Proto-Almaic: Difference between revisions

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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox proto-language
|name         = Proto-Almean
| name       = Proto-Almaic
|altname      =  
| creator    = [[User:MIGUELbM|Miguel Bartelsman]]
|nativename    = Rapa'i
| altname    = Rapa'i
|pronunciation = /ʀaˈpa.ʔi/
| target      = Almaic
|region       = Almean plains; Hassjic mountains.
| region     = Almaic plains; Hassjic mountains
|extinct      = ca. 3500 a.E.
| era        = 5000–3500 a.E. (Lithic)
|era          = Lithic period
| familycolor =  
|familycolor   =  
| child1      = [[Angaran]]
|fam1          = Almeic
| child2     = [[Yohari]]
|family        = Proto-Almean
|creator      = Miguel Bartelsman
|created      = 2020
|setting      = Conworld Angara
|script        = Latin
|iso3          = none
|image        =
|imagesize    =
|imagealt     =  
|imagecaption  =
|imageheader  =
|map          =
|mapsize      =
|mapalt        =
|mapcaption    =
|map2          =
|mapalt2      =
|mapcaption2  =
|boxsize      =
|notice        = IPA
}}
}}


'''Proto-Almean''' is the common ancestor of all the Almean languages, a family of languages widespread in the Yolder and Ausmiran continents.
'''Proto-Almaic''' is the common ancestor of all the Almaic languages, a family of languages widespread in the Yolder and Ausmiran continents.


Proto-Almean is estimated to have been spoken from around 5000 to 3500 a.E., and it's original homeland may have been the Almeran plains from which the language derives its name. Its descendant languages include [[Angaran]] and [[Yohari]].
Proto-Almaic is estimated to have been spoken from around 5000 to 3500 a.E., and it's original homeland may have been the Almeran plains from which the language derives its name. Its descendant languages include [[Angaran]] and [[Yohari]].


== Orthography ==
== Orthography ==
Line 42: Line 22:
! style="width: 100px;" | A a
! style="width: 100px;" | A a
! style="width: 100px;" | B b
! style="width: 100px;" | B b
! style="width: 100px;" | C c
! style="width: 100px;" | D d
! style="width: 100px;" | D d
! style="width: 100px;" | E e
! style="width: 100px;" | E e
! style="width: 100px;" | F f
! style="width: 100px;" | F f
! style="width: 100px;" | G g
|-
|-
! Pronunciation
! Pronunciation
| /a/, /ã/ {{ref|NV|1}}
| /a/, /ã/ {{ref|NV|1}}
| /b/
| /b/
| /x/
| /d/
| /d/
| /e/, /ẽ/ {{ref|NV|1}}
| /e/, /ẽ/ {{ref|NV|1}}
| /f/
| /f/
| /g/
|}
|}
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: center;"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: center;"
|- style="font-family: 'Linux Libertine','Georgia','Times',serif; font-size: 100%;"
|- style="font-family: 'Linux Libertine','Georgia','Times',serif; font-size: 100%;"
! style="width: 120px; font-family: sans-serif;" | Letter
! style="width: 120px; font-family: sans-serif;" | Letter
! style="width: 100px;" | G g
! style="width: 100px;" | H h  
! style="width: 100px;" | H h  
! style="width: 100px;" | I i
! style="width: 100px;" | I i
Line 63: Line 44:
! style="width: 100px;" | Kg kg {{ref|EjI|3}}
! style="width: 100px;" | Kg kg {{ref|EjI|3}}
! style="width: 100px;" | – kk {{ref|EjM|4}}
! style="width: 100px;" | – kk {{ref|EjM|4}}
! style="width: 100px;" | L l
|-
|-
! Pronunciation
! Pronunciation
| /g/
| /h/, /-/ {{ref|Asp|2}}
| /h/, /-/ {{ref|Asp|2}}
| /i/, /ĩ/ {{ref|NV|1}}
| /i/, /ĩ/ {{ref|NV|1}}
Line 71: Line 52:
| /k’/
| /k’/
| /k’/
| /k’/
| /l/
|}
|}
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: center;"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: center;"
|- style="font-family: 'Linux Libertine','Georgia','Times',serif; font-size: 100%;"
|- style="font-family: 'Linux Libertine','Georgia','Times',serif; font-size: 100%;"
! style="width: 120px; font-family: sans-serif;" | Letter
! style="width: 120px; font-family: sans-serif;" | Letter
! style="width: 100px;" | L l
! style="width: 100px;" | M m
! style="width: 100px;" | M m
! style="width: 100px;" | N n
! style="width: 100px;" | N n
Line 81: Line 62:
! style="width: 100px;" | O o
! style="width: 100px;" | O o
! style="width: 100px;" | P p
! style="width: 100px;" | P p
! style="width: 100px;" | Pb pb {{ref|EjI|3}}
|-
|-
! Pronunciation
! Pronunciation
| /l/
| /m/
| /m/
| /n/ /◌̃/ {{ref|NV|1}}
| /n/, /◌̃/, /N/ {{ref|N|5}}
| /ɲ/
| /ɲ/
| /o/, /õ/ {{ref|NV|1}}
| /o/, /õ/ {{ref|NV|1}}
| /p/
| /p/
| /p’/
|}
|}
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: center;"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: center;"
|- style="font-family: 'Linux Libertine','Georgia','Times',serif; font-size: 100%;"
|- style="font-family: 'Linux Libertine','Georgia','Times',serif; font-size: 100%;"
! style="width: 120px; font-family: sans-serif;" | Letter
! style="width: 120px; font-family: sans-serif;" | Letter
! style="width: 100px;" | Pb pb {{ref|EjI|3}}
! style="width: 100px;" | – pp {{ref|EjM|4}}
! style="width: 100px;" | – pp {{ref|EjM|4}}
! style="width: 100px;" | Q q
! style="width: 100px;" | Q q
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! style="width: 100px;" | S s
! style="width: 100px;" | S s
! style="width: 100px;" | T t
! style="width: 100px;" | T t
! style="width: 100px;" | Td td {{ref|EjI|3}}
|-
|-
! Pronunciation
! Pronunciation
| /p’/
| /p’/
| /p’/
| /q/
| /q/
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| /s/
| /s/
| /t/
| /t/
| /t’/
|}
|}
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align: center;"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align: center;"
|- style="font-family: 'Linux Libertine','Georgia','Times',serif; font-size: 100%;"
|- style="font-family: 'Linux Libertine','Georgia','Times',serif; font-size: 100%;"
! style="width: 120px; font-family: sans-serif;" | Letter
! style="width: 120px; font-family: sans-serif;" | Letter
! style="width: 100px;" | Td td {{ref|EjI|3}}
! style="width: 100px;" | – tt {{ref|EjM|4}}
! style="width: 100px;" | – tt {{ref|EjM|4}}
! style="width: 100px;" | U u
! style="width: 100px;" | U u
! style="width: 100px;" | V v
! style="width: 100px;" | V v
! style="width: 100px;" | Z z
! style="width: 100px;" | Z z
! style="width: 100px;" | ' {{ref|Glot|5}}
! style="width: 100px;" | ' {{ref|Glot|6}}
|-
|-
! Pronunciation
! Pronunciation
| /t’/
| /t’/
| /t’/
| /u/, /ũ/ {{ref|NV|1}}
| /u/, /ũ/ {{ref|NV|1}}
Line 134: Line 116:
{{ref/note|EjM|4}} ⟨kk⟩, ⟨tt⟩, and ⟨pp⟩ are only used in the middle of a word, so they have no correct capitalized version.
{{ref/note|EjM|4}} ⟨kk⟩, ⟨tt⟩, and ⟨pp⟩ are only used in the middle of a word, so they have no correct capitalized version.


{{ref/note|Glot|5}} ⟨'⟩ has a single representation regardless of location or capitalization.
{{ref/note|N|5}} ⟨n⟩ in coda position can be realized a number of ways: as vowel nasalization in final position or before /ʔ/, or as one of [m], [ɱ], [n], [ŋ], [ɴ], assimilating in place of articulation to the following consonant.


== Phonemic inventory ==
{{ref/note|Glot|6}} ⟨'⟩ has a single representation regardless of location or capitalization.
 
Stress is predictable from the orthography, so it is not marked. A written word will always be stressed on the second to last syllable if it ends on an open syllable, otherwise stress will fall on the last syllable.
 
== Phonetics ==


=== Consonants ===
=== Consonants ===
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|- style="font-size: 120%;"
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 83.3%;" | Close
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 83.3%;" | Close
| style="border-right: none;" | i
| style="border-right: none;" | i ĩ
| style="border-right: none;" |  
| style="border-right: none;" |  
| style="border-right: none;" | u
| style="border-right: none;" | u ũ
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 83.3%;" | Mid
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 83.3%;" | Mid
| style="border-right: none;" | e
| style="border-right: none;" | e ẽ
| style="border-right: none;" |  
| style="border-right: none;" |  
| style="border-right: none;" | o
| style="border-right: none;" | o õ
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 83.3%;" | Open
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 83.3%;" | Open
| style="border-right: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" | a
| style="border-right: none;" | a ã
| style="border-right: none;" |
| style="border-right: none;" |
|}
|}
Line 241: Line 227:
== Syntax ==
== Syntax ==


{| {{Table/bluetable}}
{{rellink|For examples: [[Proto-Almaic/Test Sentences]]}}
! style="min-width: 100px;" | WALS Ch.
 
! style="min-width: 200px;" | Structure
Proto-Angaric is a specifier-initial, adjunct-mixed, head-final language.
! style="min-width: 400px;" | Examples
 
|-
XP → (YP) X'
| WALS 81 - 84
 
| SOVX, SXOV
X' → (ZP) X' ''or'' X' (ZP)
| — [S: the dog] [O: the cat] [V: chases] [X: to the tree] <br>— [S: the dog] [X: to the tree] [O: the cat] [V: chases]
 
|-
X' → (WP) X
| WALS 85
 
| Prepositions
=== Structure rules ===
| — [PP: to] [N: the tree]
 
|-
Phrase heads are in '''bold''', adjuncts are in {{color|gray|gray}}, optional elements are surrounded by (parentheses) or, if they can be repeated, by {curly braces}
| WALS 86
 
| Genitive Noun
==== Sentence ====
| — [G: the cat's] [N: toy]
* CP
|-
 
| WALS 87
==== Complement Phrase (CP) ====
| Noun Adjective
* (NP) VP ('''C''')
| — [N: dog] [Adj: big]
* VP '''NP''' &mdash; Subject backing
|-
 
| WALS 88
==== Verb Phrase (VP) ====
| Noun Demonstrative
* (NP/DP/CP) (NP/DP/CP) '''V''' {{color|gray|{PP/AdvP} }} (Aux)
| — [N: dog] [Dem: that]
 
|-
==== Noun Phrase (NP) ====
| WALS 89
* {{color|gray|{PP} }} (PP/AdjP) '''N''' {{color|gray|{Adj} }}
| Numeral Noun
 
| — [Num: three] [N: balls]
==== Determiner phrase (DP) ====
|-
* (NP) '''D'''
| WALS 90
* (NP)<sub>{{glossabb|s|Subject, possessor, specifier}}</sub> (NP)<sub>{{glossabb|o|Object, possessee, complement}}</sub> '''D''' &mdash; Possessive construction
| Noun Relative?, Correlative?
 
| ?
==== Postposition Phrase (PP) ====
|-
* (NP/DP/CP) '''PP'''
| WALS 94
 
| Internal subordinator word
==== Adverb Phrase (AdvP) ====
| — [S: the dog] [Adv: if] [V: sees]
* (AdvP) '''AdvP'''
|-
 
| WALS 100
==== Adjective Phrase (AdjP) ====
| Active alignment
* (AdvP/PP) '''AdjP'''
| — [Act: the dog] [Pas: the cat] [V: chases] <br>— [Act: the dog] [V: walks] <br>— [Pas: the cat] [V: falls]
 
|}
==== Conjunction Phrase (ConjP) ====
* XP/ConjP XP '''Conj'''


== Grammar ==
== Grammar ==
Line 311: Line 298:
== Samples ==
== Samples ==


'''''“Tenju ohdattali e sin”'''''<br>
=== Misc. sentences ===
/ˈte.ɲu oh.daˈt’a.li e sĩ/
 
'''''“Tenju ohdattali 'e sin”'''''<br>
/ˈte.ɲu oh.daˈt’a.li ʔe sĩ/
{| style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0; border-left: 5px solid #00000022; padding-left: 0.5em;"  
{| style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0; border-left: 5px solid #00000022; padding-left: 0.5em;"  
|- style="font-weight: bold;"
|- style="font-weight: bold;"
|tenju || oh=dattali || e || sin
|tenju || oh=dattali || 'e || sin
|-  
|-  
| mister || {{glossabb|indf}}=animal || {{glossabb|pat}} || see
| mister || {{glossabb|indf}}=animal || {{glossabb|pat}} || see
Line 321: Line 310:
''“The mister sees an animal”''
''“The mister sees an animal”''


=== Schleicher's fable  ===


'''''“Ti ohrante, kginja ka hilati ohagahi to ohemon e sin mo, …”'''''<br>
'''''“Ti ohrante, kginja 'e ka hila ohagahi to ohemon 'e sin mo, …”'''''<br>
/ti ohˈʀan.te ˈk’i.ɲa ka hiˈlati o.haˈga.hi to o.heˈmõ e sĩ mo/
/ti ohˈʀan.te ˈk’i.ɲa ʔe ka hiˈla o.haˈga.hi to o.heˈmõ ʔe sĩ mo/
{| style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0; border-left: 5px solid #00000022; padding-left: 0.5em;"  
{| style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0; border-left: 5px solid #00000022; padding-left: 0.5em;"  
|- style="font-weight: bold;"
|- style="font-weight: bold;"
| ti || oh=rante, || kginja || ka || hila=ti || oh=agahi ||to ||  oh=emon || e || sin || mo
| ti || oh=rante, || kginja || 'e || ka || hila || oh=agahi || to ||  oh=emon || 'e || sin || mo
|-  
|-  
| On || {{glossabb|indf}}=hill, || wool || {{glossabb|neg}} || have={{glossabb|rel}} || {{glossabb|indf}}=sheep || {{glossabb|pl}} || {{glossabb|indf}}=horse || {{glossabb|pat}} || see || {{glossabb|pst}},  
| On || {{glossabb|indf}}=hill, || wool || {{glossabb|pat}} || {{glossabb|neg}} || have || {{glossabb|indf}}=sheep || {{glossabb|pl}} || {{glossabb|indf}}=horse || {{glossabb|pat}} || see || {{glossabb|pst}},  
|}
|}
''“On a hill, a wool have-not sheep saw some horses, …”''
''“On a hill, a wool have-not sheep saw some horses, …”''
'''''“…ahdomi za ohppami godo 'e lanjicipu, …”'''''<br>
/ahˈdo.mi za ohˈp’a.mi ˈgo.do ʔe ˌla.ɲiˈxi.pu/
{| style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0; border-left: 5px solid #00000022; padding-left: 0.5em;"
|- style="font-weight: bold;"
| ahdo=mi || za || oh=pbami || godo || 'e  || lanji=cipu
|-
| {{glossabb|3p|Third person plural}}={{glossabb|gen}} || one || {{glossabb|indf}}=wagon || heavy || {{glossabb|pat}} || pull={{glossabb|ipfv}}
|}
''“…one of them pulling a heavy wagon, …”''
'''''“…zakuna ohdakkenvita onjo 'e dakkencipu, …”'''''<br>
/zaˈku.na ohˌda.k’eɱˈvi.ta ˈo.ɲo ʔe ˌda.k’eŋˈxi.pu/
{| style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0; border-left: 5px solid #00000022; padding-left: 0.5em;"
|- style="font-weight: bold;"
| zakuna || oh=dakken-vita || onjo || 'e || dakken=cipu
|-
| one:else || {{glossabb|indf}}=carry-{{glossabb|nz}} || big || {{glossabb|pat}} || carry={{glossabb|ipfv}}
|}
''“…another carrying a big load, …”''
'''''“…o zakuna ohnagoh 'e dakkencipu qasi. …”'''''<br>
/o zaˈku.na ˌoh.naˈgo ʔe ˌda.k’eŋˈxi.pu ˈqa.si/
{| style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0; border-left: 5px solid #00000022; padding-left: 0.5em;"
|- style="font-weight: bold;"
| o || zakuna || oh=nagoh || 'e  || dakken=cipu || qasi
|-
| and || one:else || {{glossabb|indf}}=man || {{glossabb|pat}} || carry={{glossabb|ipfv}} || fast
|}
''“…and another carrying a man fast. …”''
'''''“…Agahi emon 'e vanza mo: …”'''''<br>
/aˈga.hi eˈmõ ʔe ˈvan.za mo/
{| style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0; border-left: 5px solid #00000022; padding-left: 0.5em;"
|- style="font-weight: bold;"
| agahi || to || emon || 'e || vanza || mo
|-
| sheep || {{glossabb|pl}} || horses || {{glossabb|pat}} || say || {{glossabb|pst}}
|}
''“…The sheep said to the horses: …”''
'''''“…«Sami anke ikado 'e atuza ohnagoh 'e sinsa to emon 'e manttasa.»…”'''''<br>
/ˈsa.mi ˈaŋ.ke iˈkado ʔe aˈtu.za ohˈna.go ʔe ˈsin.sa to ˈe.mõ ʔe manˈt’a.sa/
{| style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0; border-left: 5px solid #00000022; padding-left: 0.5em;"
|- style="font-weight: bold;"
| sa=mi || anke || ikado || 'e || atuza || oh=nagoh || 'e || sin-sa || to || emon || 'e || mantta-sa
|-
| {{glossabb|1s|First person singular}}={{glossabb|gen}} || heart || {{glossabb|2p|Second person plural}} || {{glossabb|pat}} || hurt || {{glossabb|indf}}=man || {{glossabb|pat}} || see-{{glossabb|ger}} || {{glossabb|pl}} || horse || {{glossabb|pat}} || drive={{glossabb|ger}}
|}
''“…«My soul weeps for you, seeing a man driving horses.»…”''
'''''“…To emon vanza mo:…”'''''<br>
/to eˈmõ ˈvan.za mo/
{| style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0; border-left: 5px solid #00000022; padding-left: 0.5em;"
|- style="font-weight: bold;"
| to || emon || vanza || mo
|-
| {{glossabb|pl}} || horse || say || {{glossabb|pst}}
|}
''“…The horses said: …”''
'''''“…«agahi 'e mihe sadomi anke atuza la 'e mahulo sin:…”'''''<br>
/aˈga.hi ʔe ˈmi.he saˈdo.mi ˈaŋ.ke aˈtu.za la ʔe maˈhu.lo sĩ/
{| style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0; border-left: 5px solid #00000022; padding-left: 0.5em;"
|- style="font-weight: bold;"
| agahi || 'e || mihe || sado=mi || anke || atuza || la || 'e || mahulo || sin
|-
| sheep || {{glossabb|pat}} || listen || {{glossabb|1px|First person plural exclusive}}={{glossabb|gen}} || heart || hurt || {{glossabb|det}} || {{glossabb|pat}} || when || see
|}
''“…«Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: …”''


On a hill, a sheep that had no wool saw horses, one of them pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses." The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool." Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.
On a hill, a sheep that had no wool saw horses, one of them pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses." The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool." Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.

Latest revision as of 19:02, 14 April 2022

Proto-Almaic
Rapa'i
Created byMiguel Bartelsman
Reconstruction ofAlmaic
RegionAlmaic plains; Hassjic mountains
Era5000–3500 a.E. (Lithic)
Lower-order reconstructions

Proto-Almaic is the common ancestor of all the Almaic languages, a family of languages widespread in the Yolder and Ausmiran continents.

Proto-Almaic is estimated to have been spoken from around 5000 to 3500 a.E., and it's original homeland may have been the Almeran plains from which the language derives its name. Its descendant languages include Angaran and Yohari.

Orthography

Letter A a B b C c D d E e F f
Pronunciation /a/, /ã/ [1] /b/ /x/ /d/ /e/, /ẽ/ [1] /f/
Letter G g H h I i K k Kg kg [3] – kk [4]
Pronunciation /g/ /h/, /-/ [2] /i/, /ĩ/ [1] /k/ /k’/ /k’/
Letter L l M m N n Nj nj O o P p
Pronunciation /l/ /m/ /n/, /◌̃/, /N/ [5] /ɲ/ /o/, /õ/ [1] /p/
Letter Pb pb [3] – pp [4] Q q R r S s T t
Pronunciation /p’/ /p’/ /q/ /ʀ/ /s/ /t/
Letter Td td [3] – tt [4] U u V v Z z ' [6]
Pronunciation /t’/ /t’/ /u/, /ũ/ [1] /v/ /z/ /ʔ/

^1 In words that end with ⟨n⟩, the /n/ is dropped and instead the vowels are nasalized.

^2 /h/ is not pronounced in final position, but ⟨h⟩ is preserved as clitics and affixes reveal the sound.

^3 ⟨kg⟩, ⟨td⟩, and ⟨pb⟩ are only used at the start of a word.

^4 ⟨kk⟩, ⟨tt⟩, and ⟨pp⟩ are only used in the middle of a word, so they have no correct capitalized version.

^5 ⟨n⟩ in coda position can be realized a number of ways: as vowel nasalization in final position or before /ʔ/, or as one of [m], [ɱ], [n], [ŋ], [ɴ], assimilating in place of articulation to the following consonant.

^6 ⟨'⟩ has a single representation regardless of location or capitalization.

Stress is predictable from the orthography, so it is not marked. A written word will always be stressed on the second to last syllable if it ends on an open syllable, otherwise stress will fall on the last syllable.

Phonetics

Consonants

Labial Alveolar Palat. Velar Uvular Glot.
unv. vce. unv. vce. vce. unv. vce. unv. vce. unv.
Nasal m n ɲ
Ejectives p’ t’ k’
Stops p b t d k g q ʔ
Fricatives f v s z x h
Liquids l ʀ

Vowels

Front Center Back
rnd unr. unr.
Close i ĩ u ũ
Mid e ẽ o õ
Open a ã

Syllable structure

((h)C) V (N)

  • C: a consonant, which may be pre-aspirated word-medially.
  • V: a vowel
  • N: is a nasal consonant with unspecified place of articulation.

Prosody

Stress usually falls on the second to last syllable, unless the word ends in a nasal vowel or preaspirates suffixes, in which case it falls on the last syllable.

Syntax

For examples: Proto-Almaic/Test Sentences

Proto-Angaric is a specifier-initial, adjunct-mixed, head-final language.

XP → (YP) X'

X' → (ZP) X' or X' (ZP)

X' → (WP) X

Structure rules

Phrase heads are in bold, adjuncts are in gray, optional elements are surrounded by (parentheses) or, if they can be repeated, by {curly braces}

Sentence

  • CP

Complement Phrase (CP)

  • (NP) VP (C)
  • VP NP — Subject backing

Verb Phrase (VP)

  • (NP/DP/CP) (NP/DP/CP) V {PP/AdvP} (Aux)

Noun Phrase (NP)

  • {PP} (PP/AdjP) N {Adj}

Determiner phrase (DP)

  • (NP) D
  • (NP)s (NP)o D — Possessive construction

Postposition Phrase (PP)

  • (NP/DP/CP) PP

Adverb Phrase (AdvP)

  • (AdvP) AdvP

Adjective Phrase (AdjP)

  • (AdvP/PP) AdjP

Conjunction Phrase (ConjP)

  • XP/ConjP XP Conj

Grammar

Pronouns

  • sa – I (1st p. singular)
  • sana – we (1st p. plural inc.)
  • sado – we (1st p. plural excl.)
  • ika – you (2nd p. singular)
  • ikana – you (2nd p. dual)
  • ikado – you (2nd p. plural)
  • go – he/she (3rd p. singular)
  • gona – they (3rd p. dual)
  • godo – they (3rd p. plural)
  • a – it/that (3rd p. singular)
  • ahdo – they/those (3rd p. dual)
  • ahna – they/those (3rd p. plural)
Determiners
Only an indefinite article is used
Number
Marked by particles, three different forms: singular, dual, plural
Tenses
Present, unmarked; past and habitual, regularly marked by affixes; future

Samples

Misc. sentences

“Tenju ohdattali 'e sin”
/ˈte.ɲu oh.daˈt’a.li ʔe sĩ/

tenju oh=dattali 'e sin
mister indf=animal pat see

“The mister sees an animal”

Schleicher's fable

“Ti ohrante, kginja 'e ka hila ohagahi to ohemon 'e sin mo, …”
/ti ohˈʀan.te ˈk’i.ɲa ʔe ka hiˈla o.haˈga.hi to o.heˈmõ ʔe sĩ mo/

ti oh=rante, kginja 'e ka hila oh=agahi to oh=emon 'e sin mo
On indf=hill, wool pat neg have indf=sheep pl indf=horse pat see pst,

“On a hill, a wool have-not sheep saw some horses, …”


“…ahdomi za ohppami godo 'e lanjicipu, …”
/ahˈdo.mi za ohˈp’a.mi ˈgo.do ʔe ˌla.ɲiˈxi.pu/

ahdo=mi za oh=pbami godo 'e lanji=cipu
3p=gen one indf=wagon heavy pat pull=ipfv

“…one of them pulling a heavy wagon, …”


“…zakuna ohdakkenvita onjo 'e dakkencipu, …”
/zaˈku.na ohˌda.k’eɱˈvi.ta ˈo.ɲo ʔe ˌda.k’eŋˈxi.pu/

zakuna oh=dakken-vita onjo 'e dakken=cipu
one:else indf=carry-nz big pat carry=ipfv

“…another carrying a big load, …”


“…o zakuna ohnagoh 'e dakkencipu qasi. …”
/o zaˈku.na ˌoh.naˈgo ʔe ˌda.k’eŋˈxi.pu ˈqa.si/

o zakuna oh=nagoh 'e dakken=cipu qasi
and one:else indf=man pat carry=ipfv fast

“…and another carrying a man fast. …”


“…Agahi emon 'e vanza mo: …”
/aˈga.hi eˈmõ ʔe ˈvan.za mo/

agahi to emon 'e vanza mo
sheep pl horses pat say pst

“…The sheep said to the horses: …”


“…«Sami anke ikado 'e atuza ohnagoh 'e sinsa to emon 'e manttasa.»…”
/ˈsa.mi ˈaŋ.ke iˈkado ʔe aˈtu.za ohˈna.go ʔe ˈsin.sa to ˈe.mõ ʔe manˈt’a.sa/

sa=mi anke ikado 'e atuza oh=nagoh 'e sin-sa to emon 'e mantta-sa
1s=gen heart 2p pat hurt indf=man pat see-ger pl horse pat drive=ger

“…«My soul weeps for you, seeing a man driving horses.»…”


“…To emon vanza mo:…”
/to eˈmõ ˈvan.za mo/

to emon vanza mo
pl horse say pst

“…The horses said: …”


“…«agahi 'e mihe sadomi anke atuza la 'e mahulo sin:…”
/aˈga.hi ʔe ˈmi.he saˈdo.mi ˈaŋ.ke aˈtu.za la ʔe maˈhu.lo sĩ/

agahi 'e mihe sado=mi anke atuza la 'e mahulo sin
sheep pat listen 1px=gen heart hurt det pat when see

“…«Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: …”

On a hill, a sheep that had no wool saw horses, one of them pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses." The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool." Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.

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