Togarmite: Difference between revisions

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tėb:[[Togarmite/Lexicon]]
:[[Togarmite/Lexicon]]
:[[Togarmite/Swadesh list]]
:[[Togarmite/Swadesh list]]
:[[Togarmite/he|דף זה בעברית]]
:[[Togarmite/he|דף זה בעברית]]
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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name = {{PAGENAME}}
|name = {{PAGENAME}}
|creator = Praimhín
|image =  
|image =  
|setting = Azalic timeline
|setting = Irta
|nativename = yn Þėrmiþ
|nativename = yn Tėrmit
|pronunciation = /ən θermiθ/
|pronunciation = /ən thermith/
|region =  
|region =  
|states =  
|states =  
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}}
}}


'''Togarmite''' or '''Thermite''' (''yn Þėrmiþ'' /ən θermiθ/ or ''yn lysėn Þėrmi'') is a "[[:Category:Stem groups|stem]]-Canaanite" Semitic language. It is inspired by Hebrew, Lithuanian, Germanic languages (particularly Icelandic), Greek and [https://www.veche.net/alashian Alashian], another stem-Canaanite conlang.
'''Togarmite''' or '''Thermite''' (''yn Tėrmit'' /ən thermith/ or ''yn lysėn Tėrmi'') is a Northwest Semitic language (as distant from Hebrew as Aramaic is). It is inspired by Hebrew, Lithuanian, Germanic languages (particularly Icelandic), Greek, Welsh and [https://www.veche.net/alashian Alashian], a Semitic conlang.


Modern Togarmite retains the Semitic root-and-pattern morphology of [[Togarmite/Old|Old Togarmite]], but has undergone some phonological and grammatical restructuring, taking features of the [[Verse:Lõis/Levantine sprachbund|Turkey-Northern Levant-Iranian sprachbund]], in common with [[L-Persian]], [[Padmanābha]] and [[Azalic/English|English]]:
Modern Togarmite retains the Semitic root-and-pattern morphology of [[Togarmite/Old|Old Togarmite]], but has undergone some phonological and grammatical restructuring:


*Grimm's law: The Old Togarmite aspirated stops ''φ θ χ'' (from Proto-Semitic *p t k) generally become spirants /f θ x/.
*loss of grammatical gender
*loss of grammatical gender
*loss of the passive binyanim
*loss of the passive binyanim
*loss of the suffix conjugation except in a few verbs
*loss of the suffix conjugation except in a few verbs (where they form the w-form); erosion of the prefix paradigm (used for the past tense, like the Hebrew waw-consecutive preterite) to the point where subject pronouns are required
*the use of the ''w-form'' (inherited from the Old Togarmite waw-consecutive) for the present progressive, mirroring [[Time Traveler English|English]] ''-ing'' < PIE *-nd-kwe
*the use of the ''w-form'' (inherited from the Old Togarmite waw-consecutive) for the present progressive, mirroring [[Time Traveler English|English]] ''-ing'' < PIE *-nd-kwe
*the development of a productive concatenative verb paradigm used to form verbs from other words, analogous to Germanic weak verbs
*the development of a productive concatenative verb paradigm used to form verbs from other words, analogous to Germanic weak verbs


==Todo==
==Todo==
* Dalet tet tav > ð d t (d = /d~t/, t aspirated); more of a Hivantish/Spanish/Tsarfati Hebrew aesthetic and gives a Welsh aesthetic to Greek loans
* Should have initial w- > j- like Hebrew and Aramaic
* Should be spoken in our Turkey?
*A few verbs derived from historical passive binyanim, analogized so they're weak verbs
*A few verbs derived from historical passive binyanim, analogized so they're weak verbs
*Gzarot
*Gzarot
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*Declensions
*Declensions
*Lots of triconsonantified Greek words
*Lots of triconsonantified Greek words
*A bit more arabic isoglosses / semantic shifts in a general Arabic direction
*A bit more Aramaic isoglosses / semantic shifts in a general Aramaic direction
*Much less of an English relex: more consistent do-support, progressive forms used for imperfectives and VSO as in Welsh? Most "Englishy" bits should be literal translations of idioms, phrasal verbs and pragmatics, loss of grammatical gender, intense dialectal mixing in the early modern period with what appears to be occasional random unpredictable changes, and some vocabulary and affixes
*Much less of an English relex: more consistent do-support, progressive forms used for imperfectives and VSO as in Welsh? Most "Englishy" bits should be literal translations of idioms, phrasal verbs and pragmatics, loss of grammatical gender, intense dialectal mixing in the early modern period with what appears to be occasional random unpredictable changes, and some vocabulary and affixes
*Relex Modern Greek in places where it differs grammatically from English: ''yn'' before proper names?
*Relex Modern Greek in places where it differs grammatically from English: ''yn'' before proper names?
*Prepositional pronouns
*Prepositional pronouns
*more binyanim like ''syfȝel'', ''asøfȝel'', ''þasøfȝel'' and ''þystyfȝel''?
*more binyanim like ''syfȝel'', ''asøfȝel'', ''tasøfȝel'' and ''tystyfȝel''?
*Taxonomic names get calqued into Greek
*Taxonomic names get calqued into Greek
*CiCV:C > CyCVC, CaCV:C > CCVC
*CiCV:C > CyCVC, CaCV:C > CCVC


==History==
==History==
The Old Togarmite name for the language, ''Θėgarmīθ'', is thought to have been borrowed from a pre-Togarmite source *''Tāgarma''. The name ''Togarmah'' from the same source is also attested in the Hebrew Bible. (The Greeks and the Romans called the Togarmite people ''Θηγαρμικοί'' and ''Thegarmici'' respectively.) The name of the language shows the Togarmite shift of Proto-Semitic ''ā'' to ''ė'' /e:/, mirroring the Canaanite shift ''ā'' > ''ō'' occuring in its close relative Hebrew.
The Old Togarmite name for the language, ''Θėgarmīθ'', is thought to have been borrowed from a pre-Togarmite source *''Tāgarma''. The name ''Togarmah'' from the same source is also attested in the Hebrew Bible. (The Greeks and the Romans called the Togarmite people ''Θηγαρμικοί'' and ''Thegarmici'' respectively.) The name of the language shows the Togarmite shift of Proto-Semitic ''ā'' to ''ė'' /e:/, mirroring the Canaanite shift ''ā'' > ''ō'' occuring in Hebrew.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Togarmite has 24 consonants, 22 of them inherited from Proto-Semitic. It gained /p/ during the Old Togarmite stage by adapting loans from Greek, Aramaic and Persian, e.g. ''parkes'' 'to act', from Ancient Greek ''praxis''. It also merged Old Togarmite ''ħ'' /ħ/ and ''h'' /h/ into ''h'' /h/, OTog ''č'' /tʃ/ and ''š'' /ʃ/ into ''š'' /ʃ/ and OTog ''j'' and ''ž'' into ''ž''. /tʃ/ is now found in more recent loans, mostly from Greek, Latin and English.
Togarmite has 26 consonants, 22 of them inherited from Proto-Semitic. It gained /p=/ during the Old Togarmite stage by adapting loans from Greek, Aramaic and Persian, e.g. ''barkes'' 'to act', from Ancient Greek ''praxis''. It also merged Old Togarmite ''ħ'' /ħ/ and ''h'' /h/ into ''h'' /h/, OTog ''č'' /tʃ/, ''ž'' and ''j'' into ''ž''.
*'''m n''' /m n/
*'''m n''' /m n/ (PSem *m *n)
*'''p t c č k ' ''' /p t ts tʃ k ʔ/
*'''b d g ' ''' /p=~b t=~d k=~g ʔ/ ((not in PSem) *T *q *2)
*'''b d g''' /b d g/
*'''t k''' /th kh/ (*t *k)
*'''f þ s š x h''' /f θ s ʃ x h/
*'''th ch''' /θ x/ (in Greek loans)
*'''w z ž ȝ''' /ʋ z ʒ (Philly L)/
*'''v ð γ''' /v ð γ/ (*b *d *g)
*'''l r j''' /l r j/
*'''f s š h''' /f s ʃ h/ (*p *s/*š *þ/*ś *h/*H/*x)
 
*'''z ž ȝ''' /z ʒ (Philly L)/ (*z *ð/*D/*Z *3/*ğ)
'''þ''' may be an unaspirated dental stop. '''d''' may be dental in some dialects.
*'''c č''' /ts= tʃ=/ (*S (not in PSem))
*'''w l r j''' /w l r j/ (*w *l *r *w-/*j)


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Modern Togarmite has 9 vowels in stressed syllables.
Modern Togarmite has 9 vowels in stressed syllables.


''a e ė i o ø u y'' /ɑ ɛ e i o ø u (ə)/
''a e ė i o ø u y'' /ɑ æ e i o ø u (ə)/


''ei au'' /ɛi ɔu/
''ei au'' /ɛi ɔu/


Contrastive vowel length is present from elision of h in colloquial Togarmite: ''møþyhanan'' = [mø'θa:nan] instead of /møθə'hanan/
Contrastive vowel length is present from elision of h in colloquial Togarmite: ''møtyhanan'' = [mø'ta:nan] instead of /møtə'hanan/


===Stress===
===Stress===
Stress in native words is on the first syllable after the last non-word-final ''y''.
Stress in native words is similar to our Maltese.


==Orthography==
==Orthography==
In addition to the Hebrew, Latin and Avestan alphabets, Togarmite uses an abugida (a form of cursive linear Hangul) based on the Phoenician alphabet, called ''yn albėþ'' (after the first 2 letters).
In addition to the Latin and Greek alphabets, Togarmite uses an abugida (a form of cursive linear Hangul) based on the Phoenician alphabet, called ''yn alvėt'' (after the first 2 letters).


The abjadi letter names:
The abjadi letter names:
''al, bėþ, gam, dal, hė, wau, zėn, žėn, tėþ, jød, xaf, lam, mėm, nun, ȝėn, fė, pė, cad, čad, køf, rėš, sin, šin, þau''
''al, vėt, γam, ðal, hė, wau, zėn, žėn, dėt, jøð, kaf, lam, mėm, nun, ȝėn, fė, bė, cað, čað, gøf, rėš, sin, šin, tau''


===Traditional Romanization===
===Traditional Romanization===
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==Dialects==
==Dialects==
===Ethiopian dialect===
===Ethiopian dialect===
some different vocab e.g. ''þėþ'' instead of ''wyhėb'' for 'give', ''døbrėn'' instead of ''þėma'' for 'topic'
some different vocab e.g. ''tėt'' instead of ''wyhėv'' for 'give', ''ðøvrėn'' instead of ''tėma'' for 'topic'


some words can have different meanings in Ethiopian and Levantine leading to some funny misunderstandings
some words can have different meanings in Ethiopian and Levantine leading to some funny misunderstandings
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ei au [ɒi ø:~øo]
ei au [ɒi ø:~øo]


a broad Ethiopian accent in Togarmite has random variation in some words like heno, šamo, šydo etc are pronounced hena, šama, šyda
a broad Ethiopian accent in Togarmite has random variation in some words like heno, šamo, šyðo etc are pronounced hena, šama, šyða


-an -> -en is common in a broad Ethiopian accent (darxan -> darxen); this should typically happen only with agentives, otherwise møsaxen / møsaxan would be mixed up (that would be one of the telltale signs of a non-Ethiopian faking an accent)
-an -> -en is common in a broad Ethiopian accent (ðarkan -> ðarken); this should typically happen only with agentives, otherwise møsaken / møsakan would be mixed up (that would be one of the telltale signs of a non-Ethiopian faking an accent)
</poem>
</poem>


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|-
|-
!|Nominative/Conjunctive
!|Nominative/Conjunctive
|''nėx''||''aþ''||''eþ''||''hu''||''hi''||''že''||''nan''||''aþøm''||''høm''
|''nėk''||''at''||''et''||''hu''||''hi''||''že''||''nan''||''atøm''||''høm''
|-
|-
!|Objective/Disjunctive
!|Objective/Disjunctive
|''þi''||''þax''||''þex''||''þau''||''þa''||''þež''||''þanė''||''þaxøm''||''þaum''
|''ti''||''tak''||''tek''||''tau''||''ta''||''tež''||''tanė''||''takøm''||''taum''
|-
|-
!|Possessive
!|Possessive
|''li''||''lax''||''lex''||''lau''||''la''||''lež''||''lanė''||''laxøm''||''laum''
|''li''||''lak''||''lek''||''lau''||''la''||''lež''||''lanė''||''lakøm''||''laum''
|-
|-
!|Reflexive/Intensive
!|Reflexive/Intensive
|''afi''||''afax''||''afex''||''afau''||''afa''||''afež''||''afnė''|| ''afxøm''||''afaum''
|''afi''||''afak''||''afek''||''afau''||''afa''||''afež''||''afnė''|| ''afkøm''||''afaum''
|}
|}
The plural pronouns ''aþøm'' and ''høm'' can be used as gender-neutral pronouns in the singular, like English ''they''.
The plural pronouns ''atøm'' and ''høm'' can be used as gender-neutral pronouns in the singular, like English ''they''.


===Demonstrative===
===Demonstrative===
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|-
|-
! this
! this
|colspan=3|''žinė'' (sg); ''elinė'' (pl) || ''hė'' || ''heno'' || ''me hė'' || ''ȝeþo''  
|colspan=3|''žinė'' (sg); ''elinė'' (pl) || ''hė'' || ''heno'' || ''me hė'' || ''ȝeto''  
|rowspan="2"| ''hėx''  
|rowspan="2"| ''hėk''  
|rowspan="2"| ''ež''
|rowspan="2"| ''ež''
|rowspan="2"| ''xėrab''
|rowspan="2"| ''kėrav''
|-
|-
! that
! that
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|-
|-
! what
! what
| ''man'' || ''ma'' || ''ėjo'' || ''ein'' || ''eino'' || ''men ein'' || ''møran'' || ''xeix'' || ''maž'' ||''xma, marby''
| ''man'' || ''ma'' || ''ėjo'' || ''ein'' || ''eino'' || ''men ein'' || ''møran'' || ''keik'' || ''maž'' ||''kma, marvy''
|-
|-
! all; every
! all; every
| ''xølšar'' || ''xølbar; xøl'' || ''xøl'' || ''xølein'' || ''xøleino'' || ''me xølein'' || ''xølam'' || ''xøl ør'' || ''-'' || ''-''
| ''kølšar'' || ''kølvar; køl'' || ''køl'' || ''kølein'' || ''køleino'' || ''me kølein'' || ''kølam'' || ''køl ør'' || ''-'' || ''-''
|-
|-
! any
! any
| ''nuxšar'' || ''nuxbar'' || ''nux'' || ''nuxein'' || ''nuxeino'' || ''me nuxein'' || ''xølam''  
| ''nukšar'' || ''nukvar'' || ''nuk'' || ''nukein'' || ''nukeino'' || ''me nukein'' || ''kølam''  
|| ''nux ør'' || ''me nux sebt'' || ''-''
|| ''nuk ør'' || ''me nuk sevt'' || ''-''
|-
|-
! some
! some
| ''bilšar'' || ''bilbar'' || ''bil '' || ''bilein'' || ''bileino'' || ''me bilein'' || ''ly zman''; ''bil zman''  
| ''vilšar'' || ''vilvar'' || ''vil '' || ''vilein'' || ''vileino'' || ''me vilein'' || ''ly zman''; ''vil zman''  
|| ''bil ør'' || ''me bil sebt'' || ''-''
|| ''vil ør'' || ''me vil sevt'' || ''-''
|-
|-
! none
! none
| ''lėmšar'' || ''lėmbar'' || ''lėm'' || ''lėmein'' || ''lėmeino'' || ''me lėmein'' || ''lėfȝam''  
| ''lėmšar'' || ''lėmvar'' || ''lėm'' || ''lėmein'' || ''lėmeino'' || ''me lėmein'' || ''lėfȝam''  
|| ''lėm ør'' || ''me lėm sebt'' || ''-''
|| ''lėm ør'' || ''me lėm sevt'' || ''-''
|}
|}
Demonstratives come after nouns.
Demonstratives come after nouns.
*''beiþ žinė'' 'this house'
*''veit žinė'' 'this house'
*''kawi eli'' 'those lines'
*''gawi eli'' 'those lines'


==Nouns==
==Nouns==
In some ways declension has simplified: Like [[Cubrite]], Modern Togarmite has lost grammatical gender. The construct state has been lost, and the Old Togarmite definite state ''ʔan-'' has been reanalyzed as a separate definite article ''yn''. ''Yn'' becomes ''ym'' before /m p b/.
In some ways declension has simplified: Modern Togarmite has lost grammatical gender. The construct state has been lost, and the Old Togarmite definite state ''ʔan-'' has been reanalyzed as a separate definite article ''yn''. ''Yn'' becomes ''ym'' before /m f v p=/.


However, declension has become more complicated in other ways. For example, Modern Togarmite has innovated more declension paradigms.
However, declension has become more complicated in other ways. For example, Modern Togarmite has innovated more declension paradigms.
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+ ''xalb'' 'dog'
|+ ''kalv'' 'dog'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''xalb'' || ''xlab'''i'''''
| ''kalv'' || 'klav'''i'''''
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''þėgami'' 'Togarmite'
|+''Tėrmi'' 'Togarmite'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''þėgam'''i''''' || ''þėgam'''in'''''
| ''Tėrm'''i''''' || ''Tėrm'''in'''''
|}
|}


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===Former feminines===
===Former feminines===
This class consists of nouns that were feminine in Old Togarmite, which typically end in ''-t'' or ''-þ'' and take a plural in ''-ėþ'':
This class consists of nouns that were feminine in Old Togarmite, which typically end in ''-t'' and take a plural in ''-ėt'':


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''friþ'' 'fruit'
|+''frit'' 'fruit'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''friþ'' || ''frij'''ėþ'''''
| ''frit'' || ''frij'''ėt'''''
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''galt'' 'door' (altered from *dalt)
|+''γalt'' 'door' (altered from *ðalt)
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''galt'' || ''glat'''ėþ'''''
| ''γalt'' || ''γlat'''ėt'''''
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''þyxþøbt'' 'document'
|+''tyktøvt'' 'document'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''þyxþøbt'' || ''þyxþøb'''ėþ'''''
| ''tyktøvt'' || ''tyktøv'''ėt'''''
|}
|}


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These are mainly Greek and Aramaic words.
These are mainly Greek and Aramaic words.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''apoloža'' 'excuse (pretext)'
|+''aboloža'' 'excuse (pretext)'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''apolož'''a''''' || ''apolož'''es'''''
| ''abolož'''a''''' || ''abolož'''es'''''
|}
|}


Greek ending in ''-ma'' can have a plural in ''-mata'':
Greek ending in ''-ma'' can have a plural in ''-mada'':


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''þėma'' 'topic'
|+''tėma'' 'topic'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''þėm'''a''''' || ''þėm'''es''''' / ''þėm'''ata'''''
| ''tėm'''a''''' || ''tėm'''es''''' / ''tėm'''ada'''''
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''heta'' 'sin'
|+''heda'' 'sin'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''het'''a''''' || ''het'''es'''''
| ''hed'''a''''' || ''hed'''es'''''
|}
|}


=== Irregulars ===
=== Irregulars ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''bennės'' 'human'
|+''vennės'' 'human'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''bennės'' || ''nės''
| ''vennės'' || ''nės''
|}
|}


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Adjectives do not decline.
Adjectives do not decline.
===Degree===
===Degree===
Adjectives have a comparative form in ''yn-/ym-'' and a superlative in ''xøl-'':
Adjectives have a comparative form in ''yn-/ym-'' and a superlative in ''køl-'':
*''yn-xbur'' = bigger
*''yn-kvur'' = bigger
*''xølxbur'' = biggest
*''kølkvur'' = biggest


A dedicated particle ''šøm'' (cognate to Arabic ''þumma'') is used for 'than'.
A dedicated particle ''šøm'' (cognate to Arabic ''þumma'') is used for 'than'.


==Verbs==
==Verbs==
TODO: an n-stem binyan?
*Past = (eroded) suffix conjugation that became analogized with the prefix present
*Past = (eroded) suffix conjugation that became analogized with the prefix present
**The ''y-'' prefix is only used when the verb directly follows the subject pronoun: ''nėx yxþøb'' 'I wrote', ''nėx lė xþøb'' 'I didn't write'.
**The ''y-'' prefix is only used when the verb directly follows the subject pronoun: ''nėk yktøv'' 'I wrote', ''nėk lė ktøv'' 'I didn't write'.
*Present = from the bare w-form
*Present = from the bare w-form
*Imperative
*Imperative
**The imperative is negated with ''al'': ''Xþøb!'' 'write!', ''Al xþøb!'' 'don't write!'
**The imperative is negated with ''al'': ''Ktøv!'' 'write!', ''Al ktøv!'' 'don't write!'
*w-form = w + stem from the 3ms suffix conjugation in the ''f3øl'' binyan, past tense but with w- for the prefix in other binyanim
*w-form = w + stem from the 3ms suffix conjugation in the ''f3øl'' binyan, past tense but with w- for the prefix in other binyanim
*Infinitive
*Infinitive
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The citation form is the 2nd person singular imperative.
The citation form is the 2nd person singular imperative.
===Binyanim===
===Binyanim===
Modern Togarmite inherits all 8 binyanim of Old Togarmite. The ''þy-'' of Binyan 7 (''þyfaȝel'') verbs has become a productive derivational prefix, however.
Modern Togarmite inherits all 8 binyanim of Old Togarmite. The ''ty-'' of Binyan 7 (''tyfaȝel'') verbs has become a productive derivational prefix, however.
====Binyan 1: ''fȝøl''====
====Binyan 1: ''fȝøl''====
This binyan can take -ø- (e.g. ''xþøb'' 'to write'), -e- (''sen'' 'to sleep') or -a- (''tȝam'' 'to choose') as the theme vowel.
This binyan can take -ø- (e.g. ''ktøv'' 'to write'), -e- (''sen'' 'to sleep') or -a- (''dȝam'' 'to choose') as the theme vowel.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 1 conjugation: ''xþøb'' 'write'
|+ Binyan 1 conjugation: ''ktøv'' 'write'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
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|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx yxþøb''
| ''nėk yktøv''
| ''aþ/eþ yxþøb''
| ''at/et yktøv''
| ''hu/hi xþøb''
| ''hu/hi ktøv''
| ''nan xþøb''
| ''nan ktøv''
| ''aþøm xþøb''
| ''atøm ktøv''
| ''høm xþøb''
| ''høm ktøv''
|-
|-
! past imperfective; past subjunctive
! past imperfective; past subjunctive
| ''nėx fiþ wyxþab''
| ''nėk fit wyktav''
| ''aþ/eþ fiþ wyxþab''
| ''at/et fit wyktav''
| ''hu/hi fė wyxþab''
| ''hu/hi fė wyktav''
| ''nan fu wyxþab''
| ''nan fu wyktav''
| ''aþøm fu wyxþab''
| ''atøm fu wyktav''
| ''høm fu wyxþab''
| ''høm fu wyktav''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx wyxþab''
| ''nėk wyktav''
| ''aþ/eþ wyxþab''
| ''at/et wyktav''
| ''hu/hi wyxþab''
| ''hu/hi wyktav''
| ''nan wyxþab''
| ''nan wyktav''
| ''aþøm wyxþab''
| ''atøm wyktav''
| ''høm wyxþab''
| ''høm wyktav''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''nėx lu wyxþab''
| ''nėk lu wyktav''
| ''aþ/eþ lu wyxþab''
| ''at/et lu wyktav''
| ''hu/hi lu wyxþab''
| ''hu/hi lu wyktav''
| ''nan lu wyxþab''
| ''nan lu wyktav''
| ''aþøm lu wyxþab''
| ''atøm lu wyktav''
| ''høm lu wyxþab''
| ''høm lu wyktav''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''nėx yxþøban''
| ''nėk yktøvan''
| ''aþ/eþ yxþøban''
| ''at/et yktøvan''
| ''hu/hi xþøban''
| ''hu/hi ktøvan''
| ''nan xþøban''
| ''nan ktøvan''
| ''aþøm xþøban''
| ''atøm ktøvan''
| ''høm xþøban''
| ''høm ktøvan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė xþėb''
| ''nėk bė ktėv''
| ''aþ/eþ bė xþėb''
| ''at/et bė ktėv''
| ''hu bė xþėb''
| ''hu bė ktėv''
| ''nan bė xþėb''
| ''nan bė ktėv''
| ''aþøm bė xþėb''
| ''atøm bė ktėv''
| ''høm bė xþėb''
| ''høm bė ktėv''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li xþub''
| ''li ktuv''
| ''lax/lex xþub''
| ''lax/lex ktuv''
| ''lau/la xþub''
| ''lau/la ktuv''
| ''lanė xþub''
| ''lanė ktuv''
| ''laxøm xþub''
| ''laxøm ktuv''
| ''laum xþub''
| ''laum ktuv''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
|colspan=6| ''xþøb!''
|colspan=6| ''ktøv!''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=6| ''xėþeb''
|colspan=6| ''xėtev''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''xþub''
|colspan=6| ''ktuv''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wyxþab''
|colspan=6| ''wyktav''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''xþėb''
|colspan=6| ''ktėv''
|}
|}


Line 429: Line 431:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx ynum''
| ''nėk ynum''
| ''aþ/eþ ynum''
| ''at/et ynum''
| ''hu/hi num''
| ''hu/hi num''
| ''nan num''
| ''nan num''
| ''aþøm num''
| ''atøm num''
| ''høm num''
| ''høm num''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''nėx fiþ wynaum''
| ''nėk fit wynaum''
| ''aþ/eþ fiþ wynaum''
| ''at/et fit wynaum''
| ''hu/hi fė wynaum''
| ''hu/hi fė wynaum''
| ''nan fu wynaum''
| ''nan fu wynaum''
| ''aþøm fu wynaum''
| ''atøm fu wynaum''
| ''høm fu wynaum''
| ''høm fu wynaum''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx wynaum''
| ''nėk wynaum''
| ''aþ/eþ wynaum''
| ''at/et wynaum''
| ''hu/hi wynaum''
| ''hu/hi wynaum''
| ''nan wynaum''
| ''nan wynaum''
| ''aþøm wynaum''
| ''atøm wynaum''
| ''høm wynaum''
| ''høm wynaum''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''nėx lu wynaum''
| ''nėk lu wynaum''
| ''aþ/eþ lu wynaum''
| ''at/et lu wynaum''
| ''hu/hi lu wynaum''
| ''hu/hi lu wynaum''
| ''nan lu wynaum''
| ''nan lu wynaum''
| ''aþøm lu wynaum''
| ''atøm lu wynaum''
| ''høm lu wynaum''
| ''høm lu wynaum''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''nėx ynuman''
| ''nėk ynuman''
| ''aþ/eþ ynuman''
| ''at/et ynuman''
| ''hu/hi numan''
| ''hu/hi numan''
| ''nan numan''
| ''nan numan''
| ''aþøm numan''
| ''atøm numan''
| ''høm numan''
| ''høm numan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė nwėm''
| ''nėk bė nwėm''
| ''aþ/eþ bė nwėm''
| ''at/et bė nwėm''
| ''hu/hi bė nwėm''
| ''hu/hi bė nwėm''
| ''nan bė nwėm''
| ''nan bė nwėm''
| ''aþøm bė nwėm''
| ''atøm bė nwėm''
| ''høm bė nwėm''
| ''høm bė nwėm''
|-
|-
Line 503: Line 505:
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic D-stem (related to Hebrew pi33el and Arabic fa33ala)
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic D-stem (related to Hebrew pi33el and Arabic fa33ala)
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 2 conjugation: ''saxen'' 'inhabit'
|+ Binyan 2 conjugation: ''saken'' 'inhabit'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 513: Line 515:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx ysaxen''
| ''nėk ysaken''
| ''aþ/eþ ysaxen''
| ''at/et ysaken''
| ''hu/hi saxen''
| ''hu/hi saken''
| ''nan saxen''
| ''nan saken''
| ''aþøm saxen''
| ''atøm saken''
| ''høm saxen''
| ''høm saken''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''nėx fiþ wysaxen''
| ''nėk fit wysaken''
| ''aþ/eþ fiþ wysaxen''
| ''at/et fit wysaken''
| ''hu/hi fė wysaxen''
| ''hu/hi fė wysaken''
| ''nan fu wysaxen''
| ''nan fu wysaken''
| ''aþøm fu wysaxen''
| ''atøm fu wysaken''
| ''høm fu wysaxen''
| ''høm fu wysaken''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx wysaxen''
| ''nėk wysaken''
| ''aþ/eþ wysaxen''
| ''at/et wysaken''
| ''hu/hi wysaxen''
| ''hu/hi wysaken''
| ''nan wysaxen''
| ''nan wysaken''
| ''aþøm wysaxen''
| ''atøm wysaken''
| ''høm wysaxen''
| ''høm wysaken''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''nėx lu wysaxen''
| ''nėk lu wysaken''
| ''aþ/eþ lu wysaxen''
| ''at/et lu wysaken''
| ''hu/hi lu wysaxen''
| ''hu/hi lu wysaken''
| ''nan lu wysaxen''
| ''nan lu wysaken''
| ''aþøm lu wysaxen''
| ''atøm lu wysaken''
| ''høm lu wysaxen''
| ''høm lu wysaken''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''nėx ysaxenan''
| ''nėk ysakenan''
| ''aþ/eþ ysaxenan''
| ''at/et ysakenan''
| ''hu/hi saxenan''
| ''hu/hi sakenan''
| ''nan saxenan''
| ''nan sakenan''
| ''aþøm saxenan''
| ''atøm sakenan''
| ''høm saxenan''
| ''høm sakenan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė saxun''
| ''nėk bė sakun''
| ''aþ bė saxun''
| ''at bė sakun''
| ''hu bė saxun''
| ''hu bė sakun''
| ''nan bė saxun''
| ''nan bė sakun''
| ''aþøm bė saxun''
| ''atøm bė sakun''
| ''høm bė saxun''
| ''høm bė sakun''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li møsaxan''
| ''li møsakan''
| ''lax/lex møsaxan''
| ''lax/lex møsakan''
| ''lau/la møsaxan''
| ''lau/la møsakan''
| ''lanė møsaxan''
| ''lanė møsakan''
| ''laxøm møsaxan''
| ''laxøm møsakan''
| ''laum møsaxan''
| ''laum møsakan''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
|colspan=6| ''saxen!''
|colspan=6| ''saken!''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=6| ''møsaxen''
|colspan=6| ''møsaken''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''møsaxan''
|colspan=6| ''møsakan''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wysaxen''
|colspan=6| ''wysaken''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''saxun''
|colspan=6| ''sakun''
|}
|}
For 4-letter verbs such as ''parkes'' 'to act', the present tense is formed with the stem ''-C₁C₂ėC₃eC₄'', like ''nėx yprėkes'' 'I act'.


==== Binyan 3: ''fėȝel'' ====
==== Binyan 3: ''fėȝel'' ====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 3 conjugation: ''dėber'' 'speak'
|+ Binyan 3 conjugation: ''ðėver'' 'speak'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 597: Line 598:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx ydėber''
| ''nėk yðėver''
| ''aþ/eþ ydėber''
| ''at/et yðėver''
| ''hu/hi dėber''
| ''hu/hi ðėver''
| ''nan dėber''
| ''nan ðėver''
| ''aþøm dėber''
| ''atøm ðėver''
| ''høm dėber''
| ''høm ðėver''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''nėx fiþ wydėber''
| ''nėk fit wyðėver''
| ''aþ/eþ fiþ wydėber''
| ''at/et fit wyðėver''
| ''hu/hi fė wydėber''
| ''hu/hi fė wyðėver''
| ''nan fu wydėber''
| ''nan fu wyðėver''
| ''aþøm fu wydėber''
| ''atøm fu wyðėver''
| ''høm fu wydėber''
| ''høm fu wyðėver''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx wydėber''
| ''nėk wyðėver''
| ''aþ/eþ wydėber''
| ''at/et wyðėver''
| ''hu/hi wydėber''
| ''hu/hi wyðėver''
| ''nan wydėber''
| ''nan wyðėver''
| ''aþøm wydėber''
| ''atøm wyðėver''
| ''høm wydėber''
| ''høm wyðėver''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''nėx ydėberan''
| ''nėk yðėveran''
| ''aþ/eþ ydėberan''
| ''at/et yðėveran''
| ''hu/hi dėberan''
| ''hu/hi ðėveran''
| ''nan dėberan''
| ''nan ðėveran''
| ''aþøm dėberan''
| ''atøm ðėveran''
| ''høm dėberan''
| ''høm ðėveran''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė dėbur''
| ''nėk bė ðėvur''
| ''aþ bė dėbur''
| ''at bė ðėvur''
| ''hu bė dėbur''
| ''hu bė ðėvur''
| ''nan bė dėbur''
| ''nan bė ðėvur''
| ''aþøm bė dėbur''
| ''atøm bė ðėvur''
| ''høm bė dėbur''
| ''høm bė ðėvur''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li mødėbar''
| ''li møðėvar''
| ''lax/lex mødėbar''
| ''lax/lex møðėvar''
| ''lau/la mødėbar''
| ''lau/la møðėvar''
| ''lanė mødėbar''
| ''lanė møðėvar''
| ''laxøm mødėbar''
| ''laxøm møðėvar''
| ''laum mødėbar''
| ''laum møðėvar''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''dėber!''
| ''ðėver!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''dėberu!''
| ''ðėveru!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=6| ''mødėber''
|colspan=6| ''møðėver''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''mødėbar''
|colspan=6| ''møðėvar''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wydėber''
|colspan=6| ''wyðėver''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''dėbur''
|colspan=6| ''ðėvur''
|}
|}


Line 669: Line 670:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 3 conjugation: ''ažxer'' 'remind'
|+ Binyan 3 conjugation: ''ažker'' 'remind'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 679: Line 680:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx ažxer''
| ''nėk ažker''
| ''aþ/eþ ažxer''
| ''at/et ažker''
| ''hu/hi ažxer''
| ''hu/hi ažker''
| ''nan ažxer''
| ''nan ažker''
| ''aþøm ažxer''
| ''atøm ažker''
| ''høm ažxer''
| ''høm ažker''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''fiti wažxer''
| ''fiti wažker''
| ''fit wažxer''
| ''fit wažker''
| ''fė wažxer''
| ''fė wažker''
| ''finė wažxer''
| ''finė wažker''
| ''fitøm wažxer''
| ''fitøm wažker''
| ''fu wažxer''
| ''fu wažker''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx ažėxer''
| ''nėk še wažker''
| ''aþ/eþ ažėxer''
| ''at/et še wažker''
| ''hu/hi ažėxer''
| ''hu/hi še wažker''
| ''nan ažėxer''
| ''nan še wažker''
| ''aþøm ažėxeru''
| ''atøm šu wažker''
| ''høm ažėxeru''
| ''høm šu wažker''
|-
! present progressive
| ''nėx še wažxer''
| ''aþ/eþ še wažxer''
| ''hu/hi še wažxer''
| ''nan še wažxer''
| ''aþøm šu wažxer''
| ''høm šu wažxer''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''nėx ažxeran''
| ''nėk ažkeran''
| ''aþ/eþ ažxeran''
| ''at/et ažkeran''
| ''hu/hi ažxeran''
| ''hu/hi ažkeran''
| ''nan ažxeran''
| ''nan ažkeran''
| ''aþøm ažxeran''
| ''atøm ažkeran''
| ''høm ažxeran''
| ''høm ažkeran''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė hažxur''
| ''nėk bė hažkur''
| ''aþ bė hažxur''
| ''at bė hažkur''
| ''hu bė hažxur''
| ''hu bė hažkur''
| ''nan bė hažxur''
| ''nan bė hažkur''
| ''aþøm bė hažxur''
| ''atøm bė hažkur''
| ''høm bė hažxur''
| ''høm bė hažkur''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li mažxar''
| ''li mažkar''
| ''lax/lex mažxar''
| ''lax/lex mažkar''
| ''lau/la mažxar''
| ''lau/la mažkar''
| ''lanė mažxar''
| ''lanė mažkar''
| ''laxøm mažxar''
| ''laxøm mažkar''
| ''laum mažxar''
| ''laum mažkar''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
|colspan=6|''ažxer!''
|colspan=6|''ažker!''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=6| ''mažxer''
|colspan=6| ''mažker''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''mažxar''
|colspan=6| ''mažkar''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wažxer''
|colspan=6| ''wažker''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''ažxur''
|colspan=6| ''ažkur''
|}
|}


====Binyan 5: ''yftyȝel''====
====Binyan 5: ''ftyȝel''====
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic t-stem and shares similarities with the Hebrew binyan ''hitpa33el'' and Arabic ''ifta3ala''. It is characterized by the þ- prefix that comes from the *t infix.
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic t-stem and shares similarities with the Hebrew binyan ''hitpa33el'' and Arabic ''ifta3ala''. It is characterized by the t- prefix that comes from the *t infix.


Meanings:
Meanings:
Line 757: Line 750:
*reciprocal
*reciprocal


The prefix ''þ'' metathesizes with C1 when
The prefix ''t'' metathesizes with C1 when
*C1 = f x s š c h z ž ȝ: ''þf þx þs þš þh þz þž þȝ'' > ''ft xt st št ct ht zd žd ȝd''
*C1 = f x s š c h z ž ȝ: ''tf tx ts tš th tz tž tȝ'' > ''ft xt st št ct ht zd žd ȝd''
*C1 = d t þ: ''þd þt þþ'' > ''d t þ''
*C1 = ð d t: ''tð td tt'' > ''ð d t''


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 4 conjugation: ''hyþlymed'' 'find one's way around'
|+ Binyan 4 conjugation: ''tlymeð'' 'find one's way around'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 772: Line 765:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx yþlymed''
| ''nėk ytlymeð''
| ''aþ/eþ yþlymed''
| ''at/et ytlymeð''
| ''hu/hi þlymed''
| ''hu/hi tlymeð''
| ''nan þlymed''
| ''nan tlymeð''
| ''aþøm þlymed''
| ''atøm tlymeð''
| ''høm þlymed''
| ''høm tlymeð''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''fiti wyþlymed''
| ''fiti wytlymeð''
| ''fit wyþlymed''
| ''fit wytlymeð''
| ''fė wyþlymed''
| ''fė wytlymeð''
| ''finė wyþlymed''
| ''finė wytlymeð''
| ''fitøm wyþlymed''
| ''fitøm wytlymeð''
| ''fu wyþlymed''
| ''fu wytlymeð''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx yþlėmed''
| ''nėk ytlėmeð''
| ''aþ/eþ yþlėmed''
| ''at/et ytlėmeð''
| ''hu/hi þlėmed''
| ''hu/hi tlėmeð''
| ''nan þlėmed''
| ''nan tlėmeð''
| ''aþøm þlėmed''
| ''atøm tlėmeð''
| ''høm þlėmed''
| ''høm tlėmeð''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''nėx še wyþlymed''
| ''nėk še wytlymeð''
| ''aþ/eþ še wyþlymed''
| ''at/et še wytlymeð''
| ''hu/hi še wyþlymed''
| ''hu/hi še wytlymeð''
| ''nan še wyþlymed''
| ''nan še wytlymeð''
| ''aþøm šu wyþlymed''
| ''atøm šu wytlymeð''
| ''høm šu wyþlymed''
| ''høm šu wytlymeð''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''nėx yþlymedan''
| ''nėk ytlymeðan''
| ''aþ/eþ yþlymedan''
| ''at/et ytlymeðan''
| ''hu/hi þlymedan''
| ''hu/hi tlymeðan''
| ''nan þlymedan''
| ''nan tlymeðan''
| ''aþøm þlymedan''
| ''atøm tlymeðan''
| ''høm þlymedan''
| ''høm tlymeðan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė hyþlymud''
| ''nėk bė hytlymuð''
| ''aþ bė hyþlymud''
| ''at bė hytlymuð''
| ''hu bė hyþlymud''
| ''hu bė hytlymuð''
| ''nan bė hyþlymud''
| ''nan bė hytlymuð''
| ''aþøm bė hyþlymud''
| ''atøm bė hytlymuð''
| ''høm bė hyþlymud''
| ''høm bė hytlymuð''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li møþlymad''
| ''li møtlymað''
| ''lax/lex møþlymad''
| ''lax/lex møtlymað''
| ''lau/la møþlymad''
| ''lau/la møtlymað''
| ''lanė møþlymad''
| ''lanė møtlymað''
| ''laxøm møþlymad''
| ''laxøm møtlymað''
| ''laum møþlymad''
| ''laum møtlymað''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
|colspan=6|''yþlymed!''
|colspan=6|''ytlymeð''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=6| ''møþlymed''
|colspan=6| ''møtlymeð''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''møþlymad''
|colspan=6| ''møtlymað''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wyþlymėd''
|colspan=6| ''wytlymėð''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''hyþlymud''
|colspan=6| ''hytlymuð''
|}
|}


====Binyan 6: ''eþyfȝel''====
====Binyan 6: ''etyfȝel''====
This binyan comes from the Nt-stem, with the mediopassive n- marker and the reflexive/reciprocal t-marker: the stem comes from *intap3il. cf. Hebrew ''nitpa33el'', a variant of the ''hitpa33el'' binyan and the Arabic ''infa3ala'' binyan.
This binyan comes from the Nt-stem, with the mediopassive n- marker and the reflexive/reciprocal t-marker: the stem comes from *intap3il. cf. Hebrew ''nitpa33el'', a variant of the ''hitpa33el'' binyan and the Arabic ''infa3ala'' binyan.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 5 conjugation: ''eþygdel'' 'grow up'
|+ Binyan 5 conjugation: ''etyγðel'' 'grow up'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 857: Line 850:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx eþygdel''
| ''nėk etyγðel''
| ''aþ/eþ eþygdel''
| ''at/et etyγðel''
| ''hu/hi eþygdel''
| ''hu/hi etyγðel''
| ''nan eþygdel''
| ''nan etyγðel''
| ''aþøm eþygdel''
| ''atøm etyγðel''
| ''høm eþygdel''
| ''høm etyγðel''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''fiti weþygdel''
| ''fiti wetyγðel''
| ''fit weþygdel''
| ''fit wetyγðel''
| ''fė weþygdel''
| ''fė wetyγðel''
| ''finė weþygdel''
| ''finė wetyγðel''
| ''fitøm weþygdel''
| ''fitøm wetyγðel''
| ''fu waþygdel''
| ''fu watyγðel''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx eþygėdel''
| ''nėk še wetyγðel''
| ''aþ/eþ eþygėdel''
| ''at/et še wetyγðel''
| ''hu/hi eþygėdel''
| ''hu/hi še wetyγðel''
| ''nan eþygėdel''
| ''nan še wetyγðel''
| ''aþøm eþygėdelu''
| ''atøm šu wetyγðel''
| ''høm eþygėdelu''
| ''høm šu wetyγðel''
|-
! present progressive
| ''nėx še weþygdel''
| ''aþ/eþ še weþygdel''
| ''hu/hi še weþygdel''
| ''nan še weþygdel''
| ''aþøm šu weþygdel''
| ''høm šu weþygdel''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''nėx eþygdelan''
| ''nėk etyγðelan''
| ''aþ/eþ eþygdelan''
| ''at/et etyγðelan''
| ''hu/hi eþygdelan''
| ''hu/hi etyγðelan''
| ''nan eþygdelan''
| ''nan etyγðelan''
| ''aþøm eþygdelan''
| ''atøm etyγðelan''
| ''høm eþygdelan''
| ''høm etyγðelan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė heþygdul''
| ''nėk bė hetyγðul''
| ''aþ bė heþygdul''
| ''at bė hetyγðul''
| ''hu bė heþygdul''
| ''hu bė hetyγðul''
| ''nan bė heþygdul''
| ''nan bė hetyγðul''
| ''aþøm bė heþygdul''
| ''atøm bė hetyγðul''
| ''høm bė heþygdul''
| ''høm bė hetyγðul''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li meþygdal''
| ''li metyγðal''
| ''lax/lex meþygdal''
| ''lax/lex metyγðal''
| ''lau/la meþygdal''
| ''lau/la metyγðal''
| ''lanė meþygdal''
| ''lanė metyγðal''
| ''laxøm meþygdal''
| ''laxøm metyγðal''
| ''laum meþygdal''
| ''laum metyγðal''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''heþygdel!''
| ''hetyγðel!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''heþygdelu!''
| ''hetyγðelu!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=6| ''meþygdel''
|colspan=6| ''metyγðel''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''meþygdal''
|colspan=6| ''metyγðal''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''waþygdel''
|colspan=6| ''watyγðel''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''heþygdul''
|colspan=6| ''hetyγðul''
|}
|}


Line 936: Line 921:
This binyan comes from the Št-stem and is directly related to the binyan ''istaf3ala'' in Arabic and the very rare binyan ''hishtaf3el'' in Biblical Hebrew.  Binyan 7 tends to form verbs involving conscious decision.
This binyan comes from the Št-stem and is directly related to the binyan ''istaf3ala'' in Arabic and the very rare binyan ''hishtaf3el'' in Biblical Hebrew.  Binyan 7 tends to form verbs involving conscious decision.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 8 conjugation: ''stytȝem'' 'try out'
|+ Binyan 8 conjugation: ''stydȝem'' 'try out'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 946: Line 931:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx ystytȝem''
| ''nėk ystydȝem''
| ''aþ/eþ ystytȝem''
| ''at/et ystydȝem''
| ''hu/hi stytȝem''
| ''hu/hi stydȝem''
| ''nan stytȝem''
| ''nan stydȝem''
| ''aþøm stytȝem''
| ''atøm stydȝem''
| ''høm stytȝem''
| ''høm stydȝem''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''fiti wystytȝem''
| ''fiti wystydȝem''
| ''fit wystytȝem''
| ''fit wystydȝem''
| ''fė wystytȝem''
| ''fė wystydȝem''
| ''finė wystytȝem''
| ''finė wystydȝem''
| ''fitøm wystytȝem''
| ''fitøm wystydȝem''
| ''fu wystytȝem''
| ''fu wystydȝem''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx ystytėȝem''
| ''nėk ystytėȝem''
| ''aþ/eþ ystytėȝem''
| ''at/et ystytėȝem''
| ''hu/hi stytėȝem''
| ''hu/hi stytėȝem''
| ''nan stytėȝem''
| ''nan stytėȝem''
| ''aþøm stytėȝem''
| ''atøm stytėȝem''
| ''høm stytėȝem''
| ''høm stytėȝem''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''nėx še wystytȝem''
| ''nėk še wystydȝem''
| ''aþ/eþ še wystytȝem''
| ''at/et še wystydȝem''
| ''hu/hi še wystytȝem''
| ''hu/hi še wystydȝem''
| ''nan še wystytȝem''
| ''nan še wystydȝem''
| ''aþøm šu wystytȝem''
| ''atøm šu wystydȝem''
| ''høm šu wystytȝem''
| ''høm šu wystydȝem''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''nėx ystytȝeman''
| ''nėk ystydȝeman''
| ''aþ/eþ ystytȝeman''
| ''at/et ystydȝeman''
| ''hu/hi stytȝeman''
| ''hu/hi stydȝeman''
| ''nan stytȝeman''
| ''nan stydȝeman''
| ''aþøm stytȝemun''
| ''atøm stydȝemun''
| ''jystytȝemun''
| ''jystydȝemun''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė stytȝum''
| ''nėk bė stydȝum''
| ''aþ bė stytȝum''
| ''at bė stydȝum''
| ''hu bė stytȝum''
| ''hu bė stydȝum''
| ''nan bė stytȝum''
| ''nan bė stydȝum''
| ''aþøm bė stytȝum''
| ''atøm bė stydȝum''
| ''høm bė stytȝum''
| ''høm bė stydȝum''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li møstytȝam''
| ''li møstydȝam''
| ''lax/lex møstytȝam''
| ''lax/lex møstydȝam''
| ''lau/la møstytȝam''
| ''lau/la møstydȝam''
| ''lanė møstytȝam''
| ''lanė møstydȝam''
| ''laxøm møstytȝam''
| ''laxøm møstydȝam''
| ''laum møstytȝam''
| ''laum møstydȝam''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''stytȝem!''
| ''stydȝem!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''stytȝemu!''
| ''stydȝemu!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=6| ''møstytȝem''
|colspan=6| ''møstydȝem''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''møstytȝam''
|colspan=6| ''møstydȝam''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wystytȝem''
|colspan=6| ''wystydȝem''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''stytȝum''
|colspan=6| ''stydȝum''
|}
|}


Line 1,026: Line 1,011:


It is used for recent loan verbs like ''maksimezi'' 'to maximize', but can also be used to derive verbs from native nouns:
It is used for recent loan verbs like ''maksimezi'' 'to maximize', but can also be used to derive verbs from native nouns:
*''mydrasi'' 'to school' (from ''mydras'' 'school')
*''myðrasi'' 'to school' (from ''myðras'' 'school')
*''þaxili'' 'to consume' (from ''þaxil'' 'consumption', itself from the root √ʔ-x-l 'to eat')
*''takili'' 'to consume' (from ''takil'' 'consumption', itself from the root √ʔ-k-l 'to eat')
*''žaxoji'' 'to entitle, to allow' (from ''žaxo'' 'right')
*''žakoji'' 'to entitle, to allow' (from ''žako'' 'right')
*''ȝeini'' 'to eye' (from ''ȝein'' 'eye')
*''ȝeini'' 'to eye' (from ''ȝein'' 'eye')


The endings are mainly derived from Middle Togarmite forms of 3-y verbs.
The endings are mainly derived from Middle Togarmite forms of 3-y verbs.
*[STEM]-i = active
*[STEM]-i = active
*þy-[STEM]-i = re-
*ty-[STEM]-i = re-
*mø- = active participle
*mø- = active participle
*-ėþ = infinitive
*-ėt = infinitive
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Weak verb conjugation: ''mydrasi'' 'to school'
|+ Weak verb conjugation: ''myðrasi'' 'to school'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 1,047: Line 1,032:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx ymydrasi''
| ''nėk ymyðrasi''
| ''aþ/eþ ymydrasi''
| ''at/et ymyðrasi''
| ''hu/hi mydrasi''
| ''hu/hi myðrasi''
| ''nan mydrasi''
| ''nan myðrasi''
| ''aþøm mydrasi''
| ''atøm myðrasi''
| ''høm mydrasi''
| ''høm myðrasi''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''fiti wymydrasi''
| ''fiti wymyðrasi''
| ''fit wymydrasi''
| ''fit wymyðrasi''
| ''fė wymydrasi''
| ''fė wymyðrasi''
| ''finė wymydrasi''
| ''finė wymyðrasi''
| ''fitøm wymydrasi''
| ''fitøm wymyðrasi''
| ''fu wymydrasi''
| ''fu wymyðrasi''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx wymydrasi''
| ''nėk wymyðrasi''
| ''aþ/eþ wymydrasi''
| ''at/et wymyðrasi''
| ''hu/hi wymydrasi''
| ''hu/hi wymyðrasi''
| ''nan wymydrasi''
| ''nan wymyðrasi''
| ''aþøm wymydrasi''
| ''atøm wymyðrasi''
| ''høm wymydrasi''
| ''høm wymyðrasi''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''nėx lu wymydrasi''
| ''nėk lu wymyðrasi''
| ''aþ/eþ lu wymydrasi''
| ''at/et lu wymyðrasi''
| ''hu/hi lu wymydrasi''
| ''hu/hi lu wymyðrasi''
| ''nan lu wymydrasi''
| ''nan lu wymyðrasi''
| ''aþøm lu wymydrasi''
| ''atøm lu wymyðrasi''
| ''høm lu wymydrasi''
| ''høm lu wymyðrasi''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''nėx ymydrasan''
| ''nėk ymyðrasan''
| ''aþ/eþ ymydrasan''
| ''at/et ymyðrasan''
| ''hu/hi mydrasan''
| ''hu/hi myðrasan''
| ''nan mydrasan''
| ''nan myðrasan''
| ''aþøm mydrasun''
| ''atøm myðrasun''
| ''høm mydrasun''
| ''høm myðrasun''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė mydrasėþ''
| ''nėk bė myðrasėt''
| ''aþ bė mydrasėþ''
| ''at bė myðrasėt''
| ''hu bė mydrasėþ''
| ''hu bė myðrasėt''
| ''nėbu mydrasėþ''
| ''nėbu myðrasėt''
| ''aþøm bė mydrasėþ''
| ''atøm bė myðrasėt''
| ''høm bė mydrasėþ''
| ''høm bė myðrasėt''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li mømydrasa''
| ''li mømyðrasa''
| ''lax/lex mømydrasa''
| ''lax/lex mømyðrasa''
| ''lau/la mømydrasa''
| ''lau/la mømyðrasa''
| ''lanė mømydrasa''
| ''lanė mømyðrasa''
| ''laxøm mømydrasa''
| ''laxøm mømyðrasa''
| ''laum mømydrasa''
| ''laum mømyðrasa''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
|colspan=6| ''mydrasi!''
|colspan=6| ''myðrasi!''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=6| ''mømydrasė''
|colspan=6| ''mømyðrasė''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''mydrasa''
|colspan=6| ''myðrasa''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wymydrasi''
|colspan=6| ''wymyðrasi''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''mydrasėþ''
|colspan=6| ''myðrasėt''
|}
|}


Line 1,131: Line 1,116:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx fiþ''
| ''nėk fit''
| ''aþ fiþ''
| ''at fit''
| ''hu fė''
| ''hu fė''
| ''nan fu''
| ''nan fu''
| ''aþøm fu''
| ''atøm fu''
| ''høm fu''
| ''høm fu''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''nėx fiþ fė''
| ''nėk fit fė''
| ''aþ fiþ fė''
| ''at fit fė''
| ''hu fė fė''
| ''hu fė fė''
| ''nan fu fė''
| ''nan fu fė''
| ''aþøm fu fė''
| ''atøm fu fė''
| ''høm fu fė''
| ''høm fu fė''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''(nėx)''  
| ''(nėk)''  
| ''(aþ/eþ)''  
| ''(at/et)''  
| ''(hu/hi)''  
| ''(hu/hi)''  
| ''(nan)''
| ''(nan)''
| ''(aþøm)''
| ''(atøm)''
| ''(høm)''
| ''(høm)''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''nėx lu fė''
| ''nėk lu fė''
| ''aþ/eþ lu fė''
| ''at/et lu fė''
| ''hu/hi lu fė''
| ''hu/hi lu fė''
| ''nan lu fė''
| ''nan lu fė''
| ''aþøm lu fė''
| ''atøm lu fė''
| ''høm lu fė''
| ''høm lu fė''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''nėx yfijan''
| ''nėk yfijan''
| ''aþ yfijan''
| ''at yfijan''
| ''hu fijan''
| ''hu fijan''
| ''nan fijan''
| ''nan fijan''
| ''aþøm fijan''
| ''atøm fijan''
| ''høm fijan''
| ''høm fijan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė fėþ''
| ''nėk bė fėt''
| ''aþ bė fėþ''
| ''at bė fėt''
| ''hu bė fėþ''
| ''hu bė fėt''
| ''nan bė fėþ''
| ''nan bė fėt''
| ''aþøm bė fėþ''
| ''atøm bė fėt''
| ''høm bė fėþ''
| ''høm bė fėt''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
Line 1,191: Line 1,176:
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''fėþ''
|colspan=6| ''fėt''
|}
|}


===''xėl'' 'can'===
===''kėl'' 'can'===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ ''xėl'' 'can'
|+ ''kėl'' 'can'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 1,206: Line 1,191:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx yxel''
| ''nėk ikel''
| ''aþ/eþ yxel''
| ''at/et ikel''
| ''hu/hi xel''
| ''hu/hi kel''
| ''nan xel''
| ''nan kel''
| ''aþøm xel''
| ''atøm kel''
| ''høm xel''
| ''høm kel''
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''fiti wėxel''
| ''nėk fit wėkel''
| ''fit wėxel''
| ''at fit wėkel''
| ''fė wėxel''
| ''hu fė wėkel''
| ''finė wėxel''
| ''nan fu wėkel''
| ''fitøm wėxel''
| ''atøm fu wėkel''
| ''fu wėxel''
| ''høm fu wėkel''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx wėxel''
| ''nėk wėkel''
| ''aþ wėxel''
| ''at wėkel''
| ''hu wėxel''
| ''hu wėkel''
| ''nan wėxel''
| ''nan wėkel''
| ''aþøm wėxel''
| ''atøm wėkel''
| ''høm wėxel''
| ''høm wėkel''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''nėx yxelan''
| ''nėk ikelan''
| ''aþ/eþ yxelan''
| ''at/et ikelan''
| ''hu/hi xelan''
| ''hu/hi kelan''
| ''nan xelan''
| ''nan kelan''
| ''aþøm xelun''
| ''atøm kelan''
| ''høm xelun''
| ''høm kelan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė xėl''
| ''nėk bė kėl''
| ''aþ bė xėl''
| ''at bė kėl''
| ''hu bė xėl''
| ''hu bė kėl''
| ''nan bė xėl''
| ''nan bė kėl''
| ''aþøm bė xėl''
| ''atøm bė kėl''
| ''høm bė xėl''
| ''høm bė kėl''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
Line 1,249: Line 1,234:
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''fuj wėxel''
|colspan=6| ''fuj wėkel''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wėxel''
|colspan=6| ''wėkel''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''xėl''
|colspan=6| ''kėl''
|}
|}


===''høbė'' 'should; ought'===
===''høvė'' 'should; ought'===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ ''høba'' 'should; ought'
|+ ''høba'' 'should; ought'
Line 1,270: Line 1,255:
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''fiti høbė''
| ''nėk fit høbė''
| ''fit høbė''
| ''at fit høbė''
| ''fė høbė''
| ''hu fė høbė''
| ''finė høbu''
| ''nan fu høbu''
| ''fitøm høbu''
| ''atøm fu høbu''
| ''fu høbu''
| ''høm fu høbu''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx høbė''
| ''nėk høbė''
| ''aþ/eþ høbė''
| ''at/et høbė''
| ''hu/hi høbė''
| ''hu/hi høbė''
| ''nan høbu''
| ''nan høbu''
| ''aþøm høbu''
| ''atøm høbu''
| ''høm høbu''
| ''høm høbu''
|}
|}


===''ryšė'' 'to like'===
===''ryžė'' 'to like'===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ ''ryšė'' 'to like'
|+ ''ryžė'' 'to like'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 1,298: Line 1,283:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx yrši''
| ''nėk yrži''
| ''aþ yrši''
| ''at yrži''
| ''hu yrši''
| ''hu yrži''
| ''nan yršu''
| ''nan yržu''
| ''aþøm yršu''
| ''atøm yržu''
| ''høm yršu''
| ''høm yržu''
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''hwiti wyrši''
| ''nėk fit wyrži''
| ''hwit wyrši''
| ''at fit wyrži''
| ''hwė wyrši''
| ''hu fė wyrži''
| ''hwinė wyrši''
| ''nan fu wyrži''
| ''hwitøm wyrši''
| ''atøm fu wyrži''
| ''hwu wyrši''
| ''høm fu wyrži''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx ryšė''
| ''nėk ryžė''
| ''aþ/eþ ryšė''
| ''at/et ryžė''
| ''hu/hi ryšė''
| ''hu/hi ryžė''
| ''nan ryšu''
| ''nan ryžu''
| ''aþøm ryšu''
| ''atøm ryžu''
| ''høm ryšu''
| ''høm ryžu''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė ryšėþ''
| ''nėk bė ryžėt''
| ''aþ bė ryšėþ''
| ''at bė ryžėt''
| ''hu bė ryšėþ''
| ''hu bė ryžėt''
| ''nan bė ryšėþ''
| ''nan bė ryžėt''
| ''aþøm bė ryšėþ''
| ''atøm bė ryžėt''
| ''høm bė ryšėþ''
| ''høm bė ryžėt''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wyrši''
|colspan=6| ''wyrži''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=6| ''rėši''
|colspan=6| ''rėži''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''ryšuj''
|colspan=6| ''ryžuj''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''ryšėþ''
|colspan=6| ''ryžėt''
|}
|}


Line 1,354: Line 1,339:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''nėx sør''
| ''nėk sør''
| ''aþ sør''
| ''at sør''
| ''hu sør''
| ''hu sør''
| ''nan sru''
| ''nan sru''
| ''aþøm sru''
| ''atøm sru''
| ''høm sru''
| ''høm sru''
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''nėx fiþ wasar''
| ''nėk fit wasar''
| ''aþ fiþ wasar''
| ''at fit wasar''
| ''hu fė wasar''
| ''hu fė wasar''
| ''nan fu wasar''
| ''nan fu wasar''
| ''aþøm fu wasar''
| ''atøm fu wasar''
| ''høm fu wasar''
| ''høm fu wasar''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''nėx wasar''
| ''nėk wasar''
| ''aþ/eþ wasar''
| ''at/et wasar''
| ''hu/hi wasar''
| ''hu/hi wasar''
| ''nan wasar''
| ''nan wasar''
| ''aþøm wasar''
| ''atøm wasar''
| ''høm wasar''
| ''høm wasar''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''nėx bė sėr''
| ''nėk bė sėr''
| ''aþ bė sėr''
| ''at bė sėr''
| ''hu bė sėr''
| ''hu bė sėr''
| ''nan bė sėr''
| ''nan bė sėr''
| ''aþøm bė sėr''
| ''atøm bė sėr''
| ''høm bė sėr''
| ''høm bė sėr''
|-
|-
Line 1,397: Line 1,382:
|colspan=6| ''sėr''
|colspan=6| ''sėr''
|}
|}
=== The auxiliary ''vė'' ===
The defective auxiliary ''vė'' (inf. and w-form ''vė'', past and imperative ''vu'', passive participle ''vuj''; from the conflation of two roots, one a cognate of Hebrew בא 'to come' and the other a cognate of Hebrew אבה 'to be willing')  is used to form dynamic passives (with the passive participle) and the future (with the infinitive), like the German verb ''werden''.
* ''Yn γalt lu vė fytuh'' = The door is opening (being opened)
* ''Yn γalt vu fytuh'' = The door (was) opened
* ''Yn γalt lež vuj fytuh'' = The door has been opened
* ''Yn γalt fytuh'' = The door is open (lit. opened)
** ''vė'' is not repeated for future + passive: both 'The door opens' and 'The door will open' are ''Yn γalt vė fytuh''.
* ''Dawid vė ftėh yn γalt'' = David will open the door


===Gzarot===
===Gzarot===
Line 1,410: Line 1,405:
Some prepositions:
Some prepositions:
*''in'' 'in' [from PSem *ina], ''in yn'' > ''nyn''
*''in'' 'in' [from PSem *ina], ''in yn'' > ''nyn''
*''ly'' (''l'' before V) 'of (possessive)'
** ini, inak, inek, inau, ina, inė, inkøm, inaum
*''by'' (''b'' before V) 'by, at, with (instrumental), in (language)'
*''ly'' (''l' '' before V) 'of (possessive)'
*''šyde'' 'out of' (from *śadiy-ah 'to the field')
*''vy'' (''v' '' before V) 'by, at, with (instrumental), in (language)'
** vi, vak, vek, vau, va, vanė, vakøm, vaum
*''šyðe'' 'out of' (from *śadiy-ah 'to the field')
*''me'' (''men'' before V) 'from'
*''me'' (''men'' before V) 'from'
** ''men yn aur'' 'from the light'
** ''meni, menak, menek, menau, mena, menė, mekøm, menaum''
*''ȝem'' 'with (comitative)'
*''ȝem'' 'with (comitative)'
*''ȝal'' 'on': literary ''ȝlė''  
** ''3emi, 3emak, 3emek, 3emau, 3ema, 3emnė, 3emkøm, 3emaum''
** ''3lei, 3lėx, 3lix, 3lėju, 3lėja, 3lėnė, 3lėxøm, 3lėjøm''
*''ȝal'' 'on'; with definite article ''ȝlėn/ȝlėm''  
*''lid'' 'to' (from ''*la-yad'' 'to the hand of')
** ''3lei, 3lėk, 3lėk, 3lėju, 3lėja, 3lėnė, 3lėkøm, 3lėjøm''
*''løb'' 'into, in' (from ''*la-libb'')
*''lið'' 'to' (from ''*la-yad'' 'to the hand of')
**''Nėx wamen løb žinė'' - I believe in this
*''løv'' 'into, in' (from ''*la-libb'')
**''Hu þ'yheb løba'' - He fell in love with her
**''Nėk wamen løv žinė'' - I believe in this
*''ȝbar'' 'over'
**''Hu tyhev løva'' - He fell in love with her
*''þaþ'' 'under'
*''ȝvar'' 'over'
*''arþo'' 'down' (from *ʔarþ-ah "earthward")
*''tat'' 'under'
*''darxyn'' 'along'
*''aržo'' 'down' (from *ʔarč̣-ah "earthward")
*''blėš'' 'without'
*''ðarkyn'' 'along'
*''vlėš'' 'without'
===Syntax of prepositions===
===Syntax of prepositions===


Line 1,433: Line 1,431:
<poem>
<poem>
0: cefry
0: cefry
1: had
1: hað
2: šnein / attributive šnė
2: šnein / attributive šnė
3: šlėš (animate šlėšt)
3: šlėš (animate šlėšt)
4: yrbaȝ (animate yrbaȝt)
4: yrvaȝ (animate yrvaȝt)
5: mes (animate mest)
5: mes (animate mest)
6: setš (animate setšt)
6: setš (animate setšt)
7: sabȝy (animate sabȝyt)
7: savȝy (animate savȝyt)
8: šmėni (animate šmėnt)
8: šmėni (animate šmėnt)
9: þesȝy (animate þesȝyt)
9: tesȝy (animate tesȝyt)
10: ȝašry (animate ȝašryt)
10: ȝašry (animate ȝašryt)
11: ȝašry wy had
11: ȝašry wy hað
12: ȝašry šnein
12: ȝašry šnein
20: ȝešrin
20: ȝešrin
30: šlėšin
30: šlėšin
40: yrbȝin
40: yrvȝin
50: hymsin
50: hymsin
60: setšin
60: setšin
70: sybȝin
70: syvȝin
80: šmėnin
80: šmėnin
90: þesȝin
90: tesȝin
100: meþ
100: met
101: meþ wy had
101: met wy hað
200: meþein
200: metein
300: šlėš meþ
300: šlėš met
400: yrbaȝ meþ
400: yrvaȝ met
1000: alf
1000: alf
2000: alfein
2000: alfein
3000: šlėš alf
3000: šlėš alf
1000000: alfun
1000000: alfun
10^9: bėþfun
10^9: vėtfun
10^12: gamfun
10^12: γamfun
etc.
etc.
</poem>
</poem>
Line 1,469: Line 1,467:
Plural numerals usually take plural nouns. They used to take singular nouns, however this is considered archaic.
Plural numerals usually take plural nouns. They used to take singular nouns, however this is considered archaic.


Numbers ending in digits "3" through "9" (thus ending in ''šlėš'' through ''þesȝy''), or "10" (thus ending in ''ȝašry''), have two forms depending on the animacy of the noun: ''hymes myrþemi'' 'five abacuses', but ''hymest ahwėþ'' 'five sisters'. The animate forms come from the masculine forms (reverse polarity) marked with ''*-t'' in Proto-Semitic.
Numbers ending in digits "3" through "9" (thus ending in ''šlėš'' through ''tesȝy''), or "10" (thus ending in ''ȝašry''), have two forms depending on the animacy of the noun: ''hymes myrtemi'' 'five abacuses', but ''hymest ahwėt'' 'five sisters'. The animate forms come from the masculine forms (reverse polarity) marked with ''*-t'' in Proto-Semitic.


===Ordinal===
===Ordinal===
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*1st = olė
*1st = olė
*2nd = okab
*2nd = ogav
*3rd = šluš
*3rd = šluš
*4th = rbuȝ
*4th = rvuȝ
*5th = mus
*5th = mus
*6th = stuš
*6th = stuš
*7th = sbuȝ
*7th = svuȝ
*8th = smun
*8th = smun
*9th = þsuȝ
*9th = tsuȝ
*10th = ȝšur
*10th = ȝšur
*11th = ȝašry w-olė
*11th = ȝašry w-olė
*12th = ȝašry w-okab
*12th = ȝašry w-ogav
*13th = ȝašry šluš
*13th = ȝašry šluš
etc.
etc.


===Fractional===
===Fractional===
Fractional numerals are formed with the segolate pattern CøCCy (pl. CøCaCi). Compound numerals can be inflected as well, like in the case of ordinal numerals. The analogized form ''øhdy'' is used for numerals ending in "1".
Fractional numerals are formed with the segolate pattern CøCCy (pl. CøCaCi). Compound numerals can be inflected as well, like in the case of ordinal numerals. The analogized form ''øhðy'' is used for numerals ending in "1".
*half = gøb (from *gunb- 'side')
*half = γøv (from *gunb- 'side')
*3rd = šølšy
*3rd = šølšy
*4th = røbȝy
*4th = røvȝy
*11th = ȝašry w-øhdy
*11th = ȝašry w-øhðy


To express "m/n", Togarmite uses "m nths": "2/3" is ''šnė šølaši''.
To express "m/n", Togarmite uses "m nths": "2/3" is ''šnė šølaši''.


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
=== The auxiliary ''bė'' ===
The defective auxiliary ''bė'' (inf. and w-form ''bė'', past/imperative ''bu''; from the conflation of two roots, one a cognate of Hebrew בא 'to come' and the other a cognate of Hebrew אבה 'to be willing')  is used to form dynamic passives and the future.
* ''Yn galt bė fyþuh'' = The door is opening (being opened)
* ''Yn galt bu fyþuh'' = The door (was) opened
* ''Yn galt fyþuh'' = The door is open (lit. opened)
* ''David bė fþėh yn galt'' = David will open the door
===Faulty accusative marker===
===Faulty accusative marker===
The faulty accusative marker ''iþ'' is used. It behaves like the MSA accusative case and the Welsh soft mutation for direct objects: when there is a constituent separating the verb or predicate from a second constituent, ''iþ'' comes between the two constituents regardless of whether the second constituent is actually a direct object. Example:
The faulty accusative marker ''it'' is used. It behaves like the MSA accusative case and the Welsh soft mutation for direct objects: when there is a constituent separating the verb or predicate from a second constituent, ''it'' comes between the two constituents regardless of whether the second constituent is actually a direct object. Example:


*''Halex wyfė li '''iþ''' šlėšt xlabi, wy ȝeþo lėš li '''iþ''' nux.'' = I used to have three dogs, and now I don't have any.
*''Halek wyfė li '''it''' šlėšt klavi, wy ȝeto lėš li '''it''' nuk.'' = I used to have three dogs, and now I don't have any.
*''Yn dėrest li ryšė li '''iþ''' ȝyšėþ rab þamuni beiþ.'' = My teacher wants me to do a lot of homework.
*''Yn ðėrest li ryšė li '''it''' ȝyšėt rab tamuni veit.'' = My teacher wants me to do a lot of homework.


===Questions===
===Questions===
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===Existentials===
===Existentials===
The word ''iš'' is used to indicate existence. It is also used with the preposition ''ly'' 'to' or the possessive pronouns to indicate possession. The negative of ''iš'' is ''lėš''.
The word ''iš'' is used to indicate existence. It is also used with the preposition ''ly'' 'to' or the possessive pronouns to indicate possession. The negative of ''iš'' is ''lėš''.
*''Lėš mykėm ėn xølšar nyȝum.'' = There is no place where everyone is happy.
*''Lėš mygėm ėn kølšar nyȝum.'' = There is no place where everyone is happy.
*''Ha iš lex zman?'' = Do you (f. sg.) have time?
*''Ha iš lek ša3t?'' = Do you (f. sg.) have time?


=== Clauses ===
=== Clauses ===
*"if" = ''em''
*"if" = ''em''
*"then" = ''šøm''
*"then" = ''šøm''
*"though" = ''ax'', ''xenax''
*"though" = ''ak'', ''kenak''


===Relative clauses===
===Relative clauses===
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For relative clauses whose heads are prepositional objects in the relative clause, there are three strategies:
For relative clauses whose heads are prepositional objects in the relative clause, there are three strategies:


*the relativizer is treated as a resumptive pronoun which takes the preposition, like English ''which'': ''yn gabry lid žė nėx ohab ym mauhab'', lit. 'the man to which I gave the gift'. This syntax arose from the influence of surrounding languages like English.
*the relativizer is treated as a resumptive pronoun which takes the preposition, like English ''which'': ''yn γavry lið žė nėk ohav ym mauhav'', lit. 'the man to which I gave the gift'. This syntax arose from the influence of surrounding languages like English.
*the preposition goes to the end of the clause: ''yn gabry žė nėx ohab ym mauhab lid'' lit. 'the man which I gave the gift to'. This syntax arose from the native Semitic construction which used a resumptive pronoun on the preposition: after the resumptive pronoun lost the stress, the preposition lost its pronominal suffix and moved to the end of the clause.
*the preposition goes to the end of the clause: ''yn γavry žė nėk ohav ym mauhav lið'' lit. 'the man which I gave the gift to'. This syntax arose from the native Semitic construction which used a resumptive pronoun on the preposition: after the resumptive pronoun lost the stress, the preposition lost its pronominal suffix and moved to the end of the clause.
*A combination of both strategies can be used: ''yn gabry lid žė nėx ohab ym mauhab lid'', lit. 'The man to which I gave the gift to'. This is the most common strategy with the other two considered archaic.
*A combination of both strategies can be used: ''yn γavry lið žė nėk ohav ym mauhav lið'', lit. 'The man to which I gave the gift to'. This is the most common strategy with the other two considered archaic.


==Derivation==
==Derivation==
===Noun and adjective patterns===
===Noun and adjective patterns===
*''CaCCy(þ), CeCCy(þ), CøCCy(þ)'' = segolates
*''CaCCy(t), CeCCy(t), CøCCy(t)'' = segolates
*''CyCiC'' = adjective; -able
*''CyCiC'' = adjective; -able
*''CyCuC'' = adjective; color
*''CyCuC'' = adjective; color
Line 1,549: Line 1,539:
*''myCCeC(t)'' = instrument
*''myCCeC(t)'' = instrument
*''maCCeCt'' = causative version of ''myCCeC(t)''  
*''maCCeCt'' = causative version of ''myCCeC(t)''  
*''þyCCuC'', ''þyCCiC'', ''þyCCėC'' = action or process
*''tyCCuC'', ''tyCCiC'', ''tyCCėC'' = action or process
*''þyCCøCt'' (cognatized from Hebrew tiCCóCet) = system of things
*''ryCCøCt'' (cognatized from Hebrew tiCCóCet) = system of things
*''CaCėC'' = agentive
*''CaCėC'' = agentive
** ''xaþėb'' 'writer'
** ''katėv'' 'writer'
*''CaCCan'' = agentive; ''-an'' is an agentive
*''CaCCan'' = agentive; ''-an'' is an agentive
** ''lamsan'' 'philanthropist' (''felanþrøp'' is also common)
** ''lamsan'' 'philanthropist' (''felantrøb'' is also common)
*''CaCCėn'', ''CeCCėn'', and ''CøCCėn'' = nouns, often an augmentative
*''CaCCėn'', ''CeCCėn'', and ''CøCCėn'' = nouns, often an augmentative


Line 1,561: Line 1,551:
*''-in'' = collectives
*''-in'' = collectives
**''lamusin'' 'charity'
**''lamusin'' 'charity'
*''-uþ'' = abstract noun
*''-ut'' = abstract noun
*''-i'' = forms adjectives
*''-i'' = forms adjectives
*''-iþ'' = forms adverbs
*''-it'' = forms adverbs
*''i-'' = non-, un-
*''i-'' = non-, un-
**''ibyšari'' 'incorporeal'
**''ivyšari'' 'incorporeal'
**''iwøxli'' 'impossible'
**''iwøxli'' 'impossible'
*''-yr'' = someone who is characterized by X (from English)
*''-yr'' = someone who is characterized by X (from English)
**''wduȝyr'' 'know-it-all', from ''wduȝ'' 'knowledgeable'
**''iðuȝyr'' 'know-it-all', from ''iduȝ'' 'knowledgeable'
*''-ri'' = -ry (from English)
*''-ri'' = -ry (from English)
**''kdėsri'' = sanctimoniousness, from ''kdės'' '(archaic) holy'
**''gðėsri'' = sanctimoniousness, from ''gðės'' '(archaic) holy'
**''xal'anri'' = double standard or hypocrisy, from the agentive ''xal'an'' 'hypocrite' of √''x-l-ʔ'' 'double'
**''kal'anri'' = double standard or hypocrisy, from the agentive ''kal'an'' 'hypocrite' of √''x-l-ʔ'' 'double'
*''afto-'' = self-
*''afto-'' = self-
*''e-'' = a- (from ʔiC-, an assimilated form of the OTog preposition ''ʔin'' 'in'); these adjectives can usually only be predicative
*''e-'' = a- (from ʔiC-, an assimilated form of the OTog preposition ''ʔin'' 'in'); these adjectives can usually only be predicative
**''e'est'' 'ablaze'
**''e'est'' 'ablaze'
**''edarxy'' 'away'
**''eðarky'' 'away'
**''eþal'' 'galore' (lit. a-mound)
**''etal'' 'galore' (lit. a-mound)
**''emein'' 'drowned, lost forever', lit. awater
**''emein'' 'drowned, lost forever', lit. awater
*''-byl'' = -able (from English -able and native ''abȝel'' 'to be able to')
*''-vyl'' = -able (from English -able and native ''avȝel'' 'to be able to')
*''þy-'' 're-'<!--
*''ty-'' 're-' (from the tD-stem)
====''þyfaȝel'' and the prefix ''þy-''====
**''tynawer'' 'to reflect', from ''naur'' 'light'
This binyan comes from the tD-stem (t- with geminate stem) and corresponds directly to the Arabic binyan ''tafa33ala''.
**''tybarkes'' 'to react', from ''barkis'' 'action'
 
**''tysalem'' 'to repay', from √s-l-m 'peace, whole'
The main meanings of this binyan are:
**''tyȝanė'' 'to satisfy', from √ȝ-n-j 'distress, need'; probably influenced by a now obsolete meaning 'to answer' of the same root
*reciprocal or back-and-forth action
**unpredictable change in meaning stem)
*reaction/back, again, re-: the most productive modern meaning
**''þynawer'' 'to reflect', from ''naur'' 'light'
**''þyparkes'' 'to react', from ''parkis'' 'action'
**''þysalem'' 'to repay', from √s-l-m 'peace, whole'
**''þyȝanė'' 'to satisfy', from √ȝ-n-j 'distress, need'; probably influenced by a now obsolete meaning 'to answer' of the same root
*unpredictable change in meaning
 
The resemblance of this binyan to the very common ''faȝel'' binyan has led to the ''þy-'' prefix becoming productive, with some semantic overlap with the prefix ''re-'' in English.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 6 conjugation: ''þydares'' 'teach'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''nėx yþydares''
| ''aþ/eþ yþydares''
| ''hu/hi þydares''
| ''nan þydares''
| ''aþøm þydares''
| ''høm þydares''
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''fiti wyþydares''
| ''fit wyþydares''
| ''fė wyþydares''
| ''finė wyþydares''
| ''fitøm wyþydares''
| ''fu wyþydares''
|-
! present
| ''nėx yþydrėres''
| ''aþ/eþ yþydrėres''
| ''hu/hi þydrėres''
| ''nan þydrėres''
| ''aþøm þydrėres''
| ''høm þydrėres''
|-
! present progressive
| ''nėx še wyþydares''
| ''aþ/eþ še wyþydares''
| ''hu/hi še wyþydares''
| ''nan še wyþydares''
| ''aþøm šu wyþydares''
| ''høm šu wyþydares''
|-
! present subjunctive
| ''nėx yþydaresan''
| ''aþ/eþ yþydaresan''
| ''hu/hi þydaresan''
| ''nan þydaresan''
| ''aþøm þydaresun''
| ''høm þydaresun''
|-
! future
| ''nėx bė þydarus''
| ''aþ bė þydarus''
| ''hu bė þydarus''
| ''nan bė þydarus''
| ''aþøm bė þydarus''
| ''høm bė þydarus''
|-
! perfect
| ''li møþydaras''
| ''lax/lex møþydaras''
| ''lau/la møþydaras''
| ''lanė møþydaras''
| ''laxøm møþydaras''
| ''laum møþydaras''
|-
! imperative
|colspan=6|''þydares!''
|-
! active participle
|colspan=6| ''møþydares''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''møþydaras''
|-
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wyþydares''
|-
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''þydarus''
|}
-->


==Phrasebook==
==Phrasebook==
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*Slėm! - Hello! / Goodbye!
*Slėm! - Hello! / Goodbye!
*Slėm ȝlėxøm! - Hello! (formal)
*Slėm ȝlėkøm! - Hello! (formal)
*Leilt tėb! / Num by tėb! - Good night! / Sleep well!
*Leil dėv! / Num vy dėv! - Good night! / Sleep well!
*Jaum tėb! - Good day!
*Jaum dėv! - Good day!
*Exarus! / Exarus þax/þex/þaxøm! - Thanks!
*Ekarus! / Ekarus tak/tek/takøm! - Thanks!
*Ȝem ryšan - Please / You're welcome
*Ȝem ryžan - Please / You're welcome
*Þryhef þi - Excuse me, Pardon
*Tryhef ti - Excuse me, Pardon
*Nėx nyhum - I'm sorry
*Nėk nyhum - I'm sorry
*Ma yn sem lax/lex/laxøm? - What's your name?
*Ma yn sem lak/lek/lakøm? - What's your name?
*Yn sem li [name] - My name is [name]
*Yn sem li [name] - My name is [name]
*Xeix wymar iþ [thing] in Þėgamiþ? - How do you say [thing] in Togarmite?
*Keik wymar iþ [thing] in Tėrmit? - How do you say [thing] in Togarmite?
*H' aþ/eþ/aþøm wydėber [language]? - Do you speak [language]?
*H' at/et/atøm wyðėver [language]? - Do you speak [language]?
*Ȝem ryšan, mør že šėnėn - Please say it again
*Ȝem ryžan, mør že šėnėn - Please say it again
*Hė lax/lex/laxøm - Here you go! (i.e. I just granted your request) (the source of the English expression is misinterpreted Togarmite)
*Hė lak/lek/lakøm - Here you go! (i.e. I just granted your request) (the source of the English expression is misinterpreted Togarmite)
**Note: In Ethiopia it's spelled without the space.
**Note: In Ethiopia it's spelled without the space.
*Yn ryhaft li hu myli ȝem clėfi - My hovercraft is full of eels
*Yn ryhaft li hu myli ȝem clėfi - My hovercraft is full of eels
Line 1,701: Line 1,600:
==Sample texts==
==Sample texts==
=== Schleicher ===
=== Schleicher ===
''Yn xabš w' yn frasi''
''Yn kavš w' yn frasi''


''Xabš ly žė lė fė šamry ly jar frasi: had gor myrxabt škul, had mol hemly xbur, wy had mol bennės by fiz. Yn xabš mar: "Mrur li yn leb, moran nėx wyrė bennės wyrxab frasi." Yn frasi mar: "Ažen, xabš! Mrur lanė yn leb moran nan wyrė žinė: bennės, ym bol, woši lid afau mylbast mum me šamry lyn xabš. Wy lėš lyn xabš šamry." Moran yn xabš smaȝ žinė, hu mnaȝ lid yn šde.''
''Kavš ly žė lė fė žamry ly jar frasi: hað γor maȝrevt šgul, hað mol hemly kvur, wy hað mol vennės vy fiz. Yn kavš mar: "Mrur li yn lev, oryn nėk wyrė vennės wyrkav frasi." Yn frasi mar: "Ažen, kavš! Mrur lanė yn lev oryn nan wyrė žinė: vennės, ym vol, woši lið afau mylvast mum me žamry lyn kavš. Wy lėš lyn kavš it žamry." Oryn yn kavš smaȝ žinė, hu mnaȝ lið yn šðe.''


Old Tog.:
Old Tog.:
Line 1,709: Line 1,608:
''An xabše wan φarasīn''
''An xabše wan φarasīn''


''Χabše, žė lė hawė šamre lawh, φarasīn yarʔe: yagōr ʔaħād marχabaθ šakūlaθ, wa-yaħmōl ʔaħād ħemle χabūr, wa-yaħmōl ʔaħād ħaφīzan ʔinės. Yāmār an χabše: Mār lī an lēb, bi-riʔėθī ʔinės rėχib φarasīn. Yāmārū an φarasīn: Sumaʕ an χabše! Mār lanė an lēb bi-riʔėθinė žīnė: ʔinės an baʕle yaʕšē lawh malbasaθ ħamūmaθ mēn šamre an χabšīn. Wa-lėš len-χabše šamre. Bi-šimėʕ an χabše žīnė, yamnāȝ ʔilė an šadi.''
''Χabše, žė lė hawė čamre lawh, φarasīn yarʔe: yagōr ʔaħād marχabaθ šakūlaθ, wa-yaħmōl ʔaħād ħemle χabūr, wa-yaħmōl ʔaħād ħaφīzan ʔinės. Yāmār an χabše: Mār lī an lēb, bi-riʔėθī ʔinės rėχib φarasīn. Yāmārū an φarasīn: Sumaʕ an χabše! Mār lanė an lēb bi-riʔėθinė žīnė: ʔinės an baʕle yaʕšē lawh malbasaθ ħamūmaθ mēn čamre an χabšīn. Wa-lėš len-χabše čamre. Bi-šimėʕ an χabše žīnė, yamnāȝ ʔilė an šadi.''


Hebrew:
Hebrew:
Line 1,715: Line 1,614:
{{rtl|הכבש והסוסים}}
{{rtl|הכבש והסוסים}}


{{rtl|כבש שכבר לא היה לו צמר ראה סוסים: אחד גרר מרכבה כבדה, אחד נשא משא גדול, ואחד נשא בן אדם וזז מהר. אמר הכבש: כואב לי לראות איך בן אדם רוכב סוסים. אמרו הסוסים: "הקשב, כבש, כואב לנו לראות זאת: בן אדם, האדון, עושה לעצמו בגד חמים מצמרו של הכבש. ולכבש כבר אין צמר." לאחר ששמע זאת, ברח הכבש לתוך המישור.}}
{{rtl|כבש שלא היה לו צמר ראה סוסים: אחד גרר עגלה כבדה, אחד נשא עומס גדול, ואחד נשא בן אדם וזז מהר. אמר הכבש: "כואב לי לראות איך בן אדם רוכב סוסים." אמרו הסוסים: "הקשב, כבש, כואב לנו לראות זאת: בן אדם, האדון, עושה לעצמו בגד חמים מצמרו של הכבש. ולכבש אין צמר." לאחר ששמע זאת, ברח הכבש לתוך המישור.}}
 
===Lysėn þėgami, lysėn þlul===


* ''Had arþ, rab arþi; had galt, rab galti!''
===Lysėn Tėrmi, lysėn tlul===
* ''Jaumyn nėx wyxþab, amsyn nėx yxþøb; jaumyn nėx wytȝam, amsyn nėx ytȝøm! ''
* ''Hað arž, rav arži; hað γalt, rav γalti!''
* ''Jaumyn nėk wyktav, amsyn nėk yktøv; jaumyn nėk wydȝam, amsyn nėk ydȝøm! ''


===A biology abstract===
===A biology abstract===


''Nan wymdød yn þyglim efkarjotek meþycrer lyn wrišt TSP3 in ''Bruxorjon sponerču''. TSP3 wykadek kinas kabelan rėxes ly prøtezenjon, mykėma bym mikrospørelata køtoknėji lyn ribosøm posatedek, wy xahus ly TSP3 rahibyn ma'man ly fėþ ym mojan ly karčin køboþrøtek. In þyxþøbt žinė nan wystydrex weþysmes þybhin xyli-ȝywur Rɪᴄᴇʀ-Jᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋɪ, žė ryxės TSP3 lid yn ȝaxuban føloxrøpsenas wykrė (p = 0.04) nyn øpotreløma ly køt ''Bruxorjon'' bri møran eþy'yfusi adenotoksen nmux. Ly þymacu žinė bė fėþ ramuzi mø'abjunė lid yn drės ly desklørøma sømbrøxi.''
''Nan wymðøð yn tyγlim efgarjodeg metycrer lyn irišt TSP3 in ''Vruchorjon sbonerču''. TSP3 wygaðeg ginas nahelan rėkes ly brødezenjon, mygėma vym migrosbørelada gødognėji lyn rivosøm bosadeðeg, wy kahus ly TSP3 rahivyn ma'man ly fėt ym mojan ly garčin gøvothrødeg. In tyktøvt žinė nan wystyðrek wyngad tyvhin kyli-ȝywur Rɪᴄᴇʀ-Jᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋɪ, žė rykės TSP3 lið yn ȝakuvan følochrøpsenas wygrė (p = 0.04) nyn øbodreløma ly gød ''Vrukorjon'' slim møran ety'yfusi aðenodoksen nyhut. Ly tymacu žinė vė fėt ramuzi mø'avjunė lið yn ðrės ly ðesglørøma sømvrøchi.''


We measure the nucleating eukaryotic folding of the TSP3 gene in ''Bruchorium sponercii''. TSP3 encodes a protezine-binding receptor kinase located at the cytotubular microsporellata of the quanticular ribosome, and malfunction of TSP3 is commonly believed to be the source of cybothrotic cancer. In this paper we prove using a Rɪᴇᴛᴢᴇʀ-Yᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋʏ double-blind test that TSP3 binding to the phyllochrypsinase inhibitor occurs (p = 0.04) in the hypotrellome of a healthy ''Bruchorium'' cell when adenotoxin concentrations are low. This research will have significant implications for the study of symbrychous descloroma.
We measure the nucleating eukaryotic folding of the TSP3 gene in ''Bruchorium sponercii''. TSP3 encodes a protezine-binding receptor kinase located at the cytotubular microsporellata of the quanticular ribosome, and malfunction of TSP3 is commonly believed to be the source of cybothrotic cancer. In this paper we prove using a Rɪᴇᴛᴢᴇʀ-Yᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋʏ double-blind test that TSP3 binding to the phyllochrypsinase inhibitor occurs (p = 0.04) in the hypotrellome of a healthy ''Bruchorium'' cell when adenotoxin concentrations are low. This research will have significant implications for the study of symbrychous descloroma.


===Newton's laws of motion===
===Newton's laws of motion===
''I: Dbar wyšbøþ by demi, o by ȝyþėk enomorf, lulė ydraȝ wyparkes ȝal þež.''
''I: Ðvar wyšvat vy ðemi, o vy ȝytėg enomorf, lulė yðraȝ wybarkes ȝal že.''


I: An object stays at rest, or at a constant speed, unless a force acts on it.
I: An object stays at rest, or at a constant speed, unless a force acts on it.


''II: Yn šanuj nyn þyȝþik ly bšar hu myþxøni lid yn øþisi møþyfacar ȝal ym bšar; w' yn šanuj wykrė darxyn yn kau þykin ȝal žė øþisi ži bė møþyfacar ȝal.''
''II: Yn šanuj nyn tyȝtig ly všar že mytkøni lið yn øtisi møtyfacar ȝlėm všar; w' yn šanuj wygrė ðarkyn yn gau tygin ȝal žė øtisi ži vė møtyfacar ȝal.''


II: The change in the momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied to the body; and the change occurs along the straight line on which that force is applied.
II: The change in the momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied to the body; and the change occurs along the straight line on which that force is applied.


''III: Iš ly xøl parkis iþ þyparkis is w' anteþet.''
''III: Iš ly køl barkis it tybarkis is w' andethed.''


III: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
III: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Line 1,743: Line 1,641:
===O how quickly the sculpture of life===
===O how quickly the sculpture of life===
<poem>
<poem>
''O! Xma fiziþ ym myklaȝ ly heiwėþ''
''O! Kma fizit ym myglaȝ ly heiwėt''
''Šaber in temaša zytarter!''
''Šaver in demaša zydarder!''
''Ym mgiluþ lym malx ȝal yn þrøn lau''
''Ym mγilut lym malk ȝlėn trøn lau''
''Bė xliliþ gruf dax by gali bor.''
''Vė klilit γruf ðak vy γali jam.''
''Aþøm, žė waþė mancabta hė,''
''Atøm, žė watė mancavta hė,''
''Ȝabry hen yn Ylėh lawani ȝlėn arþ.''
''Ȝavry hen yn Ylėh lawani ȝlėn arž.''
''Xøl lanė mødajan ȝal ym parkisi lanė;''
''Køl lanė møðawan ȝal ym barkisi lanė;''
''Hamnė wyhėb lid yn ȝni, w' agaþeržijėþ lid hawdud.''
''Hamnė wyhėv lið yn ȝni, w' aγatheržijėt lið hajðuð.''


O how quickly the sculpture of life
O how quickly the sculpture of life
Line 1,764: Line 1,662:
===Warming Up To You===
===Warming Up To You===
<poem>
<poem>
'''Weþyhmem lidax'''
'''Wetyhmem liðak'''
Xenax aþ bė mėþ in xlėþ,
Kenak at vė mėt in klėt,
Nėx yrþybec nym mimuþ lax,
Nėk wyrtyvec nym mimut lak,
Ym mimuþ žė azė'en yn hakranuþ,
Ym mimut žė azė'en yn hagranut,
Yn ȝyli lyn wedȝy;
Yn ȝyli lyn jeðȝy;
Yn gant žė lax sþul in žinė rybuȝ admyþ
Yn γant žė lak stul in žinė ryvuȝ aðmyt
Wy žė aþ bė nyžėr lid dwari.
Wy žė at vė nyžėr lið ðėr wy ðėr.
</poem>
</poem>


===Stairway To Heaven===
===Stairway To Heaven===
<poem>
<poem>
'''Maȝlyþ lid yn Symeiniþ'''
'''Maȝlyt lið yn Symeinit'''
Iš bolt žė hi šur
Iš volt žė hi šur
Xøl žė nėher že žahab
Køl žė nėher že žahav
Wy hi wykna maȝlyþ lid yn symeiniþ
Wy hi wyzvan maȝlyt lið yn symeinit
</poem>
</poem>


===UDHR===
===UDHR===
''Xøl nės mewølad rur w' is in akšoprepja wy žyxawi. Høm møþyhanan by ložeki wy synidisi wy høbu parkus lid hawdud in ruh l'ahwuþ.''
''Køl nės mewølað rur w' is in akšobrebja wy žykawi. Høm møtyhanan by ložegi wy syniðisi wy høvu barkus lið hajðuð vyn ruh l'ahwut.''




[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Lõis]]
[[Category:Stem-Hebrew]]

Latest revision as of 16:09, 29 July 2022

Togarmite/Lexicon
Togarmite/Swadesh list
דף זה בעברית
Togarmite
yn Tėrmit
Pronunciation[/ən thermith/]
Created byPraimhín
SettingIrta
Afro-Asiatic

Togarmite or Thermite (yn Tėrmit /ən thermith/ or yn lysėn Tėrmi) is a Northwest Semitic language (as distant from Hebrew as Aramaic is). It is inspired by Hebrew, Lithuanian, Germanic languages (particularly Icelandic), Greek, Welsh and Alashian, a Semitic conlang.

Modern Togarmite retains the Semitic root-and-pattern morphology of Old Togarmite, but has undergone some phonological and grammatical restructuring:

  • loss of grammatical gender
  • loss of the passive binyanim
  • loss of the suffix conjugation except in a few verbs (where they form the w-form); erosion of the prefix paradigm (used for the past tense, like the Hebrew waw-consecutive preterite) to the point where subject pronouns are required
  • the use of the w-form (inherited from the Old Togarmite waw-consecutive) for the present progressive, mirroring English -ing < PIE *-nd-kwe
  • the development of a productive concatenative verb paradigm used to form verbs from other words, analogous to Germanic weak verbs

Todo

  • Dalet tet tav > ð d t (d = /d~t/, t aspirated); more of a Hivantish/Spanish/Tsarfati Hebrew aesthetic and gives a Welsh aesthetic to Greek loans
  • Should have initial w- > j- like Hebrew and Aramaic
  • Should be spoken in our Turkey?
  • A few verbs derived from historical passive binyanim, analogized so they're weak verbs
  • Gzarot
  • Syntax
  • Declensions
  • Lots of triconsonantified Greek words
  • A bit more Aramaic isoglosses / semantic shifts in a general Aramaic direction
  • Much less of an English relex: more consistent do-support, progressive forms used for imperfectives and VSO as in Welsh? Most "Englishy" bits should be literal translations of idioms, phrasal verbs and pragmatics, loss of grammatical gender, intense dialectal mixing in the early modern period with what appears to be occasional random unpredictable changes, and some vocabulary and affixes
  • Relex Modern Greek in places where it differs grammatically from English: yn before proper names?
  • Prepositional pronouns
  • more binyanim like syfȝel, asøfȝel, tasøfȝel and tystyfȝel?
  • Taxonomic names get calqued into Greek
  • CiCV:C > CyCVC, CaCV:C > CCVC

History

The Old Togarmite name for the language, Θėgarmīθ, is thought to have been borrowed from a pre-Togarmite source *Tāgarma. The name Togarmah from the same source is also attested in the Hebrew Bible. (The Greeks and the Romans called the Togarmite people Θηγαρμικοί and Thegarmici respectively.) The name of the language shows the Togarmite shift of Proto-Semitic ā to ė /e:/, mirroring the Canaanite shift ā > ō occuring in Hebrew.

Phonology

Consonants

Togarmite has 26 consonants, 22 of them inherited from Proto-Semitic. It gained /p=/ during the Old Togarmite stage by adapting loans from Greek, Aramaic and Persian, e.g. barkes 'to act', from Ancient Greek praxis. It also merged Old Togarmite ħ /ħ/ and h /h/ into h /h/, OTog č /tʃ/, ž and j into ž.

  • m n /m n/ (PSem *m *n)
  • b d g ' /p=~b t=~d k=~g ʔ/ ((not in PSem) *T *q *2)
  • t k /th kh/ (*t *k)
  • th ch /θ x/ (in Greek loans)
  • v ð γ /v ð γ/ (*b *d *g)
  • f s š h /f s ʃ h/ (*p *s/*š *þ/*ś *h/*H/*x)
  • z ž ȝ /z ʒ (Philly L)/ (*z *ð/*D/*Z *3/*ğ)
  • c č /ts= tʃ=/ (*S (not in PSem))
  • w l r j /w l r j/ (*w *l *r *w-/*j)

Vowels

Modern Togarmite has 9 vowels in stressed syllables.

a e ė i o ø u y /ɑ æ e i o ø u (ə)/

ei au /ɛi ɔu/

Contrastive vowel length is present from elision of h in colloquial Togarmite: møtyhanan = [mø'ta:nan] instead of /møtə'hanan/

Stress

Stress in native words is similar to our Maltese.

Orthography

In addition to the Latin and Greek alphabets, Togarmite uses an abugida (a form of cursive linear Hangul) based on the Phoenician alphabet, called yn alvėt (after the first 2 letters).

The abjadi letter names: al, vėt, γam, ðal, hė, wau, zėn, žėn, dėt, jøð, kaf, lam, mėm, nun, ȝėn, fė, bė, cað, čað, gøf, rėš, sin, šin, tau

Traditional Romanization

The traditional romanization of Togarmite is very unphonetic.

  • aCe for ė
  • English style unetymological OSL gone crazy
  • the orthography should also be templatic, gemination in weird places i.e. not necessarily related to Old Togarmite gemination
  • two scripts, Latin and Greek? works like hiragana and kanji
  • v for the vowel /ø/!

Dialects

Ethiopian dialect

some different vocab e.g. tėt instead of wyhėv for 'give', ðøvrėn instead of tėma for 'topic'

some words can have different meanings in Ethiopian and Levantine leading to some funny misunderstandings

phonological differences ("ear" -> ødny)

a e ė i o ø u y [a e̞ ɛi i ɔ ɵ u (ə)]
ei au [ɒi ø:~øo]

a broad Ethiopian accent in Togarmite has random variation in some words like heno, šamo, šyðo etc are pronounced hena, šama, šyða

-an -> -en is common in a broad Ethiopian accent (ðarkan -> ðarken); this should typically happen only with agentives, otherwise møsaken / møsakan would be mixed up (that would be one of the telltale signs of a non-Ethiopian faking an accent)

Indian dialect

a e ė i o ø u y /a: e~ɪ ɛ: i o: ʊ u: ə/
ei au /ai ɔ:/

New World dialect

a e ė i o ø u y /a e ɪə i o ø u ə/ ei au /ɛi ɔu/

Pronouns

Personal

Modern Togarmite pronouns work similarly to modern Hebrew pronouns. The accusative pronouns derive from inflected foms of Old Togarmite ʔiθ (emphasis particle and accusative, related to Hebrew et and Arabic iyya-). The possessive pronouns are derived from inflected forms of Old Togarmite la-. The reflexive pronouns come from inflected forms of af 'nose'.

The semantics of hu, hi and že work like in West Country English. (Clarify)

I thou (m.) thou (f.) he she it we you (pl, polite) they
Nominative/Conjunctive nėk at et hu hi že nan atøm høm
Objective/Disjunctive ti tak tek tau ta tež tanė takøm taum
Possessive li lak lek lau la lež lanė lakøm laum
Reflexive/Intensive afi afak afek afau afa afež afnė afkøm afaum

The plural pronouns atøm and høm can be used as gender-neutral pronouns in the singular, like English they.

Demonstrative

who? what? which? where? whither? whence? when? how? why? how much?
this žinė (sg); elinė (pl) hė heno me hė ȝeto hėk ež kėrav
that ži (sg); eli (pl) šam šamo me šam šøm
what man ma ėjo ein eino men ein møran keik maž kma, marvy
all; every kølšar kølvar; køl køl kølein køleino me kølein kølam køl ør - -
any nukšar nukvar nuk nukein nukeino me nukein kølam nuk ør me nuk sevt -
some vilšar vilvar vil vilein vileino me vilein ly zman; vil zman vil ør me vil sevt -
none lėmšar lėmvar lėm lėmein lėmeino me lėmein lėfȝam lėm ør me lėm sevt -

Demonstratives come after nouns.

  • veit žinė 'this house'
  • gawi eli 'those lines'

Nouns

In some ways declension has simplified: Modern Togarmite has lost grammatical gender. The construct state has been lost, and the Old Togarmite definite state ʔan- has been reanalyzed as a separate definite article yn. Yn becomes ym before /m f v p=/.

However, declension has become more complicated in other ways. For example, Modern Togarmite has innovated more declension paradigms.

Regular declension

Most nouns have a regular plural in -i, from a conflation of Middle Togarmite absolute -in and construct -ė.

Example: ȝėlam 'world'

ȝėlam 'world'
singular plural
indefinite ȝėlam ȝėlami
lysėn 'language'
singular plural
indefinite lysėn lysėni

Segolates

These nouns come from CVCC nouns in Proto-Semitic and thus are related to segolates in Hebrew.

kalv 'dog'
singular plural
indefinite kalv 'klavi

Nisba nouns

An important declension class is comprised of nouns with the nisba suffix -i:

Tėrmi 'Togarmite'
singular plural
indefinite Tėrmi Tėrmin

Singulative-collective nouns

These nouns have a marked singular in -t.

šeȝart '(strand of) hair'
singular plural
indefinite šeȝart šeȝar

Former feminines

This class consists of nouns that were feminine in Old Togarmite, which typically end in -t and take a plural in -ėt:

frit 'fruit'
singular plural
indefinite frit frijėt
γalt 'door' (altered from *ðalt)
singular plural
indefinite γalt γlatėt
tyktøvt 'document'
singular plural
indefinite tyktøvt tyktøvėt

-a nouns

These are mainly Greek and Aramaic words.

aboloža 'excuse (pretext)'
singular plural
indefinite aboloža aboložes

Greek ending in -ma can have a plural in -mada:

tėma 'topic'
singular plural
indefinite tėma tėmes / tėmada


By analogy, even native words ending in -a are declined this way:

heda 'sin'
singular plural
indefinite heda hedes

Irregulars

vennės 'human'
singular plural
indefinite vennės nės


ašt 'woman'
singular plural
indefinite ašt nysi

Adjectives

Adjectives do not decline.

Degree

Adjectives have a comparative form in yn-/ym- and a superlative in køl-:

  • yn-kvur = bigger
  • kølkvur = biggest

A dedicated particle šøm (cognate to Arabic þumma) is used for 'than'.

Verbs

  • Past = (eroded) suffix conjugation that became analogized with the prefix present
    • The y- prefix is only used when the verb directly follows the subject pronoun: nėk yktøv 'I wrote', nėk lė ktøv 'I didn't write'.
  • Present = from the bare w-form
  • Imperative
    • The imperative is negated with al: Ktøv! 'write!', Al ktøv! 'don't write!'
  • w-form = w + stem from the 3ms suffix conjugation in the f3øl binyan, past tense but with w- for the prefix in other binyanim
  • Infinitive
  • Participles
  • Progressive lu from *ȝalė-hu, c.f. wrthi in Welsh

The suffix conjugation does not survive unlike in most other Semitic languages, except in certain irregular verbs like fė 'to be'.

The citation form is the 2nd person singular imperative.

Binyanim

Modern Togarmite inherits all 8 binyanim of Old Togarmite. The ty- of Binyan 7 (tyfaȝel) verbs has become a productive derivational prefix, however.

Binyan 1: fȝøl

This binyan can take -ø- (e.g. ktøv 'to write'), -e- (sen 'to sleep') or -a- (dȝam 'to choose') as the theme vowel.

Binyan 1 conjugation: ktøv 'write'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk yktøv at/et yktøv hu/hi ktøv nan ktøv atøm ktøv høm ktøv
past imperfective; past subjunctive nėk fit wyktav at/et fit wyktav hu/hi fė wyktav nan fu wyktav atøm fu wyktav høm fu wyktav
present nėk wyktav at/et wyktav hu/hi wyktav nan wyktav atøm wyktav høm wyktav
present progressive nėk lu wyktav at/et lu wyktav hu/hi lu wyktav nan lu wyktav atøm lu wyktav høm lu wyktav
present subjunctive nėk yktøvan at/et yktøvan hu/hi ktøvan nan ktøvan atøm ktøvan høm ktøvan
future nėk bė ktėv at/et bė ktėv hu bė ktėv nan bė ktėv atøm bė ktėv høm bė ktėv
perfect li ktuv lax/lex ktuv lau/la ktuv lanė ktuv laxøm ktuv laum ktuv
imperative ktøv!
active participle xėtev
passive participle ktuv
w-form wyktav
infinitive ktėv
Binyan 1 conjugation: num 'sleep'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ynum at/et ynum hu/hi num nan num atøm num høm num
past progressive; past subjunctive nėk fit wynaum at/et fit wynaum hu/hi fė wynaum nan fu wynaum atøm fu wynaum høm fu wynaum
present nėk wynaum at/et wynaum hu/hi wynaum nan wynaum atøm wynaum høm wynaum
present progressive nėk lu wynaum at/et lu wynaum hu/hi lu wynaum nan lu wynaum atøm lu wynaum høm lu wynaum
present subjunctive nėk ynuman at/et ynuman hu/hi numan nan numan atøm numan høm numan
future nėk bė nwėm at/et bė nwėm hu/hi bė nwėm nan bė nwėm atøm bė nwėm høm bė nwėm
perfect li num lax/lex num lau/la num lanė num laxøm num laum num
imperative num!
active participle nėwem
passive participle num
w-form wynaum
infinitive nwėm

Binyan 2: faȝel

This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic D-stem (related to Hebrew pi33el and Arabic fa33ala)

Binyan 2 conjugation: saken 'inhabit'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ysaken at/et ysaken hu/hi saken nan saken atøm saken høm saken
past progressive; past subjunctive nėk fit wysaken at/et fit wysaken hu/hi fė wysaken nan fu wysaken atøm fu wysaken høm fu wysaken
present nėk wysaken at/et wysaken hu/hi wysaken nan wysaken atøm wysaken høm wysaken
present progressive nėk lu wysaken at/et lu wysaken hu/hi lu wysaken nan lu wysaken atøm lu wysaken høm lu wysaken
present subjunctive nėk ysakenan at/et ysakenan hu/hi sakenan nan sakenan atøm sakenan høm sakenan
future nėk bė sakun at bė sakun hu bė sakun nan bė sakun atøm bė sakun høm bė sakun
perfect li møsakan lax/lex møsakan lau/la møsakan lanė møsakan laxøm møsakan laum møsakan
imperative saken!
active participle møsaken
passive participle møsakan
w-form wysaken
infinitive sakun

Binyan 3: fėȝel

Binyan 3 conjugation: ðėver 'speak'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk yðėver at/et yðėver hu/hi ðėver nan ðėver atøm ðėver høm ðėver
past progressive; past subjunctive nėk fit wyðėver at/et fit wyðėver hu/hi fė wyðėver nan fu wyðėver atøm fu wyðėver høm fu wyðėver
present nėk wyðėver at/et wyðėver hu/hi wyðėver nan wyðėver atøm wyðėver høm wyðėver
present subjunctive nėk yðėveran at/et yðėveran hu/hi ðėveran nan ðėveran atøm ðėveran høm ðėveran
future nėk bė ðėvur at bė ðėvur hu bė ðėvur nan bė ðėvur atøm bė ðėvur høm bė ðėvur
perfect li møðėvar lax/lex møðėvar lau/la møðėvar lanė møðėvar laxøm møðėvar laum møðėvar
imperative - ðėver! - - ðėveru! -
active participle møðėver
passive participle møðėvar
w-form wyðėver
infinitive ðėvur

Binyan 4: afȝel

This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic Š-stems thus corresponds to Hebrew hif3il and Arabic ʔaf3ala.

Binyan 3 conjugation: ažker 'remind'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ažker at/et ažker hu/hi ažker nan ažker atøm ažker høm ažker
past progressive; past subjunctive fiti wažker fit wažker fė wažker finė wažker fitøm wažker fu wažker
present nėk še wažker at/et še wažker hu/hi še wažker nan še wažker atøm šu wažker høm šu wažker
present subjunctive nėk ažkeran at/et ažkeran hu/hi ažkeran nan ažkeran atøm ažkeran høm ažkeran
future nėk bė hažkur at bė hažkur hu bė hažkur nan bė hažkur atøm bė hažkur høm bė hažkur
perfect li mažkar lax/lex mažkar lau/la mažkar lanė mažkar laxøm mažkar laum mažkar
imperative ažker!
active participle mažker
passive participle mažkar
w-form wažker
infinitive ažkur

Binyan 5: ftyȝel

This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic t-stem and shares similarities with the Hebrew binyan hitpa33el and Arabic ifta3ala. It is characterized by the t- prefix that comes from the *t infix.

Meanings:

  • reflexive
  • reciprocal

The prefix t metathesizes with C1 when

  • C1 = f x s š c h z ž ȝ: tf tx ts tš th tz tž tȝ > ft xt st št ct ht zd žd ȝd
  • C1 = ð d t: tð td tt > ð d t
Binyan 4 conjugation: tlymeð 'find one's way around'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ytlymeð at/et ytlymeð hu/hi tlymeð nan tlymeð atøm tlymeð høm tlymeð
past progressive; past subjunctive fiti wytlymeð fit wytlymeð fė wytlymeð finė wytlymeð fitøm wytlymeð fu wytlymeð
present nėk ytlėmeð at/et ytlėmeð hu/hi tlėmeð nan tlėmeð atøm tlėmeð høm tlėmeð
present progressive nėk še wytlymeð at/et še wytlymeð hu/hi še wytlymeð nan še wytlymeð atøm šu wytlymeð høm šu wytlymeð
present subjunctive nėk ytlymeðan at/et ytlymeðan hu/hi tlymeðan nan tlymeðan atøm tlymeðan høm tlymeðan
future nėk bė hytlymuð at bė hytlymuð hu bė hytlymuð nan bė hytlymuð atøm bė hytlymuð høm bė hytlymuð
perfect li møtlymað lax/lex møtlymað lau/la møtlymað lanė møtlymað laxøm møtlymað laum møtlymað
imperative ytlymeð
active participle møtlymeð
passive participle møtlymað
w-form wytlymėð
infinitive hytlymuð

Binyan 6: etyfȝel

This binyan comes from the Nt-stem, with the mediopassive n- marker and the reflexive/reciprocal t-marker: the stem comes from *intap3il. cf. Hebrew nitpa33el, a variant of the hitpa33el binyan and the Arabic infa3ala binyan.

Binyan 5 conjugation: etyγðel 'grow up'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk etyγðel at/et etyγðel hu/hi etyγðel nan etyγðel atøm etyγðel høm etyγðel
past progressive; past subjunctive fiti wetyγðel fit wetyγðel fė wetyγðel finė wetyγðel fitøm wetyγðel fu watyγðel
present nėk še wetyγðel at/et še wetyγðel hu/hi še wetyγðel nan še wetyγðel atøm šu wetyγðel høm šu wetyγðel
present subjunctive nėk etyγðelan at/et etyγðelan hu/hi etyγðelan nan etyγðelan atøm etyγðelan høm etyγðelan
future nėk bė hetyγðul at bė hetyγðul hu bė hetyγðul nan bė hetyγðul atøm bė hetyγðul høm bė hetyγðul
perfect li metyγðal lax/lex metyγðal lau/la metyγðal lanė metyγðal laxøm metyγðal laum metyγðal
imperative - hetyγðel! - - hetyγðelu! -
active participle metyγðel
passive participle metyγðal
w-form watyγðel
infinitive hetyγðul

Binyan 8: styfȝel

This binyan comes from the Št-stem and is directly related to the binyan istaf3ala in Arabic and the very rare binyan hishtaf3el in Biblical Hebrew. Binyan 7 tends to form verbs involving conscious decision.

Binyan 8 conjugation: stydȝem 'try out'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ystydȝem at/et ystydȝem hu/hi stydȝem nan stydȝem atøm stydȝem høm stydȝem
past progressive; past subjunctive fiti wystydȝem fit wystydȝem fė wystydȝem finė wystydȝem fitøm wystydȝem fu wystydȝem
present nėk ystytėȝem at/et ystytėȝem hu/hi stytėȝem nan stytėȝem atøm stytėȝem høm stytėȝem
present progressive nėk še wystydȝem at/et še wystydȝem hu/hi še wystydȝem nan še wystydȝem atøm šu wystydȝem høm šu wystydȝem
present subjunctive nėk ystydȝeman at/et ystydȝeman hu/hi stydȝeman nan stydȝeman atøm stydȝemun jystydȝemun
future nėk bė stydȝum at bė stydȝum hu bė stydȝum nan bė stydȝum atøm bė stydȝum høm bė stydȝum
perfect li møstydȝam lax/lex møstydȝam lau/la møstydȝam lanė møstydȝam laxøm møstydȝam laum møstydȝam
imperative - stydȝem! - - stydȝemu! -
active participle møstydȝem
passive participle møstydȝam
w-form wystydȝem
infinitive stydȝum

Concatenative verbs

The concatenative paradigm, analogous to Germanic weak verbs, is formed by adding prefixes and suffixes, without changing the stem. The past and imperative forms are formed by adding -i or -ji to the noun, when no other suffix is added.

It is used for recent loan verbs like maksimezi 'to maximize', but can also be used to derive verbs from native nouns:

  • myðrasi 'to school' (from myðras 'school')
  • takili 'to consume' (from takil 'consumption', itself from the root √ʔ-k-l 'to eat')
  • žakoji 'to entitle, to allow' (from žako 'right')
  • ȝeini 'to eye' (from ȝein 'eye')

The endings are mainly derived from Middle Togarmite forms of 3-y verbs.

  • [STEM]-i = active
  • ty-[STEM]-i = re-
  • mø- = active participle
  • -ėt = infinitive
Weak verb conjugation: myðrasi 'to school'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ymyðrasi at/et ymyðrasi hu/hi myðrasi nan myðrasi atøm myðrasi høm myðrasi
past progressive; past subjunctive fiti wymyðrasi fit wymyðrasi fė wymyðrasi finė wymyðrasi fitøm wymyðrasi fu wymyðrasi
present nėk wymyðrasi at/et wymyðrasi hu/hi wymyðrasi nan wymyðrasi atøm wymyðrasi høm wymyðrasi
present progressive nėk lu wymyðrasi at/et lu wymyðrasi hu/hi lu wymyðrasi nan lu wymyðrasi atøm lu wymyðrasi høm lu wymyðrasi
present subjunctive nėk ymyðrasan at/et ymyðrasan hu/hi myðrasan nan myðrasan atøm myðrasun høm myðrasun
future nėk bė myðrasėt at bė myðrasėt hu bė myðrasėt nėbu myðrasėt atøm bė myðrasėt høm bė myðrasėt
perfect li mømyðrasa lax/lex mømyðrasa lau/la mømyðrasa lanė mømyðrasa laxøm mømyðrasa laum mømyðrasa
imperative myðrasi!
active participle mømyðrasė
passive participle myðrasa
w-form wymyðrasi
infinitive myðrasėt

fe 'to be'

The verb fe 'to be' is perhaps the most irregular verb of the language; it uses the Proto-Semitic suffix conjugation in the past tense.

fe 'to be'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk fit at fit hu fė nan fu atøm fu høm fu
past progressive; past subjunctive nėk fit fė at fit fė hu fė fė nan fu fė atøm fu fė høm fu fė
present (nėk) (at/et) (hu/hi) (nan) (atøm) (høm)
present progressive nėk lu fė at/et lu fė hu/hi lu fė nan lu fė atøm lu fė høm lu fė
present subjunctive nėk yfijan at yfijan hu fijan nan fijan atøm fijan høm fijan
future nėk bė fėt at bė fėt hu bė fėt nan bė fėt atøm bė fėt høm bė fėt
imperative fe!
active participle hėwi
passive participle fuj
w-form fė
infinitive fėt

kėl 'can'

kėl 'can'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ikel at/et ikel hu/hi kel nan kel atøm kel høm kel
past subjunctive nėk fit wėkel at fit wėkel hu fė wėkel nan fu wėkel atøm fu wėkel høm fu wėkel
present nėk wėkel at wėkel hu wėkel nan wėkel atøm wėkel høm wėkel
present subjunctive nėk ikelan at/et ikelan hu/hi kelan nan kelan atøm kelan høm kelan
future nėk bė kėl at bė kėl hu bė kėl nan bė kėl atøm bė kėl høm bė kėl
active participle -
passive participle fuj wėkel
w-form wėkel
infinitive kėl

høvė 'should; ought'

høba 'should; ought'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past nėk fit høbė at fit høbė hu fė høbė nan fu høbu atøm fu høbu høm fu høbu
present nėk høbė at/et høbė hu/hi høbė nan høbu atøm høbu høm høbu

ryžė 'to like'

ryžė 'to like'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk yrži at yrži hu yrži nan yržu atøm yržu høm yržu
past subjunctive nėk fit wyrži at fit wyrži hu fė wyrži nan fu wyrži atøm fu wyrži høm fu wyrži
present nėk ryžė at/et ryžė hu/hi ryžė nan ryžu atøm ryžu høm ryžu
future nėk bė ryžėt at bė ryžėt hu bė ryžėt nan bė ryžėt atøm bė ryžėt høm bė ryžėt
w-form wyrži
active participle rėži
passive participle ryžuj
infinitive ryžėt

sėr 'to want'

sėr 'to want'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk sør at sør hu sør nan sru atøm sru høm sru
past subjunctive nėk fit wasar at fit wasar hu fė wasar nan fu wasar atøm fu wasar høm fu wasar
present nėk wasar at/et wasar hu/hi wasar nan wasar atøm wasar høm wasar
future nėk bė sėr at bė sėr hu bė sėr nan bė sėr atøm bė sėr høm bė sėr
w-form wasar
active participle sėr
passive participle sur
infinitive sėr

The auxiliary vė

The defective auxiliary vė (inf. and w-form vė, past and imperative vu, passive participle vuj; from the conflation of two roots, one a cognate of Hebrew בא 'to come' and the other a cognate of Hebrew אבה 'to be willing') is used to form dynamic passives (with the passive participle) and the future (with the infinitive), like the German verb werden.

  • Yn γalt lu vė fytuh = The door is opening (being opened)
  • Yn γalt vu fytuh = The door (was) opened
  • Yn γalt lež vuj fytuh = The door has been opened
  • Yn γalt fytuh = The door is open (lit. opened)
    • vė is not repeated for future + passive: both 'The door opens' and 'The door will open' are Yn γalt vė fytuh.
  • Dawid vė ftėh yn γalt = David will open the door

Gzarot

Main article: Togarmite/Gzarot

In Semitic languages, gzarot (Hebrew גְּזָרוֹת‎, sg. gizra גִּזְרָה 'figure, form, pattern') are variations of an inflectional (especially verbal) paradigm that are determined by the choice of consonants in the consonantal root. Thus, a paradigm has not only a regular gizra but various irregular ones, which occur most commonly when

  • the consonantal root contains a "guttural" (ʔ ȝ h) or a semivowel (j w);
  • the consonantal root contains a n, since nC tends to assimilate into CC
  • the consonantal root has 2 letters.

Because Togarmite only uses the prefix conjugation, modern Togarmite gzarot are in some ways less bad than Hebrew gzarot; most of the irregularities occur in binyan fȝøl. However, there are often so many irregularities even within each gizra, and cases of analogy between verbs of different gzarot, that the concept of gzarot in Modern Togarmite has been questioned: in Togarmite, a "gizra" just describes general tendencies of verbs with a certain root consonant.

Prepositions

Some prepositions:

  • in 'in' [from PSem *ina], in yn > nyn
    • ini, inak, inek, inau, ina, inė, inkøm, inaum
  • ly (l' before V) 'of (possessive)'
  • vy (v' before V) 'by, at, with (instrumental), in (language)'
    • vi, vak, vek, vau, va, vanė, vakøm, vaum
  • šyðe 'out of' (from *śadiy-ah 'to the field')
  • me (men before V) 'from'
    • meni, menak, menek, menau, mena, menė, mekøm, menaum
  • ȝem 'with (comitative)'
    • 3emi, 3emak, 3emek, 3emau, 3ema, 3emnė, 3emkøm, 3emaum
  • ȝal 'on'; with definite article ȝlėn/ȝlėm
    • 3lei, 3lėk, 3lėk, 3lėju, 3lėja, 3lėnė, 3lėkøm, 3lėjøm
  • lið 'to' (from *la-yad 'to the hand of')
  • løv 'into, in' (from *la-libb)
    • Nėk wamen løv žinė - I believe in this
    • Hu tyhev løva - He fell in love with her
  • ȝvar 'over'
  • tat 'under'
  • aržo 'down' (from *ʔarč̣-ah "earthward")
  • ðarkyn 'along'
  • vlėš 'without'

Syntax of prepositions

Numerals

Cardinal

0: cefry
1: hað
2: šnein / attributive šnė
3: šlėš (animate šlėšt)
4: yrvaȝ (animate yrvaȝt)
5: mes (animate mest)
6: setš (animate setšt)
7: savȝy (animate savȝyt)
8: šmėni (animate šmėnt)
9: tesȝy (animate tesȝyt)
10: ȝašry (animate ȝašryt)
11: ȝašry wy hað
12: ȝašry šnein
20: ȝešrin
30: šlėšin
40: yrvȝin
50: hymsin
60: setšin
70: syvȝin
80: šmėnin
90: tesȝin
100: met
101: met wy hað
200: metein
300: šlėš met
400: yrvaȝ met
1000: alf
2000: alfein
3000: šlėš alf
1000000: alfun
10^9: vėtfun
10^12: γamfun
etc.

Plural numerals usually take plural nouns. They used to take singular nouns, however this is considered archaic.

Numbers ending in digits "3" through "9" (thus ending in šlėš through tesȝy), or "10" (thus ending in ȝašry), have two forms depending on the animacy of the noun: hymes myrtemi 'five abacuses', but hymest ahwėt 'five sisters'. The animate forms come from the masculine forms (reverse polarity) marked with *-t in Proto-Semitic.

Ordinal

Ordinals are formed using the pattern CCuC; as in English, "1st" and "2nd" are irregular, from elatives *ʔaʕlay- 'topmost' and *ʔaʕqab- 'the immediately following' respectively. In compound numerals, the last number word is inflected to the ordinal form.

  • 1st = olė
  • 2nd = ogav
  • 3rd = šluš
  • 4th = rvuȝ
  • 5th = mus
  • 6th = stuš
  • 7th = svuȝ
  • 8th = smun
  • 9th = tsuȝ
  • 10th = ȝšur
  • 11th = ȝašry w-olė
  • 12th = ȝašry w-ogav
  • 13th = ȝašry šluš

etc.

Fractional

Fractional numerals are formed with the segolate pattern CøCCy (pl. CøCaCi). Compound numerals can be inflected as well, like in the case of ordinal numerals. The analogized form øhðy is used for numerals ending in "1".

  • half = γøv (from *gunb- 'side')
  • 3rd = šølšy
  • 4th = røvȝy
  • 11th = ȝašry w-øhðy

To express "m/n", Togarmite uses "m nths": "2/3" is šnė šølaši.

Syntax

Faulty accusative marker

The faulty accusative marker it is used. It behaves like the MSA accusative case and the Welsh soft mutation for direct objects: when there is a constituent separating the verb or predicate from a second constituent, it comes between the two constituents regardless of whether the second constituent is actually a direct object. Example:

  • Halek wyfė li it šlėšt klavi, wy ȝeto lėš li it nuk. = I used to have three dogs, and now I don't have any.
  • Yn ðėrest li ryšė li it ȝyšėt rab tamuni veit. = My teacher wants me to do a lot of homework.

Questions

Yes-no questions require the question marker ha to be placed at the beginning of the sentence.

What-questions have a syntax similar to English.

Existentials

The word iš is used to indicate existence. It is also used with the preposition ly 'to' or the possessive pronouns to indicate possession. The negative of iš is lėš.

  • Lėš mygėm ėn kølšar nyȝum. = There is no place where everyone is happy.
  • Ha iš lek ša3t? = Do you (f. sg.) have time?

Clauses

  • "if" = em
  • "then" = šøm
  • "though" = ak, kenak

Relative clauses

The relative pronoun žė is used for both relative and complement clauses. It may takes prepositional cases, just like English relative pronouns. The word žė is from PSem *ðā, the accusative singular form of the demonstrative *ðū; cf. Biblical Hebrew זו zu, Aramaic די dī.

For relative clauses whose heads are prepositional objects in the relative clause, there are three strategies:

  • the relativizer is treated as a resumptive pronoun which takes the preposition, like English which: yn γavry lið žė nėk ohav ym mauhav, lit. 'the man to which I gave the gift'. This syntax arose from the influence of surrounding languages like English.
  • the preposition goes to the end of the clause: yn γavry žė nėk ohav ym mauhav lið lit. 'the man which I gave the gift to'. This syntax arose from the native Semitic construction which used a resumptive pronoun on the preposition: after the resumptive pronoun lost the stress, the preposition lost its pronominal suffix and moved to the end of the clause.
  • A combination of both strategies can be used: yn γavry lið žė nėk ohav ym mauhav lið, lit. 'The man to which I gave the gift to'. This is the most common strategy with the other two considered archaic.

Derivation

Noun and adjective patterns

  • CaCCy(t), CeCCy(t), CøCCy(t) = segolates
  • CyCiC = adjective; -able
  • CyCuC = adjective; color
  • CyCėC = some adjectives
  • CyCaCt, CyCeCt, CyCøCt
  • CaCøCt = describes a condition
  • CyCeCCaC = diminutive
  • myCCaC(t), meCCaC(t), myCCėC: noun, often denoting place
  • maCCaCt = causative version of myCCaC(t)
  • myCCeC(t) = instrument
  • maCCeCt = causative version of myCCeC(t)
  • tyCCuC, tyCCiC, tyCCėC = action or process
  • ryCCøCt (cognatized from Hebrew tiCCóCet) = system of things
  • CaCėC = agentive
    • katėv 'writer'
  • CaCCan = agentive; -an is an agentive
    • lamsan 'philanthropist' (felantrøb is also common)
  • CaCCėn, CeCCėn, and CøCCėn = nouns, often an augmentative

Affixes

  • -an = forms agentives and adjectives
  • -in = collectives
    • lamusin 'charity'
  • -ut = abstract noun
  • -i = forms adjectives
  • -it = forms adverbs
  • i- = non-, un-
    • ivyšari 'incorporeal'
    • iwøxli 'impossible'
  • -yr = someone who is characterized by X (from English)
    • iðuȝyr 'know-it-all', from iduȝ 'knowledgeable'
  • -ri = -ry (from English)
    • gðėsri = sanctimoniousness, from gðės '(archaic) holy'
    • kal'anri = double standard or hypocrisy, from the agentive kal'an 'hypocrite' of √x-l-ʔ 'double'
  • afto- = self-
  • e- = a- (from ʔiC-, an assimilated form of the OTog preposition ʔin 'in'); these adjectives can usually only be predicative
    • e'est 'ablaze'
    • eðarky 'away'
    • etal 'galore' (lit. a-mound)
    • emein 'drowned, lost forever', lit. awater
  • -vyl = -able (from English -able and native avȝel 'to be able to')
  • ty- 're-' (from the tD-stem)
    • tynawer 'to reflect', from naur 'light'
    • tybarkes 'to react', from barkis 'action'
    • tysalem 'to repay', from √s-l-m 'peace, whole'
    • tyȝanė 'to satisfy', from √ȝ-n-j 'distress, need'; probably influenced by a now obsolete meaning 'to answer' of the same root
    • unpredictable change in meaning stem)

Phrasebook

some phrases in Togarmite:

  • Slėm! - Hello! / Goodbye!
  • Slėm ȝlėkøm! - Hello! (formal)
  • Leil dėv! / Num vy dėv! - Good night! / Sleep well!
  • Jaum dėv! - Good day!
  • Ekarus! / Ekarus tak/tek/takøm! - Thanks!
  • Ȝem ryžan - Please / You're welcome
  • Tryhef ti - Excuse me, Pardon
  • Nėk nyhum - I'm sorry
  • Ma yn sem lak/lek/lakøm? - What's your name?
  • Yn sem li [name] - My name is [name]
  • Keik wymar iþ [thing] in Tėrmit? - How do you say [thing] in Togarmite?
  • H' at/et/atøm wyðėver [language]? - Do you speak [language]?
  • Ȝem ryžan, mør že šėnėn - Please say it again
  • Hė lak/lek/lakøm - Here you go! (i.e. I just granted your request) (the source of the English expression is misinterpreted Togarmite)
    • Note: In Ethiopia it's spelled without the space.
  • Yn ryhaft li hu myli ȝem clėfi - My hovercraft is full of eels
  • En = Yes.
  • Lė = No.

Sample texts

Schleicher

Yn kavš w' yn frasi

Kavš ly žė lė fė žamry ly jar frasi: hað γor maȝrevt šgul, hað mol hemly kvur, wy hað mol vennės vy fiz. Yn kavš mar: "Mrur li yn lev, oryn nėk wyrė vennės wyrkav frasi." Yn frasi mar: "Ažen, kavš! Mrur lanė yn lev oryn nan wyrė žinė: vennės, ym vol, woši lið afau mylvast mum me žamry lyn kavš. Wy lėš lyn kavš it žamry." Oryn yn kavš smaȝ žinė, hu mnaȝ lið yn šðe.

Old Tog.:

An xabše wan φarasīn

Χabše, žė lė hawė čamre lawh, φarasīn yarʔe: yagōr ʔaħād marχabaθ šakūlaθ, wa-yaħmōl ʔaħād ħemle χabūr, wa-yaħmōl ʔaħād ħaφīzan ʔinės. Yāmār an χabše: Mār lī an lēb, bi-riʔėθī ʔinės rėχib φarasīn. Yāmārū an φarasīn: Sumaʕ an χabše! Mār lanė an lēb bi-riʔėθinė žīnė: ʔinės an baʕle yaʕšē lawh malbasaθ ħamūmaθ mēn čamre an χabšīn. Wa-lėš len-χabše čamre. Bi-šimėʕ an χabše žīnė, yamnāȝ ʔilė an šadi.

Hebrew:

הכבש והסוסים
כבש שלא היה לו צמר ראה סוסים: אחד גרר עגלה כבדה, אחד נשא עומס גדול, ואחד נשא בן אדם וזז מהר. אמר הכבש: "כואב לי לראות איך בן אדם רוכב סוסים." אמרו הסוסים: "הקשב, כבש, כואב לנו לראות זאת: בן אדם, האדון, עושה לעצמו בגד חמים מצמרו של הכבש. ולכבש אין צמר." לאחר ששמע זאת, ברח הכבש לתוך המישור.

Lysėn Tėrmi, lysėn tlul

  • Hað arž, rav arži; hað γalt, rav γalti!
  • Jaumyn nėk wyktav, amsyn nėk yktøv; jaumyn nėk wydȝam, amsyn nėk ydȝøm!

A biology abstract

Nan wymðøð yn tyγlim efgarjodeg metycrer lyn irišt TSP3 in Vruchorjon sbonerču. TSP3 wygaðeg ginas nahelan rėkes ly brødezenjon, mygėma vym migrosbørelada gødognėji lyn rivosøm bosadeðeg, wy kahus ly TSP3 rahivyn ma'man ly fėt ym mojan ly garčin gøvothrødeg. In tyktøvt žinė nan wystyðrek wyngad tyvhin kyli-ȝywur Rɪᴄᴇʀ-Jᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋɪ, žė rykės TSP3 lið yn ȝakuvan følochrøpsenas wygrė (p = 0.04) nyn øbodreløma ly gød Vrukorjon slim møran ety'yfusi aðenodoksen nyhut. Ly tymacu žinė vė fėt ramuzi mø'avjunė lið yn ðrės ly ðesglørøma sømvrøchi.

We measure the nucleating eukaryotic folding of the TSP3 gene in Bruchorium sponercii. TSP3 encodes a protezine-binding receptor kinase located at the cytotubular microsporellata of the quanticular ribosome, and malfunction of TSP3 is commonly believed to be the source of cybothrotic cancer. In this paper we prove using a Rɪᴇᴛᴢᴇʀ-Yᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋʏ double-blind test that TSP3 binding to the phyllochrypsinase inhibitor occurs (p = 0.04) in the hypotrellome of a healthy Bruchorium cell when adenotoxin concentrations are low. This research will have significant implications for the study of symbrychous descloroma.

Newton's laws of motion

I: Ðvar wyšvat vy ðemi, o vy ȝytėg enomorf, lulė yðraȝ wybarkes ȝal že.

I: An object stays at rest, or at a constant speed, unless a force acts on it.

II: Yn šanuj nyn tyȝtig ly všar že mytkøni lið yn øtisi møtyfacar ȝlėm všar; w' yn šanuj wygrė ðarkyn yn gau tygin ȝal žė øtisi ži vė møtyfacar ȝal.

II: The change in the momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied to the body; and the change occurs along the straight line on which that force is applied.

III: Iš ly køl barkis it tybarkis is w' andethed.

III: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

O how quickly the sculpture of life

O! Kma fizit ym myglaȝ ly heiwėt
Šaver in demaša zydarder!
Ym mγilut lym malk ȝlėn trøn lau
Vė klilit γruf ðak vy γali jam.
Atøm, žė watė mancavta hė,
Ȝavry hen yn Ylėh lawani ȝlėn arž.
Køl lanė møðawan ȝal ym barkisi lanė;
Hamnė wyhėv lið yn ȝni, w' aγatheržijėt lið hajðuð.

O how quickly the sculpture of life
Shattered into tiny fragments!
The splendor of the king on his throne
Is completely swept away by sea-waves.
Ye who come hither stationed here,
By the grace of God ye are guests on earth.
All of us are judged according to our actions;
Let us give to the needy, and do charity towards one another.

Warming Up To You

Wetyhmem liðak
Kenak at vė mėt in klėt,
Nėk wyrtyvec nym mimut lak,
Ym mimut žė azė'en yn hagranut,
Yn ȝyli lyn jeðȝy;
Yn γant žė lak stul in žinė ryvuȝ aðmyt
Wy žė at vė nyžėr lið ðėr wy ðėr.

Stairway To Heaven

Maȝlyt lið yn Symeinit
Iš volt žė hi šur
Køl žė nėher že žahav
Wy hi wyzvan maȝlyt lið yn symeinit

UDHR

Køl nės mewølað rur w' is in akšobrebja wy žykawi. Høm møtyhanan by ložegi wy syniðisi wy høvu barkus lið hajðuð vyn ruh l'ahwut.

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