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==Sound changes==
# merger of overlong into long vowels
# merger of overlong into long vowels
#: ''*pūkō'' ( < *pūkô)
#: ''*pūkō'' ( < *pūkô)
# d > þ / r_ / (represent /d/ as [þ] here for later word changes, cf. Go waurd, ON orð) but not after [l], [n], or [m]
#: ''*wurþą'' ( < wurdą)
# d > ð / V_V (show /d/ = [ð] intervocalically)
#: ''*nimiði'' ( < *nimidi)
# z > s <s>/ _#</s> [unconditionally]
# z > s <s>/ _#</s> [unconditionally]
#: ''*gaisas'' ( < *gaizaz)
# s > h / _#
# s > h / _#
#: ''*baisah'' ( < *baizaz) which later gives ''bērah''
#: ''*baisah'' ( < *baizaz) which later gives ''bērah''
# ō > ā
# ō > ā
#: ''markā'' < *markō
# vowels [+nasal] > vowels [-nasal] [+length]
# vowels [+nasal] > vowels [-nasal] [+length]
#: ''*breustā'' ( < *breustą)
#: ''*breustā'' ( < *breustą)
Line 10: Line 17:
#:  ''*jaisīþi'' ( < **gaisīþi), ''skājah'' ( < *skōgaz)
#:  ''*jaisīþi'' ( < **gaisīþi), ''skājah'' ( < *skōgaz)
# γ > v̄ / V_[+voiced +consonant]
# γ > v̄ / V_[+voiced +consonant]
# þ > h / _R
# þ > h / _R  
#: ''*mahlā'' ( < *maþlą) which later gives ''māl''
#: ''*mahlā'' ( < *maþlą) which later gives ''māl''
# ā > ē / [+dental +consonant +nasal]_#
# ā > ē / [+dental +consonant +nasal]_#
# Spontaneous haplogy ('''sic''').
# Spontaneous haplogy ('''sic''').
#: ''*nimði'' < ''*nimiði'' ( < *nimidi)
# f > hw / _V
# f > hw / _V
#: ''*hwehu'' ( < *fehu)
#: ''*hwehu'' ( < *fehu)
# mb > w̃ / V_V
#: ''law̃ah'' ( < *lambaz )
# þ > s [unconditionally]
# þ > s [unconditionally]
#: ''sat'' ( < *þat)
#: ''sat'' ( < *þat), ''wursā'' < ''*wurþā'' ( < *wurdą)
# d > n / nV_V
# d > n / nV_V
#: ''annā'' ( < *andô)
#: ''annā'' ( < *andô)
Line 27: Line 37:
# s > h / _R
# s > h / _R
# j > Ø /#_V
# j > Ø /#_V
# h > Ø /V_C
#: allā < ''*jallā'' ( < *gallō)
# Compensatory vowel lengthening follows the above law.
#: '''exception''' j > ē / #_e for disyllabic words
#
#:: ēbā < ''*jebā'' ( < *gebā)
# h > Ø /V_C, with compensatory lenghtening of the preceding vowel
#: mālā  < ''*mahlā'' ( < *maþlą)
# s > z / V_V
#: ''*keuzanā'' ( < *keusaną)
# b > v / V_V
# b > v / V_V
#
#: ''*averanā'' < ''*aberanā'' ( < *gaberaną), ''ēvā'' < ''*ēbā'' ( < *gebō )
#
# b > w / V_jV
#: ''*haujā'' < ''*habjā'' ( < *habjō)
# d > z / V_V
#: ''māzēr'' < ''*māðēr'' ( < *mōdēr)
# z > r / V_V (unless following or preceding syllable already has r)
#: ''*ekorana'' < ''*ekozana'' ( < *gekozanaz)
# h > Ø / #_V
#: ''*ailah'' < ''*hailah'' ( < *hailaz)
# Words of three or more syllables may occasionally experience V > Ø / _#
# Words of three or more syllables may occasionally experience V > Ø / _#
# ai > ē when stressed
# ai ei eu > ē ī iu when stressed
#: ''ējum'' ( < *aigum, {{sc|pres act 1pl}} of *aiganą), ''rīzanā'' ( < *reidaną~rīdaną), ''kiuranā'' ( < *keusaną)
#: ''ērīs'' 'he/she/it frightens' ( < *gaisīþi) cf. ''avajs''  'he/she/it has' ( < *habaiþi)
#: ''ērīs'' 'he/she/it frightens' ( < *gaisīþi) cf. ''avajs''  'he/she/it has' ( < *habaiþi)
# /wr/ -> [rʷː]
==Current status==
====1.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| a-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''hwarhah''' ''m'' piglet
| colspan="2"| '''blātā''' ''n'' sacrifice
|-
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
| hwarh
| hwarhāh
| colspan=2 rowspan=3| blātā
|-
! Nominative
| hwarhah
| hwarhāh
|-
! Accusative
| hwarhā
| hwarhann
|-
! Genitive
| hwarhah
| hwarhō
| blātah
| blātō
|-
! Dative
| hwarhaj
| hwarhamah
| blātaj
| blātamah
|-
! Instrumental
| hwarhā
| hwarhamah
| blātā
| blātamah
|-
|}
===ō===
These will probably merge to some extent with the a-stems of ''n'' gender.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="3"| "ō-stems"
|-
| colspan="3"| '''ēvā''' ''f'' gift
|-
! || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
| rowspan="2"|ēvā
| rowspan="3"|ēvāh
|-
! Nominative
|-
! Accusative
| ēvō
|-
! Genitive
| ēvāh
| ēvō
|-
! Dative
| ēvāj
| rowspan="2"|ēvāmah
|-
! Instrumental
| ēvā
|-
|}
====2.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="5"| "i-stems"
|-
| colspan="3"| '''astih''' ''m'' guest
| colspan="2"| '''mare''' ''n'' sea
|-
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
| astih
| astīh
| mare
| marī
|-
! Nominative
| astih
| astīh
| mare
| marī
|-
! Accusative
| astī
| astinn
| mare
| marī
|-
! Genitive
| astīh
| astjjō
| marīh
| marjō
|-
! Dative
| astī
| astimah
| mare
| marimah
|-
! Instrumental
| astī
| astimah
| mare
| marimah
|-
|}
====3.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| u-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''attuh''' ''m'' hat
| colspan="2"| '''hweho''' ''n'' cattle
|-
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
| atto
| attīh
| hweho
| hwehū
|-
! Nominative
| attuh
| attīh
| hweho
| hwehū
|-
! Accusative
| attū
| attunn
| hweho
| hwehū
|-
! Genitive
| attauh
| attjō
| hwehauh
| hwehjō
|-
! Dative
| attī
| attumah
| hwehī
| hwehumah
|-
! Instrumental
| attī
| attumah
| hwehī
| hwehumah
|-
|}
====4.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| an-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''umā''' ''m'' soldier
| colspan="2"| '''aujā''' ''n'' eye
|-
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
|umā
|umnīh
|aujā
|aujānā
|-
! Nominative
|umā
|umnīh
|aujā
|aujānā
|-
! Accusative
|umnū
|umnunn
|aujā
|aujānā
|-
! Genitive
|umnīh
|umnō
|auhnih
|aujanō
|-
! Dative
|umnī
|ummah
|auhnī
|aujamah
|-
! Instrumental
|umnī
|ummah
|auhnī
|aujamah
|-
|}
====5.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| on-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''hwiwalsā''' ''f'' butterfly
|-
! || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
|hwiwalsō
|hwiwalsānih
|-
! Nominative
|hwiwalsā
|hwiwalsānih
|-
! Accusative
|hwiwalsānū
|hwiwalsānunn
|-
! Genitive
|hwiwalsānih
|hwiwalsānō
|-
! Dative
|hwiwalsāne
|hwiwalsāmah
|-
! Instrumental
|hwiwalsāne
|hwiwalsāmah
|-
|}
====6.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| īn-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''hrārī''' ''f'' wisdom
|-
! || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
|hrārī
|hrārīnih
|-
! Nominative
|hrārī
|hrārīnih
|-
! Accusative
|hrārīnū
|hrārīnunn
|-
! Genitive
|hrārīnih
|hrārīnō
|-
! Dative
|hrārīne
|hrārīnāmah
|-
! Instrumental
|hrārīne
|hrārināmah
|-
|}
====7.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| r-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''māzēr''' ''f'' mother
|-
! || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
|māzer
|māzrih
|-
! Nominative
|māzēr
|māzrih
|-
! Accusative
|māzerū
|māzrunn
|-
! Genitive
|māzur
|māzrō
|-
! Dative
|māzre
|māzrumah
|-
! Instrumental
|māzre
|māzrumah
|-
|}
Alternative declension:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| r-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''māzēr''' ''f'' mother
|-
! || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
|māzerī
|māzrīnih
|-
! Nominative
|māzērī
|māzrīnih
|-
! Accusative
|māzrīnū
|māzrīnunn
|-
! Genitive
|māzrīnih
|māzrīnō
|-
! Dative
|māzrīni
|māzrināmah
|-
! Instrumental
|māzrīne
|māzrīnāmah
|-
|}
====8. z-stems====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| z-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''lamhah''' ''n'' lamb
|-
! || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
|lamhah
|lamhirā
|-
! Nominative
|lamhah
|lamhirā
|-
! Accusative
|lamhah
|lamhirā
|-
! Genitive
|lamhirih
|lamhirō
|-
! Dative
|lamhirī
|lamhirumah
|-
! Instrumental
|lamhirī
|lamhirumah
|-
|}
====ix====
<!--
{| class="wikitable"
! Ending(s)
! PG
! Skā
|-
| a-stem masculine accusative singular
| ą
| ā
|-
| a-stem masculine nominative singular
| az
| ah
|-
| i-stem masculine accusative singular
| į
| ī
|-
| i-stem nominative singular
| iz
| ih
|-
| u-stem accusative singular
| ų
| ū
|-
| u-stem nominative singular
| uz
| uh
|-
| 1st person singular present of verbs
| ō
| ā
|-
| ō-stem adjective accusative singular
| ǭ
| ō
|-
| ō-stem accusative plural
| ōz
| āh
|-
| 3rd person singular past of weak verbs
| ē
| ē
|-
| a-stem dative singular
| ai
| ē
|-
| short ja-stem neuter nominative singular
| ją
| jā
|-
| short ja-stem masculine nominative singular
| jaz
| jah
|-
| i-stem nominative plural
| īz
| īh
|-
| long ja-stem masculine nominative singular
| ijaz
| jjah
|-
| long ja-stem neuter nominative singular
| iją
| jjā
|-
| 3rd person singular past subjunctive
| ī
| ī
|-
| adverb suffix
| ô
| ā
|-
| genitive plural
| ǫ̂
| ō
|-
| ō-stem nominative plural
| ôz
| āh
|-
| u-stem genitive singular
| auz
| auh (ōh)
|-
| adverb suffix
| ê
| ē
|}
-->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:500px;" 
<Caption>Early Skājamāl personal pronouns</caption>
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" | First person
! colspan="3" | Second person
|-
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *ek<br />*ik<sup>1</sup> || *wet<br />*wit<sup>1</sup> || *wīh<br />*wih<sup>1</sup> || *sū || *jut || *jūh
|-
! Accusative
| *mek<br />*mik<sup>1</sup> || *unn || *uss || *sek<br />*sik<sup>1</sup> || *innu || *ihwih
|-
! Genitive
| *mīnah || *unnerah || *usserah || *sīnah || *innūrah || *ihwerah
|-
! Dative/instrumental
| *mih || *unnih || *ussih || *sih || *innwih || *ihwih
|}
<small><sup>1</sup> – Unstressed variant</small>
====The Lord's Prayer====
<poem>
hwāzēr usserah, sū īre in himinamah
sījje sīna namā ēlagāh,
wirkijē sīna wiljā,
ekwemē sīna rīkijā,
hwa an ersē hwe an himinamah
ēf daebrauzā ussera himmē daē ussih
hworholēt usserāh skuldin ussih
hwe auk wīh hworlētam san skuldan ussih
nuh bring uss in kūtauh ak eablēzī uss
a uvilammē.
</poem>
====Waka, Wāran====
<poem>
#Waka Wāran!
#Ērambāt
#Māte hwijannū
#Hwinn sturkī
#Sterrī ak staut!
#Serh annjalausanū derkanū
#Serh gatā stēnō
#Tā annjā!
#Tā daurū!
</poem>
''"Awake Wodan! Pyre-tender! Meet the foe! Find strength! Stand fast and strike! Through endless dark, through gaps of stones. To the end! To death!"''


===Example sentences===
===Example sentences===
Line 44: Line 608:
#: sa wulfaz þō fehū ?gaisīþi. ( PIE *'''gheis-''', cf. Goth. ''usgaisjan'')
#: sa wulfaz þō fehū ?gaisīþi. ( PIE *'''gheis-''', cf. Goth. ''usgaisjan'')
#:: 'The wolf terrorizes the cattle.'
#:: 'The wolf terrorizes the cattle.'
==Askājaskā naunā==
===sājanaunā===
The adjectives of Skájamál are quite peculiar from a sibling perspective - there is no “strong” or “weak” inflection - instead, adjectives are declined for definiteness by a complex process whose origins lie in the ancient addition of a prefix, ''*ja(i)-'', which is usually reflected as ''a-'' before most consonants and disappears before most vowels. However, sound changes and analogical processes make the resultant system quite tricky to navigate.
#preserved pre-consonantal a-
:'''hwēkwaḥ''' vs. '''ahwēkwaḥ''' (weak)
#iotation and loss
:'''ulsīnaḥ''' vs. '''iulsīnaḥ''' (golden);this results from an original *g being preserved as -j- intervocalically and lost initially.
#preserved lenition
:'''bitraḥ''' vs. '''avitraḥ''' (bitter)
#lenition and loss
:'''batistaḥ'''  vs. '''vatistaḥ''' (best)
===sansanaunā===
==Askājaskā wursā==
===ahwēkwā wursā===
habdō > awdō -> audō -> aujā 1sgpres, audō 1sgpast, aujau 1sgpressubj, audē 1sgpastsubj
#Innovatio I
:The past tense indicative {{sc|1pl}} marker has replaced the equivalent present indicative marker. So, basically a bunch of verbs look a bit like preterite-presents here.
::e.g. '''aujum''' 'we have' ( from an innovated < *'''habjum''', instead of the expected reflex of PGmc. *'''habjamaz''' which would be **aujamah)
#Innovatio II
:Loss of final -i in the ind. pres. ("weak")
:: '''avajs''' 'you have, he has' ( < *'''''habaiþ''''' <  PGmc. *'''habaiþi''' AND < *'''''habais''''' < PGmc. *'''habaisi''')
::
::{|class="wikitable"
|-
| -jō||-jā
|-
| -aisi||-ajs
|-
| -aiþi||-ajs
|-
| -jum||-jum
|-
| -aiþ||-ajs
|-
| -janþi||-jan
|-
|}
#Innovatio III
: The subclasses of w-Class III merge with the stative -ja- spreading into the factitive in the present, while the factitive -a- forms spread to the past. The past participle is formed with *''-adaz'', present with *''-(i)jandz''
#Innovatio IV
: The spread of -janā to the infinitive from the I and III class to the rest.
::'''wrissājanā''', '''salbājanā'''
====Class I====
=====s-class I=====
A lot of things happen here:
As for *brūkaną, it's moved into class 2b of the strong verbs but keeps weak participle: briūk-, brauk-, brukadaz -> briūk-, brauk, brukara
then, *būanā joins the third weak class as būjanā (būās, būrāze, būra)
====s-class II====
todo
====s-class III====
to a large extent, merged with Class III, with verbs showing alternation between -a- and -i- in the past.
====Class II====
{|class="wikitable"
!colspan="13"|šemplīas paradịmās: wansājanā (kalaš II - 'mažinatiš')
|-
|colspan="6"| ||present participle: wansānn past participle: wansāraḥ ||colspan="6"|
|-
! ||colspan="6"|indicative||colspan="6"|subjunctive
|-
|colspan="1"| ||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural
|-
| ||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third
|-
|present||wansā||'''wansās'''||'''wansās'''||wansām||'''wansās'''||wansān||wansō||'''wansā'''||'''wansā'''||wansām||'''wansā'''||wansān
|-
|past||wansārō||'''wansārē'''||'''wansārē'''||wansārzum||wansārzud||wansārzun||'''wansārzī'''||'''wansārzī'''||'''wansārzī'''||wansārzīm||wansārzīd||wansārzīn
|}
====Class III====
{|class="wikitable"
!colspan="13"|šemplīas paradịmās: aujanā (kalaš III - 'jèmetiš')
|-
|colspan="6"| ||present participle: aujann past participle: avarah ||colspan="6"|
|-
! ||colspan="6"|indicative||colspan="6"|subjunctive
|-
|colspan="1"| ||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural
|-
| ||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third
|-
|present||aujā||'''avajs'''||'''avajs'''||aujum||'''avajs'''||aujan||aujaū||'''aujai'''||'''aujai'''||aujaim||'''aujai'''||aujain
|-
|past||audō||'''audē'''||'''audē'''||audum||audud||audun||'''audērī'''||'''audērī'''||'''audērī'''||audērīm||audērīd||audērīn
|}
===astarkijā wursā===
====Class I====
-ī- -ē- -i- -i-
====Class II====
a) iu - au - u - u
b) iū - au - u - u < '''Innovatio!''' j- ex a)
====Class III====
====Class IV====
====Class V====
====Class VI====
====Class VII====
==Sandhi==
Pronomina often occur in second position (wackernagel), thus sometimes glued onto verb. E.g.
wansā ik → wansājk
wansās sū → wansāru
wansās sa → wansāra


===A man says to another man…===
===A man says to another man…===
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