ōninz'''
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzizōz'''
| *mōl'''awjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzizjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
Line 846: Line 846:
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjizjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōzōi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
Line 857: Line 857:
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
Line 866: Line 866:
! Locative
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''azizu'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzōzu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''azizu'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
Line 883: Line 883:
|-
|-
!  Nominative
!  Nominative
| *mōl'''azjaz'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| *mōl'''āi'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''ōnjō'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ani'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mōl'''anją'''
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''  
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjazjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''azjas'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''āwjāu'''
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
!  Nominative
| *mōl'''anaz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''aną'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
! Accusative
| *mōl'''aną'''
| *mōl'''anōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjazjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōmômō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmazjōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōmôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmīzjōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
|-
-->
|}
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.
====''i''-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.
====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.
===Pronouns===
<!--
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
! colspan="9"| Weak
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
|-
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="3"| First person !! colspan="3"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *ēzų
| *mōl'''az anaz'''
| *wet; *wit
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *mez; *miz
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *þū; *þu
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *jūt; *jut
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *jūz; *juz
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| —
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mēn; *mi
| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| *nō
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
| *nōz
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *þēn; *þi
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
| *wō
| *wōz
| *sēn; *si
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *miniz; *mī
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *nōu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *nōzǭ
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *þiwiz; *þī
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| *wōu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *wōzǭ
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *siwiz; *sī
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *minī; *mī
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *nōmō
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *nōmaz
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
| *þiwī; *þī
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *wōmō
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *wōmaz
| *mōl'''ōmaz anōmaz'''
| *siwī; *sī
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
|-
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
| *minimi
|-
| *nōmō
! Instrumental
| *nōmīz
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *þiwimi
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *wōmō
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
| *wōmīz
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *siwimi
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmīz anōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *minī
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *nōu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *nōzu
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
| *þiwī
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *wōu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *wōzu
| *mōl'''ōzu anōzu'''
| *siwī
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
|-
|-
! Possessive adj.
<!--
| *menaz
! colspan="10"| Weak
| *nōwaz
| *nōzjaz
| *þewaz
| *wōwaz
| *wōzjaz
| *sewaz
|-
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.
====Other pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
Line 1,052: Line 1,087:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *þaz
| *mōl'''aziz'''
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *þai
| *mōl'''aiz'''
| *þō
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *þōz
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *þa
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *þai
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *þan
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *þōnz
| *mōl'''ōninz'''
| *þǭ
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *þōnz
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þas
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *þāu
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *þaizǭ
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
| *þazjōz
| *mōl'''ōzizjōz'''
| *þōu
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *þōzǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *þas
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *þāu
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *þaizǭ
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *þammai
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *þaimō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *þaimaz
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *þazjōi
| *mōl'''ōjjizjōi'''
| *þōmō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *þōmaz
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *þammai
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *þaimō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *þaimaz
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þammi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *þaimō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *þaimīz
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *þǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *þōmō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *þōmīz
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *þammi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *þaimō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *þaimīz
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *þammi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *þāu
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *þaizu
| *mōl'''azizu'''
| *þōi
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *þōu
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *þōzu
| *mōl'''ōzōzu'''
| *þammi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *þāu
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *þaizu
| *mōl'''azizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
|-
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *siz
| *mōl'''azjaz'''
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *sīz
| *mōl'''āi'''
| *sī
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *sijōi
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *sijōz
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *si
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *sin
| *mōl'''anją'''
| *sinz
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *sijǭ
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *sijōnz
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *ses
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *sijau
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *sezǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *sizjōz
| *mōl'''ōzjazjōz'''
| *sijōu
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *sijōzǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *ses
| *mōl'''azjas'''
| *sijau
| *mōl'''āwjāu'''
| *sezǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *simmai
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *sīmō
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *sīmaz
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *sizjōi
| *mōl'''ōjjazjōi'''
| *sijōmō
| *mōl'''ōmômō'''
| *sijōmaz
| *mōl'''ōmazjōmaz'''
| *simmai
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *sīmō
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *sīmaz
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *simmi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sīmō
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *sīmīz
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *sijǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *sijōmō
| *mōl'''ōmôimō'''
| *sijōmīz
| *mōl'''ōmīzjōmīz'''
| *simmi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sīmō
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *sīmīz
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *simmi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sijau
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *sīzu
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *sijōi
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *sijōu
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *sijōzu
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *simmi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sijau
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *sīzu
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
|-
|-
-->
|}
|}


====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. <!--However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.-->
! colspan="7"| Strong
 
====''ā/ô''-stem adjectives====
These were a subset of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with lengthened endings. They arose by contraction from adjectives whose stems originally ended in ''-aj-'', after the loss of intervocalic ''-j-''.
 
<!--====''i''-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
-
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.-->
 
<!--====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
-
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.-->
 
===Pronouns===
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="3"| First person !! colspan="3"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *safsaz
| *ēzų
| *safsai
| *wet; *wit
| *safsō
| *mez; *miz
| *safsōi
| *þū; *þu
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
| *jūt; *jut
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
| *jūz; *juz
| —
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *safsan
| *mēn; *miz
| *safsanz
| *nō
| *safsǭ
| *nōz
| *safsōnz
| *þēn; *þiz
| *wō
| *wōz
| *sēn; *siz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *mīniz; *mī
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *nōu
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *nōzǭ
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *þīwiz; *þī
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *wōu
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *wōzǭ
| *sīwiz; *sī
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsammai
| *mīnī; *mī
| *safsabiz
| *nōmō
| *safsōi
| *nōmaz
| *safsōbiz
| *þīwī; *þī
| *safsammai
| *wōmō
| *safsabiz
| *wōmaz
| *sīwī; *sī
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsō
| *mīnimi
| *safsabaz
| *nōmō
| *safsô
| *nōmīz
| *safsōbaz
| *þīwimi
| *safsō
| *wōmō
| *safsabaz
| *wōmīz
| *sīwimi
|-
! Locative
| *mīnī
| *nōu
| *nōzu
| *þīwī
| *wōu
| *wōzu
| *sīwī
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! Possessive adj.
| *mīnaz
| *nōwaz
| *nōzijaz
| *þīwaz
| *wōwaz
| *wōzijaz
| *sīwaz
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|}
 
'''Notes:'''
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.
 
====Other pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *safsǭ
| *þaz
| *safsaniz
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| *safsǭ
| *þai
| *safsōniz
| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| rowspan="2"| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
| *þōz
| rowspan="2"| *þa
| rowspan="2"| *þai
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *safsanį
| *þan
| *safsaninz
| *þōnz
| *safsōnį
| *þǭ
| *safsōniz
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *safsaniz
| *þas
| *safsanǭ
| *þāu
| *safsōniz
| *þaizǭ
| *safsōnǭ
| *þazjōz
| *safsaniz
| *þōu
| *safsanǭ
| *þōzǭ
| *þas
| *þāu
| *þaizǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsanī
| *þammai
| *safsambiz
| *þaimō
| *safsōnī
| *þaimaz
| *safsōmbiz
| *þazjōi
| *safsanī
| *þōmō
| *safsambiz
| *þōmaz
| *þammai
| *þaimō
| *þaimaz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsani
| *þammi
| *safsambaz
| *þaimō
| *safsōni
| *þaimīz
| *safsōmbaz
| *þǭ
| *safsani
| *þōmō
| *safsambaz
| *þōmīz
| *þammi
| *þaimō
| *þaimīz
|-
|-
|}
! Locative
 
| *þammi
====Neutral demonstrative====
| *þāu
| *þaizu
| *þōi
| *þōu
| *þōzu
| *þammi
| *þāu
| *þaizu
|-
|}


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *saz
| *siz
| *sai
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| *sō
| *sīz
| *sōi
| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| rowspan="2"| *sijōi
| rowspan="2"| *sō
| *sijōz
| rowspan="2"| *si
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *sī
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *san
| *sin
| *sanz
| *sinz
| *sǭ
| *sijǭ
| *sōnz
| *sijōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *sas, *sazjas
| *ses
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sijau
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *sezǭ
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sizjōz
| *sas, *sazjas
| *sijōu
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sijōzǭ
| *ses
| *sijau
| *sezǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *sammai
| *simmai
| *sabiz
| *sīmō
| *sōi
| *sīmaz
| *sōbiz
| *sizjōi
| *sammai
| *sijōmō
| *sabiz
| *sijōmaz
| *simmai
| *sīmō
| *sīmaz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *sō
| *simmi
| *sabaz
| *sīmō
| *sô
| *sīmīz
| *sōbaz
| *sijǭ
| *sō
| *sijōmō
| *sabaz
| *sijōmīz
| *simmi
| *sīmō
| *sīmīz
|-
! Locative
| *simmi
| *sijau
| *sīzu
| *sijōi
| *sijōu
| *sijōzu
| *simmi
| *sijau
| *sīzu
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! colspan="7"| Strong
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
Line 1,327: Line 1,467:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *þaz
| *safsaz
| *þai
| *safsai
| *þō
| *safsō
| *þōi
| *safsōi
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *þan
| *safsan
| *þanz
| *safsanz
| *þǭ
| *safsǭ
| *þōnz
| *safsōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þas, *þazjas
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *þas, *þazjas
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *þammai
| *safsammai
| *þabiz
| *safsabiz
| *þōi
| *safsōi
| *þōbiz
| *safsōbiz
| *þammai
| *safsammai
| *þabiz
| *safsabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þō
| *safsō
| *þabaz
| *safsabaz
| *þô
| *safsô
| *þōbaz
| *safsōbaz
| *þō
| *safsō
| *þabaz
| *safsabaz
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
|-
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
Line 1,373: Line 1,511:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *izaz
| *safsǭ
| *izai
| *safsaniz
| *izō
| *safsǭ
| *izōi
| *safsōniz
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| rowspan="2"| *izō
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *izan
| *safsanį
| *izanz
| *safsaninz
| *izǭ
| *safsōnį
| *izōnz
| *safsōniz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *izas, *izazjas
| *safsaniz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *safsanǭ
| *izōz, *izazjōz
| *safsōniz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *safsōnǭ
| *izas, *izazjas
| *safsaniz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *safsanǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *izammai
| *safsanī
| *izabiz
| *safsambiz
| *izōi
| *safsōnī
| *izōbiz
| *safsōmbiz
| *izammai
| *safsanī
| *izabiz
| *safsambiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izō
| *safsani
| *izabaz
| *safsambaz
| *izô
| *safsōni
| *izōbaz
| *safsōmbaz
| *izō
| *safsani
| *izabaz
| *safsambaz
|-
|-
|}
|}-->
 
====Near demonstrative====


====Neutral demonstrative====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 1,420: Line 1,558:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *istaz
| *saz
| *istai
| *sai
| *istō
| *sō
| *istōi
| *sōi
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| rowspan="2"| *istō
| rowspan="2"| *sō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *istan
| *san
| *istanz
| *sanz
| *istǭ
| *sǭ
| *istōnz
| *sōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *istas, *istazjas
| *sas, *sazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *istōz, *istazjōz
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *istas, *istazjas
| *sas, *sazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *istammai
| *sammai
| *istabiz
| *sabiz
| *istōi
| *sōi
| *istōbiz
| *sōbiz
| *istammai
| *sammai
| *istabiz
| *sabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *istō
| *sō
| *istabaz
| *sabaz
| *istô
| *sô
| *istōbaz
| *sōbaz
| *istō
| *sō
| *istabaz
| *sabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 1,465: Line 1,603:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *gehaz
| *þaz
| *gehai
| *þai
| *gehō
| *þō
| *gehōi
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *gehan
| *þan
| *gehanz
| *þanz
| *gehǭ
| *þǭ
| *gehōnz
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *þas, *þazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *þas, *þazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gegammai
| *þammai
| *gegabiz
| *þabiz
| *gegōi
| *þōi
| *gegōbiz
| *þōbiz
| *gegammai
| *þammai
| *gegabiz
| *þabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gegō
| *þō
| *gegabaz
| *þabaz
| *gegô
| *þô
| *gegōbaz
| *þōbaz
| *gegō
| *þō
| *gegabaz
| *þabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Far demonstrative====
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 1,511: Line 1,649:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *allaz
| *izaz
| *allai
| *izai
| *allō
| *izō
| *allōi
| *izōi
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *allō
| rowspan="2"| *izō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *allan
| *izan
| *allanz
| *izanz
| *allǭ
| *izǭ
| *allōnz
| *izōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *allas, *allazjas
| *izas, *izazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *allōz, *allazjōz
| *izōz, *izazjōz
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *allas, *allazjas
| *izas, *izazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *allammai
| *izammai
| *allabiz
| *izabiz
| *allōi
| *izōi
| *allōbiz
| *izōbiz
| *allammai
| *izammai
| *izabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *izō
| *izabaz
| *izô
| *izōbaz
| *izō
| *izabaz
|-
|}-->
 
====Near demonstrative====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *istaz
| *istai
| *istō
| *istōi
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *istō
|-
! Accusative
| *istan
| *istanz
| *istǭ
| *istōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *istas, *istazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istōz, *istazjōz
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istas, *istazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *istammai
| *istabiz
| *istōi
| *istōbiz
| *istammai
| *istabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *istō
| *istabaz
| *istô
| *istōbaz
| *istō
| *istabaz
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *gehaz
| *gehai
| *gehō
| *gehōi
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
|-
! Accusative
| *gehan
| *gehanz
| *gehǭ
| *gehōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *gegammai
| *gegabiz
| *gegōi
| *gegōbiz
| *gegammai
| *gegabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
| *gegô
| *gegōbaz
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
|-
|}-->
 
====Far demonstrative====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *allaz
| *allai
| *allō
| *allōi
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| rowspan="2"| *allō
|-
! Accusative
| *allan
| *allanz
| *allǭ
| *allōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *allas, *allazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allōz, *allazjōz
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allas, *allazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *allammai
| *allabiz
| *allōi
| *allōbiz
| *allammai
| *allabiz
| *allabiz
|-
|-
Line 1,548: Line 1,825:
| *allabaz
| *allabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


====Interrogative pronouns====
====Interrogative pronouns====
<!--
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 1,656: Line 1,935:
|-
|-
! 4
! 4
| *hedūriz
| *hidwiriz
| *hidwirþaz
| *hidwirþaz
|  
|  
Line 1,718: Line 1,997:
|-
|-
! 13
! 13
|  
| *þrilig
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,724: Line 2,003:
|-
|-
! 14
! 14
|  
| *hidwirlig
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,730: Line 2,009:
|-
|-
! 15
! 15
|  
| *finhlig
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,736: Line 2,015:
|-
|-
! 16
! 16
|  
| *sislig
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,742: Line 2,021:
|-
|-
! 17
! 17
|  
| *siftinlig
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,748: Line 2,027:
|-
|-
! 18
! 18
|  
| *ahtōlig
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,754: Line 2,033:
|-
|-
! 19
! 19
|  
| *niwinlig
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,766: Line 2,045:
|-
|-
! 30
! 30
|  
| *þritisin
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,772: Line 2,051:
|-
|-
! 40
! 40
|  
| *hidwirtisin
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,778: Line 2,057:
|-
|-
! 50
! 50
|  
| *finhtisin
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,784: Line 2,063:
|-
|-
! 60
! 60
|  
| *sistisin
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,790: Line 2,069:
|-
|-
! 70
! 70
|  
| *siftintisin
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,796: Line 2,075:
|-
|-
! 80
! 80
|  
| *ahtōtisin
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,802: Line 2,081:
|-
|-
! 90
! 90
|  
| *niwintisin
|  
|  
|
|
Line 1,823: Line 2,102:
===Verbs===
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
====Strong verbs====
<!--
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
Line 1,830: Line 2,110:
|-
|-
|}
|}
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).


Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
Line 2,253: Line 2,533:
| *st'''êndō'''
| *st'''êndō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


====Weak verbs====
====Weak verbs====
<!--
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
Line 2,272: Line 2,553:
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
-
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
====='''Class 1'''=====
====='''Class 1'''=====
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
Line 2,295: Line 2,574:


The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
-->


====Preterite-present verbs====
====Preterite-present verbs====
<!--
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.


Line 2,399: Line 2,680:
| *būindō
| *būindō
|-
|-
|}-->
|}


The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
Line 2,484: Line 2,765:
| *beundō
| *beundō
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Line 2,494: Line 2,775:
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*þimfaz''===
===Time - ''*hēsaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''*jōras þimfizō''
|+ Seasons - ''*katō hēsai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
! English !! Proto-Rugic
|-
|-
| spring || *wesar (*wesn-; ''n.'', ''r/n''-stem)
| spring || *westrō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| summer || *aisōþs (''f.'', cons.-stem)
| summer || *laidą (''n.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| fall || *missiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
| fall || *aziniz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
| winter || *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; ''f.'', cons.-stem)
| winter || *dīmō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 2,560: Line 2,841:
-->
-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tē₂wiz farþēz''
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tīnō tailai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-  
|-  
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem<sup><small>1</small></sup>)
| day || *tīnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| dawn || *ausōz (''f.'', ''z''-stem)
| dawn || *garjō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| morning || *mōdūraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| morning || *austrō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
Line 2,575: Line 2,856:
|-
|-
-->
-->
| evening || *wesperaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| evening || *weheraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
Line 2,581: Line 2,862:
|-
|-
-->
-->
| night || *nahts (''f.'', cons.-stem)
| night || *nahtiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
Line 2,587: Line 2,868:
-->
-->
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Expected **''-ea-'' was coalesced to *''-ē₂-'' (e.g. nominative plural was ''*tē₂wiz'' rather than ''*teawiz'').


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''*þimfiziz mēþēz''
|+ Units of time - ''*hēsō mēþīz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-  
|-  
Line 2,603: Line 2,881:
| hour ||  
| hour ||  
|-
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem, irregular)
| day || *tīnaz (''m.'', ''o''-stem)
|-
|-
| week || *sirį̄ (''f.'', ''īn''-stem)
| week || *seftumō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| month || *mēns (*mēns-, ''m.'', cons.-stem)
| month || *mēnsiz (''m.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
| season || *þimfaz (''n.'', ''z''-stem)
| season || *hēsaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| year || *aþnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem); *jōraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| year || *kataz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''*þimfiziz werdō''
|+ Time adverbs - ''*hēsō wardō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
|-
| now || *nu, *nū
| now || *nu, *nū
|-
|-
| then || *þan
| then || *þat
|-
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||  
| recently, a short time ago ||  
|-
|-
| earlier || *anþ
| earlier ||  
|-
|-
| soon, shortly || *mahs
| soon, shortly ||  
|-
|-
| later ||  
| later ||  
|-
|-
| always || *simfer
| always || *wist
|-
|-
| often || *saif
| often || *hinstō
|-
|-
| sometimes ||  
| sometimes ||  
Line 2,639: Line 2,917:
| rarely ||  
| rarely ||  
|-
|-
| never || *ne aiwą
| never || *ne waihaz
|-
|-
| ever || *aiwą
| ever || *waihaz
|-
|-
| still, yet || *int
| still, yet || *esk
|-
|-
| already || *anþ
| already || *jau(k)
<!--
<!--
|-
|-
Line 2,653: Line 2,931:
-->
-->
|-
|-
| yesterday || *gizi; *gester-
| yesterday ||  
<!--
<!--
|-
|-
Line 2,659: Line 2,937:
-->
-->
|-
|-
| tomorrow || *hrōz
| tomorrow ||  
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
Line 2,677: Line 2,955:
|}
|}


===Colours - ''*helaziz''===
===Colours - ''*hwaidai''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''*helaziz''
|+ Colours - ''*hwaidai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
|-
| white || *albaz
| white || *palaz; *plaitaz
|-
|-
| grey || *hasnaz
| grey || *sīwaz
|-
|-
| black || *ōþraz
| black || *hirznaz
|-
|-
| red || *raudaz, *rausaz
| red || *rautaz; *rūtijaz
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
Line 2,694: Line 2,972:
|-
|-
-->
-->
| brown || *patjaz, *duswaz
| brown || *pēraz
|-
|-
| yellow || *gelwaz, *blāwaz
| yellow || *kildaz; *falwaz
|-
|-
| green || *wīsidaz
| green || *krēnaz; *daljaz
|-
|-
| blue || *hilizijaz
| blue || *matraz
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
Line 2,715: Line 2,993:
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ-->.
<!--
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ.


'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
Shariifka
7,406

edits

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/400052...444847"