Proto-Rugic: Difference between revisions

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There is a special class of ''a''-stems with contractions (from earlier stems ending in ''aj'') known as ''ā''-stems.<!--, ''ê''-stems, and ''ô'' stems (e.g. ''hrôz'')-->. They decline as below:
There was a rare class of ''a''-stems with contractions (from earlier stems ending in ''aj'') known as ''ā''-stems.<!--, ''ê''-stems, and ''ô'' stems (e.g. ''hrôz'')-->. They decline as below:


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
Line 382: Line 382:
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *ahmô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
! !! colspan="3"| *hamô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *ahm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *ham'''inī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''iniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''iniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
Line 395: Line 395:
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *ahm'''inį'''
| *ham'''inį'''
| *ahm'''ininz'''
| *ham'''ininz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *ahm'''iniz'''
| *ham'''iniz'''
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ahm'''inǭ'''
| *ham'''inǭ'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inau'''
Line 407: Line 407:
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *ham'''inī'''
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ahm'''immaz'''
| *ham'''immaz'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immō'''
Line 415: Line 415:
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *ahm'''immi'''
| *ham'''immi'''
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ahm'''immīz'''
| *ham'''immīz'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immō'''
Line 423: Line 423:
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *ham'''inī'''
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ahm'''inzu'''
| *ham'''inzu'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inau'''
Line 498: Line 498:


====''r''-stems====
====''r''-stems====
Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Masculine and feminine were declined the same. <!--Declension patterns are shown below:-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *prōþê ''m.'' "brother"
! !! colspan="3"| *prōþê ''m.'' "brother"
Line 820: Line 820:
| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
Line 827: Line 827:
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''ōninz'''
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzizōz'''
| *mōl'''awjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzizjōz'''
|-
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjizjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōzōi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
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| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
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! Locative
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''azizu'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzōzu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''azizu'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
Line 883: Line 883:
|-
|-
!  Nominative
!  Nominative
| *mōl'''azjaz'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| *mōl'''āi'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''ōnjō'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ani'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mōl'''anją'''
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''  
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjazjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''azjas'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''āwjāu'''
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjazjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōmômō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmazjōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōmôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmīzjōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
!  Nominative
| *mōl'''anaz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''aną'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
! Accusative
| *mōl'''aną'''
| *mōl'''anōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Dative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
|-
-->
! Instrumental
|}
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
!  Nominative
| *mōl'''az anaz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
|-
! Accusative
| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmaz anōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmīz anōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzu anōzu'''
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *mōl'''aziz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''aiz'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
! Accusative
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''ōninz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzizjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjizjōi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''azizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''azizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
!  Nominative
| *mōl'''azjaz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''āi'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
! Accusative
| *mōl'''anją'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjazjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''azjas'''
| *mōl'''āwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjazjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōmômō'''
| *mōl'''ōmazjōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōmôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōmīzjōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
|-
-->
|}
 
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. <!--However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.-->


====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
====''ā/ô''-stem adjectives====
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.
These were a subset of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with lengthened endings. They arose by contraction from adjectives whose stems originally ended in ''-aj-'', after the loss of intervocalic ''-j-''.


====''i''-stem adjectives====
====''i''-stem adjectives====
Line 986: Line 1,261:
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mēn; *mi
| *mēn; *miz
| *nō
| *nō
| *nōz
| *nōz
| *þēn; *þi
| *þēn; *þiz
| *wō
| *wō
| *wōz
| *wōz
| *sēn; *si
| *sēn; *siz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *miniz; *mī
| *mīniz; *mī
| *nōu
| *nōu
| *nōzǭ
| *nōzǭ
| *þiwiz; *þī
| *þīwiz; *þī
| *wōu
| *wōu
| *wōzǭ
| *wōzǭ
| *siwiz; *sī
| *sīwiz; *sī
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *minī; *mī
| *mīnī; *mī
| *nōmō
| *nōmō
| *nōmaz
| *nōmaz
| *þiwī; *þī
| *þīwī; *þī
| *wōmō
| *wōmō
| *wōmaz
| *wōmaz
| *siwī; *sī
| *sīwī; *sī
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *minimi
| *mīnimi
| *nōmō
| *nōmō
| *nōmīz
| *nōmīz
| *þiwimi
| *þīwimi
| *wōmō
| *wōmō
| *wōmīz
| *wōmīz
| *siwimi
| *sīwimi
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *minī
| *mīnī
| *nōu
| *nōu
| *nōzu
| *nōzu
| *þiwī
| *þīwī
| *wōu
| *wōu
| *wōzu
| *wōzu
| *siwī
| *sīwī
|-
|-
! Possessive adj.
! Possessive adj.
| *menaz
| *mīnaz
| *nōwaz
| *nōwaz
| *nōzjaz
| *nōzijaz
| *þewaz
| *þīwaz
| *wōwaz
| *wōwaz
| *wōzjaz
| *wōzijaz
| *sewaz
| *sīwaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 1,656: Line 1,931:
|-
|-
! 4
! 4
| *hedūriz
| *hidwiriz
| *hidwirþaz
| *hidwirþaz
|  
|  
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|-
|-
! 13
! 13
|  
| *þrilig
|  
|  
|
|
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|-
|-
! 14
! 14
|  
| *hidwirlig
|  
|  
|
|
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|-
|-
! 15
! 15
|  
| *finhlig
|  
|  
|
|
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|-
! 16
! 16
|  
| *sislig
|  
|  
|
|
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|-
! 17
! 17
|  
| *siftinlig
|  
|  
|
|
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|-
! 18
! 18
|  
| *ahtōlig
|  
|  
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|
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|-
! 19
! 19
|  
| *niwinlig
|  
|  
|
|
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|-
! 30
! 30
|  
| *þritisin
|  
|  
|
|
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|-
! 40
! 40
|  
| *hidwirtisin
|  
|  
|
|
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|-
! 50
! 50
|  
| *finhtisin
|  
|  
|
|
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|-
! 60
! 60
|  
| *sistisin
|  
|  
|
|
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|-
! 70
! 70
|  
| *siftintisin
|  
|  
|
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|-
! 80
! 80
|  
| *ahtōtisin
|  
|  
|
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! 90
! 90
|  
| *niwintisin
|  
|  
|
|

Latest revision as of 16:23, 16 December 2024

Proto-Rugic is the hypothetical ancestor of the Rugic languages.

Proto-Rugic
*þaudiskaz
Pronunciation[ˈθɑuðiskɑz]
Created byShariifka
Early forms

Introduction

Proto-Rugic is the result of taking a Balto-Slavic base and applying a rough approximation of the PIE to Proto-Germanic sound changes.

The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:

  • PPR lack the *eu to *jau sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.

Phonology

Orthography

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.

a-stems

Masculine or neuter.

*wilhaz m. "wolf" *jūką n. "yoke"
Nominative *wilhaz *wilhō *wilhai *jūką *jūkai *jūkō
Vocative *wilh
Accusative *wilhą *wilhōnz
Genitive *wilhō *wilhōu *wilhǭ *jūkō *jūkōu *jūkǭ
Dative *wilhōi *wilhamō *wilhamaz *jūkōi *jūkamō *jūkamaz
Instrumental *wilhai *wilhamō *wilhōiz *jūkai *jūkamō *jūkōiz
Locative *wilhai *wilhōu *wilhaizu *jūkai *jūkōu *jūkaizu

There was a rare class of a-stems with contractions (from earlier stems ending in aj) known as ā-stems.. They decline as below:

*pāz m. "battle" *twą̄ n. "pair"
Nominative *pāz *pô *pāi *twą̄ *twāi *twô
Vocative *pai
Accusative *pą̄ *pônz
Genitive *pô *pôu *pǫ̂ *twô *twôu *twǫ̂
Dative *pôi *pāmō *pāmaz *twôi *twāmō *twāmaz
Instrumental *pāi *pāmō *pôiz *twāi *twāmō *twôiz
Locative *pāi *pôu *pāizu *twāi *twôu *twāizu

ō-stems

Feminine.

*þaudō f. "people"
Nominative *þaudō *þaudōi *þaudōz
Vocative
Accusative *þaudǭ *þaudōnz
Genitive *þaudōz *þaudōu *þaudǭ
Dative *þaudōi *þaudōmō *þaudōmaz
Instrumental *þaudǭ *þaudōmō *þaudōmīz
Locative *þaudōi *þaudōu *þaudōzu

Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ō-stem nouns known as ī/jō-stems. These nouns took the ending *-ī in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ō-stem endings preceded by *-(i)j- (according to Siever's Law).

There were also contracted ō-stems known as ô-stems. They were declined by replacing the -ō- in endings with -ô- (and -ǭ with -ǫ̂). For example, *skwô "needle (botany)".

ē-stems

Feminine.

*demē f. "earth"
Nominative *demē *demēi *demēz
Vocative
Accusative *demǭ *demēnz
Genitive *demēz *demēu *demǭ
Dative *demēi *demēmō *demēmaz
Instrumental *demǭ *demēmō *demēmīz
Locative *demēi *demēu *demēzu

i-stems

Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*ankliz f. "coal" *mari n. "sea"
Nominative *ankliz *anklī *anklīz *mari *marī *marī
Vocative *anklī
Accusative *anklį *anklinz
Genitive *anklīz *anklijau *anklijǭ *marīz *marjau *marjǭ
Dative *anklī *anklimō *anklimaz *marī *marimō *marimaz
Instrumental *anklimi *anklimō *anklimīz *marimi *marimō *marimīz
Locative *anklēi *anklijau *anklizu *marēi *marjau *marizu

Note: The genitive/locative dual and genutive plural are subject to Siever's law.

u-stems

Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*sūnuz f. "son" *metu n. "honey"
Nominative *sūnuz *sūnū *sūnawiz *metu *metū *metū
Vocative *sūnau
Accusative *sūnų *sūnunz
Genitive *sūnauz *sūnawau *sūnawǭ *metauz *metawau *metawǭ
Dative *sūnawī *sūnumō *sūnumaz *metawī *metumō *metumaz
Instrumental *sūnumi *sūnumō *sūnumīz *metumi *metumō *metumīz
Locative *sūnawī *sūnawau *sūnuzu *metawī *metawau *metuzu

n-stems

Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*hamô m. "stone" *immô n. "name"
Nominative *hamô *haminī *haminiz *immô *imminī *imminō
Vocative
Accusative *haminį *hamininz
Genitive *haminiz *haminau *haminǭ *imminiz *imminau *imminǭ
Dative *haminī *hamimmō *hamimmaz *imminī *immimmō *immimmaz
Instrumental *hamimmi *hamimmō *hamimmīz *immimmi *immimmō *immimmīz
Locative *haminī *haminau *haminzu *imminī *imminau *imminzu

Note:

  1. In heavy j-suffixed n-stems, expected **-ijin- was contracted to *-īn-. Similarly, in light j-suffixed n-stems, expected **-jin- was contracted to *-in-.


r-stems

Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*prōþê m. "brother"
Nominative *prōþê *prōþrī *prōþriz
Vocative *prōþer
Accusative *prōþrį *prōþrinz
Genitive *prōþriz *prōþrau *prōþrǭ
Dative *prōþrī *prōþrimō *prōþrimaz
Instrumental *prōþrimi *prōþrimō *prōþrimīz
Locative *prōþrī *prōþrau *prōþrizu

z-stems

Neuter.

*nepaz n. "cloud"
Nominative *nepaz *nipizī *nipizō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive *nipiziz *nipizau *nipizǭ
Dative *nipizī *nipimmō *nipimmaz
Instrumental *nipimmi *nipimmō *nipimmīz
Locative *nipizi *nipizau *nipissu

Consonant stems

Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*ahmô m. "stone" *immô n. "name"
Nominative *ahmô *ahminī *ahminiz *immô *imminī *imminō
Vocative
Accusative *ahminį *ahmininz
Genitive *ahminiz *ahminau *ahminǭ *imminiz *imminau *imminǭ
Dative *ahminī *ahmimmō *ahmimmaz *imminī *immimmō *immimmaz
Instrumental *ahmimmi *ahmimmō *ahmimmīz *immimmi *immimmō *immimmīz
Locative *ahminī *ahminau *ahminzu *imminī *imminau *imminzu

Note: The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *-s (after unvoiced consonants) or *-z (after voiced consonants), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.

Adjectives

Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation.

a/ō-stem adjectives

Declension of mōlaz "small"
Strong
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative *mōlaz *mōlō *mōlai *mōlō *mōlōi *mōlōz *mōl(a) *mōlai *mōlō
Accusative *mōlan *mōlōnz *mōlǭ *mōlōnz
Genitive *mōlas *mōlāu *mōlaizǭ *mōlazjōz *mōlōu *mōlōzǭ *mōlas *mōlāu *mōlaizǭ
Dative *mōlammai *mōlaimō *mōlaimaz *mōlazjōi *mōlōmō *mōlōmaz *mōlammai *mōlaimō *mōlaimaz
Instrumental *mōlammi *mōlaimō *mōlaimīz *mōlǭ *mōlōmō *mōlōmīz *mōlammi *mōlaimō *mōlaimīz
Locative *mōlammi *mōlāu *mōlaizu *mōlōi *mōlōu *mōlōzu *mōlammi *mōlāu *mōlaizu
Weak
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative *mōlaziz *mōlô *mōlaiz *mōlô *mōlôi *mōlōzōz *mōlai *mōlāi *mōlô
Accusative *mōlanį *mōlaninz *mōlōnǭ *mōlōnōnz
Genitive *mōlôs *mōlawjau *mōlanizǭ *mōlōzizōz *mōlawjōu *mōlōnōzǭ *mōlôs *mōlawjāu *mōlanizǭ
Dative *mōlajjammai *mōlômō *mōlazimaz *mōlōzōi *mōlômō *mōlōzōmaz *mōlajjammai *mōlômō *mōlazimaz
Instrumental *mōlajjammi *mōlômō *mōlazimīz *mōlōnǭ *mōlômō *mōlōzōmīz *mōlajjammi *mōlômō *mōlazimīz
Locative *mōlajjammi *mōlawjau *mōlanizu *mōlōnōi *mōlōnōu *mōlōnōzu *mōlajjammi *mōlawjau *mōlanizu

ja/jō-stem adjectives

These were a sub-type of a/ō-stem adjectives with a *-j- or *-ij- (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such.

ā/ô-stem adjectives

These were a subset of a/ō-stem adjectives with lengthened endings. They arose by contraction from adjectives whose stems originally ended in -aj-, after the loss of intervocalic -j-.

i-stem adjectives

These were declined identically to ja/jō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *-iz and *-į/it respectively instead of the expected **-(i)jaz and **-(i)ją/(i)jat. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *-in as an alternative to expected *-(i)jan.

The weak forms were identical to those of ja/jō-stems.

Consonant-stem adjectives

These were declined identically to a/ō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *-s/z and *— respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **-az and **-ą/at.

The weak forms were identical to those of a/ō-stems.

Pronouns

First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns

First person Second person Reflexive
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative *ēzų *wet; *wit *mez; *miz *þū; *þu *jūt; *jut *jūz; *juz —
Accusative *mēn; *miz *nō *nōz *þēn; *þiz *wō *wōz *sēn; *siz
Genitive *mīniz; *mī *nōu *nōzǭ *þīwiz; *þī *wōu *wōzǭ *sīwiz; *sī
Dative *mīnī; *mī *nōmō *nōmaz *þīwī; *þī *wōmō *wōmaz *sīwī; *sī
Instrumental *mīnimi *nōmō *nōmīz *þīwimi *wōmō *wōmīz *sīwimi
Locative *mīnī *nōu *nōzu *þīwī *wōu *wōzu *sīwī
Possessive adj. *mīnaz *nōwaz *nōzijaz *þīwaz *wōwaz *wōzijaz *sīwaz

Notes:

  1. When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
  2. Possessive adjectives were always strong.

Other pronouns

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative *þaz *þō *þai *þō *þōi *þōz *þa *þai *þō
Accusative *þan *þōnz *þǭ *þōnz
Genitive *þas *þāu *þaizǭ *þazjōz *þōu *þōzǭ *þas *þāu *þaizǭ
Dative *þammai *þaimō *þaimaz *þazjōi *þōmō *þōmaz *þammai *þaimō *þaimaz
Instrumental *þammi *þaimō *þaimīz *þǭ *þōmō *þōmīz *þammi *þaimō *þaimīz
Locative *þammi *þāu *þaizu *þōi *þōu *þōzu *þammi *þāu *þaizu
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative *siz *sī *sīz *sī *sijōi *sijōz *si *sī *sī
Accusative *sin *sinz *sijǭ *sijōnz
Genitive *ses *sijau *sezǭ *sizjōz *sijōu *sijōzǭ *ses *sijau *sezǭ
Dative *simmai *sīmō *sīmaz *sizjōi *sijōmō *sijōmaz *simmai *sīmō *sīmaz
Instrumental *simmi *sīmō *sīmīz *sijǭ *sijōmō *sijōmīz *simmi *sīmō *sīmīz
Locative *simmi *sijau *sīzu *sijōi *sijōu *sijōzu *simmi *sijau *sīzu

Reflexive/Intensive pronoun

Strong
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *safsaz *safsai *safsō *safsōi *safsą, *safsat *safsō
Accusative *safsan *safsanz *safsǭ *safsōnz
Genitive *safsas, *safsazjas *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą *safsōz, *safsazjōz *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą *safsas, *safsazjas *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
Dative *safsammai *safsabiz *safsōi *safsōbiz *safsammai *safsabiz
Instrumental *safsō *safsabaz *safsô *safsōbaz *safsō *safsabaz
Weak
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *safsǭ *safsaniz *safsǭ *safsōniz *safsǭ *safsanō
Accusative *safsanį *safsaninz *safsōnį *safsōniz
Genitive *safsaniz *safsanǭ *safsōniz *safsōnǭ *safsaniz *safsanǭ
Dative *safsanī *safsambiz *safsōnī *safsōmbiz *safsanī *safsambiz
Instrumental *safsani *safsambaz *safsōni *safsōmbaz *safsani *safsambaz

Neutral demonstrative

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *saz *sai *sō *sōi *sat *sō
Accusative *san *sanz *sǭ *sōnz
Genitive *sas, *sazjas *sōsą, *sazjōsą *sōz, *sazjōz *sōsą, *sazjōsą *sas, *sazjas *sōsą, *sazjōsą
Dative *sammai *sabiz *sōi *sōbiz *sammai *sabiz
Instrumental *sō *sabaz *sô *sōbaz *sō *sabaz
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *þaz *þai *þō *þōi *þat *þō
Accusative *þan *þanz *þǭ *þōnz
Genitive *þas, *þazjas *þōsą, *þazjōsą *þōz, *þazjōz *þōsą, *þazjōsą *þas, *þazjas *þōsą, *þazjōsą
Dative *þammai *þabiz *þōi *þōbiz *þammai *þabiz
Instrumental *þō *þabaz *þô *þōbaz *þō *þabaz


Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *izaz *izai *izō *izōi *izat *izō
Accusative *izan *izanz *izǭ *izōnz
Genitive *izas, *izazjas *izōsą, *izazjōsą *izōz, *izazjōz *izōsą, *izazjōsą *izas, *izazjas *izōsą, *izazjōsą
Dative *izammai *izabiz *izōi *izōbiz *izammai *izabiz
Instrumental *izō *izabaz *izô *izōbaz *izō *izabaz

Near demonstrative

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *istaz *istai *istō *istōi *istat *istō
Accusative *istan *istanz *istǭ *istōnz
Genitive *istas, *istazjas *istōsą, *istazjōsą *istōz, *istazjōz *istōsą, *istazjōsą *istas, *istazjas *istōsą, *istazjōsą
Dative *istammai *istabiz *istōi *istōbiz *istammai *istabiz
Instrumental *istō *istabaz *istô *istōbaz *istō *istabaz
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *gehaz *gehai *gehō *gehōi *gehat *gehō
Accusative *gehan *gehanz *gehǭ *gehōnz
Genitive *gegas, *gegazjas *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą *gegōz, *gegazjōz *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą *gegas, *gegazjas *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
Dative *gegammai *gegabiz *gegōi *gegōbiz *gegammai *gegabiz
Instrumental *gegō *gegabaz *gegô *gegōbaz *gegō *gegabaz

Far demonstrative

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *allaz *allai *allō *allōi *allat *allō
Accusative *allan *allanz *allǭ *allōnz
Genitive *allas, *allazjas *allōsą, *allazjōsą *allōz, *allazjōz *allōsą, *allazjōsą *allas, *allazjas *allōsą, *allazjōsą
Dative *allammai *allabiz *allōi *allōbiz *allammai *allabiz
Instrumental *allō *allabaz *allô *allōbaz *allō *allabaz

Interrogative pronouns

  • *hwai "what, who"
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *hwai *hwēz *hwōi *hwēz *hwat *hwō
Accusative *hwan *hwanz *hwǭ *hwōnz
Genitive *hwas, *hwazjas *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą *hwōz, *hwazjōz *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą *hwas, *hwazjas *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
Dative *hwammai *hwabiz *hwōi *hwōbiz *hwammai *hwabiz
Instrumental *hwō, *hwī *hwabaz *hwô, *hwī *hwōbaz *hwō, *hwī *hwabaz
  • *hwaþeraz "which, what (of two)"

Other pronouns

Adverbs

Derived manner adverbs

The most common adverb-forming suffixes are *-ē and *-ō.

Numerals

# Cardinal Ordinal Adverbial Multiplier Collective Fractional
1 *ainaz *firmaz
2 *twō *anþeraz *twāz *twimaz *pahaz
3 *þrīz *þridjaz *þrāz *þrimaz
4 *hidwiriz *hidwirþaz *hedweraz *hedwerumaz
5 *finhiz *finhtaz *finhteraz *finhumaz
6 *swes *swestaz *swesteraz *swesumaz
7 *siftį *seftundaz *seftunderaz *seftumaz
8 *ahtō *ahtundaz *ahtunderaz *ahtumaz
9 *niwin *niwindaz *niwinderaz *niwinumaz
10 *tisin *tisindaz *tisinderaz *tisinumaz
11 *ainalig *analigumaz
12 *twalig
13 *þrilig
14 *hidwirlig
15 *finhlig
16 *sislig
17 *siftinlig
18 *ahtōlig
19 *niwinlig
20 *twitisin
30 *þritisin
40 *hidwirtisin
50 *finhtisin
60 *sistisin
70 *siftintisin
80 *ahtōtisin
90 *niwintisin
100 *sinþą
1000 *þūsandiz

Verbs

Strong verbs

Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:

1S 2S 3S 1P 2P 3P
*-ai *-istai *- *-amaz *-istiz *-ēri

The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *-i-. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).

Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:

  1. Class 1: This class had a present stem vowel of *-i-. It had two subclasses:
    a. The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *-ai- — e.g. *witēō "I see" > *waitai "I saw", *wissaz "seen"
    b. The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *-ī- — e.g. *winhō "I conquer" > *wīhai "I conquered", *wihtaz "conquered"
  2. Class 2: This class had a present stem vowel of *-u- which changed to *-au- in the past stem — e.g. *bukjō "I flee" > *baukai "I fled", *bukadaz "fled"
  3. Class 3: This class had a present stem vowel *-a-, *-e-, or *-i- that became *-ē- in the past stem — e.g. *dahjō "I do" > *dēhai "I did", *dahtaz "done"
  4. Class 4: This class had a present stem vowel *-a- that became *-ō- in the past stem — e.g. *skabō "I scratch" > *skōbai "I scratched", *skabadaz "scratched"
  5. Class 5: The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. *fipō "I drink" > *fipai "I drank", *fipadaz "drunk"
  6. Class 6: The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *-s- — e.g. *þragō "I drag" > *þrahsai "I dragged", *þrahtaz "dragged"
  7. Class 7: The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by -e-. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *-e/i- to *-a-) — e.g. *hanō "I sing" > *hehanai "I sang"
  8. Irregular: The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. *stêō "I stand" > *steþai "I stood"

Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:

  1. A j-suffix. Such verbs are said to be j-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
  2. An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
  3. A vowel suffix (usually *-ō- or *-ē-). Such verbs are called ō-presents or ē-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb *stêsi which had the suffix *-ê-.

The past participle of all verbs was formed with the suffix *-þaz which, depending on the environment, could become *-taz, *-daz, or *-saz. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually *-a- (or *-i- in the case of j-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.

The infinitive was formed with the suffix *-mį added to the present stem (including any irregularities). j-presents used a connector vowel of *-i- (light) or *-ī- (heavy). Otherwise, if the present stem did not end in a vowel, the connector vowel *-a- was used.

Example (class 3): *akamį "to do, act"

Infinitive *akamį
Present participle *akinþs
Present participle *ahtaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *akjō *akjōr *akjǭ *akjār *ēkai *ēkizǭ
2S *akiz *akizar *akjāz *akjāzar *ēkistai *ēkizēs *ak
3S *akid *akidar *akjā *akjādar *ēk *ēkizē *akidō
1P *akjamaz *akiminai *akjāmaz *akjāminai *ēkamaz *ēkizēmaz
2P *akidiz *akjādiz *ēkistiz *ēkizēþiz *akid
3P *akjand *akjān *ēkēri *ēkizēn *akjandō

Example (class 3, light j-present): *dahimį "to do, make"

Infinitive *dahimį
Present participle *daginþs
Present participle *dahtaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *dahjō *dahjōr *dahjǭ *dahjār *dēhai *dēgizǭ
2S *dahiz *dahizar *dahjāz *dagjāzar *dēgistai *dēgizēs *dah
3S *dahid *dahidar *dahjā *dagjādar *dēh *dēgizē *dahidō
1P *dahjamaz *dagiminai *dagjāmaz *dagjāminai *dēhamaz *dēgizēmaz
2P *dahidiz *dagjādiz *dēgistiz *dēgizēþiz *dahid
3P *dahjand *dahjān *dēgēri *dagizēn *dagjandō

Example: *þragamį (class 6) "to drag"

Infinitive *þragamį
Present participle *þraginþs
Present participle *þrahtaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *þragō *þragōr *þragǭ *þragār *þrahsai *þrahsizǭ
2S *þragiz *þragizar *þragāz *þragāzar *þrahsistai *þrahsizēs *þrag
3S *þragid *þragidar *þragā *þragādar *þrahs *þrahsizē *þragidō
1P *þragamaz *þragiminai *þragāmaz *þragāminai *þrahsamaz *þrahsizēmaz
2P *þragidiz *þragādiz *þrahsistiz *þrahsizēþiz *þragid
3P *þragand *þragān *þrahsēri *þrahsizēn *þragandō

Example: *hanamį (class 7) "to sing"

Infinitive *hanamį
Present participle *haninþs
Present participle *hanþaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *hanō *hanōr *hanǭ *hanār *hehanai *heganizǭ
2S *haniz *hanizar *hanāz *hanāzar *heganistai *heganizēs *han
3S *hanid *hanidar *hanā *hanādar *hehan *heganizē *hanidō
1P *hanamaz *haniminai *hanāmaz *hanāminai *heganamaz *heganizēmaz
2P *hanidiz *hanādiz *heganistiz *heganizēþiz *hanid
3P *hanand *hanān *heganēri *heganizēn *hanandō

Example (class 7, heavy j-present): *bargīmį "to stuff"

Infinitive *bargīmį
Present participle *bargīnþs
Present participle *barhtaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *barhijō *barhijōr *barhijǭ *barhijār *bebarhai *bebargizǭ
2S *barhīz *bargīzar *barhijāz *bargijāzar *bebargistai *bebargizēs *barh
3S *barhīd *bargīdar *barhijā *bargijādar *bebarh *bebargizē *barhīdō
1P *bargijamaz *bargīminai *bargijāmaz *bargijāminai *bebarhamaz *bebargizēmaz
2P *bargīdiz *bargijādiz *bebargistiz *bebargizēþiz *bargīþ
3P *barhijand *barhijān *bebargēri *bebargizēn *bargijandō

Example: *stêmį (irregular, present suffix -ê-) "to stand"

Infinitive *stêmį
Present participle *stênþs
Present participle *staþaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *stêō *stêōr *stêǭ *stêār *steþai *stidizǭ
2S *stês *stêsar *stêāz *stêāzar *stidistai *stidizēs *stê
3S *stêþ *stêþar *stêā *stêādar *steþ *stidizē *stêdō
1P *stêmaz *stêminai *stêāmaz *stêāminai *steþamaz *stidizēmaz
2P *stêþiz *stêādiz *stidistiz *stidizēþiz *stêd
3P *stênþ *stêān *stedēri *stidizēn *stêndō

Weak verbs

Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:

1S 2S 3S 1P 2P 3P
*-bǭ *-bōs *-bō *-bōmaz *-bōþiz *-bōn

The *-b- was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the verb's class. The same connector vowel was also used to form the infinitive.

The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.

Class 1

Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to j-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.

The past indicative had a connector vowel *-(i)ja-, while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *-i/ī-. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.

Class 2

Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:

  • The present stem ended in *-ō-, which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *-ō- to *-ô-. In the present subjunctive, expected **-ōǭ contracted to *-ǫ̂, while expected **-ōā- became *-ōē-.
  • The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *-ō-, as in the present stem.
Class 3

There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.

The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *-ē-, which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *-ō- of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle dropped the *-ē- suffix and instead had the connector vowel *-a-.

The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *-ē- and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *-i-.

Class 4

Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-j-stem strong verbs.

The past indicative had a connector vowel *-a-, and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *-i-. The past participle had no connector vowel.

Preterite-present verbs

Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.

For example:

  • *menamį "to remember", *memanai "I remember", *menabǭ "I remembered", *minþaz "remembered"
  • *ōtamį "to hate", *ōtai "I hate", *ōtabǭ "I hated", *ōsaz "hated"
  • *(ga)knōmį "to know, be familiar (with)", *(ga)knōai "I know, am familiar (with)", *(ga)knōbǭ "I knew, was familiar (with)", *(ga)knōþaz "known"
  • *(ga)swedamį "to be used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedai "I am used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedabǭ "I was used/accustomed to", *(ga)swessaz "accustomed"
  • *emamį "to have, own", *ēmai "I have, own", *emabǭ "I had, owned", *imþaz "had, owned"
  • *simį "to be allowed", *sisai "I am allowed", *sibǭ "I was allowed", *siþaz "allowed"
  • *hrimį "to be determined", *hrisai "I am determined", *hribǭ "I was determined", *hriþaz "determined"
  • *(ga)flēmį "to suffice, be enough", *(ga)flēai "I suffice, am enough", *(ga)flēþaz "sufficed, enough"
  • *þelamį "to owe, have to", *þeþalai "I owe, have to", *þelabǭ "I owe, had to", *þelþaz "owed, had to"
  • *afamį "to be necessary/suitable", *ēfai "I am necessary/suitable", *afabǭ "I was necessary/suitable", *aftaz "necessary/suitable"

The verb "to be"

The verb "to be" had two stems *(i)s- and *beu/bus-. They were in fact two verbs, *immį "to be" and *biumį "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).

Infinitive *immį *biumį
Present participle *beunþs
Past participle *beudaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
*immį *biumį 1 *biumį 2 *immį *biumį *biumį *immį *biumį
1S *izą *bewō *buzą *sijǭ *buzǭ *bebewai *issǭ *bebeuzǭ
2S *iz *beuz *buz *sijēz *buzāz *bebeustai *issēz *bebeuzēz *beu
3S *ist *beud *bust *sijē *buzā *bebeu *issē *bebeuzē *beudō
1P *samaz *beumaz *buzamaz *sīmaz *buzāmaz *bebeumaz *issēmaz *bebeuzēmaz
2P *istiz *beudiz *bustiz *sīþiz *buzāþiz *bebiustiz *issēþiz *bebeuzēþiz *beud
3P *sind *beund *buzind *sīn *buzān *bebewēri *issēn *bebeuzēn *beundō

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Vocabulary

Time - *þimfaz

Seasons - *jōras þimfizō
English Proto-Tungric
spring *wesar (*wesn-; n., r/n-stem)
summer *aisōþs (f., cons.-stem)
fall *missiz (f., i-stem)
winter *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; f., cons.-stem)
Parts of the day - *tē₂wiz farþēz
English Proto-Tungric
day *teuz (m., u-stem1)
dawn *ausōz (f., z-stem)
morning *mōdūraz (m., a-stem)
evening *wesperaz (m., a-stem)
night *nahts (f., cons.-stem)

Notes:

1 Expected **-ea- was coalesced to *-ē₂- (e.g. nominative plural was *tē₂wiz rather than *teawiz).

Units of time - *þimfiziz mēþēz
English Proto-Tungric
hour
day *teuz (m., u-stem, irregular)
week *sirį̄ (f., īn-stem)
month *mēns (*mēns-, m., cons.-stem)
season *þimfaz (n., z-stem)
year *aþnaz (m., a-stem); *jōraz (m., a-stem)
Time adverbs - *þimfiziz werdō
English Proto-Tungric
now *nu, *nū
then *þan
recently, a short time ago
earlier *anþ
soon, shortly *mahs
later
always *simfer
often *saif
sometimes
rarely
never *ne aiwą
ever *aiwą
still, yet *int
already *anþ
yesterday *gizi; *gester-
tomorrow *hrōz

Colours - *helaziz

Colours - *helaziz
English Proto-Tungric
white *albaz
grey *hasnaz
black *ōþraz
red *raudaz, *rausaz
brown *patjaz, *duswaz
yellow *gelwaz, *blāwaz
green *wīsidaz
blue *hilizijaz

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri.

Translation: All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.

PPT: Opnēs ɣomones louðeroi co(m)-plānoi-kʷe com deknotāti jowesi-kʷe co(m)-tlātai sent. Sois addōnātāi sent ratjō co(m)skijentijā-kʷe, et alterois anamām βrātrālim prōðomen tetolēri.

Classical Latin cognates: Omnēs hominēs līberī *complānīque cum dignitāte iūreque collātī sunt. *Sīs *addōnātae sunt ratiō cōnscientiaque, et alterīs animam *frātrālem *prōdimen tetulēre.

Other resources

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