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{{private}}{{construction}}


{{ClassMeter
|Name      = {{PAGENAME}}
|NativeName = gávthȁ themsármā
|Type      = Fusional
|Alignment  = Nominative-accusative
|adjective = first
|adposition = first
|adverb= mixed
|article= first
|relativeclause = first
|nounclause = first
|order = VSO
|Tonal      = Yes
|Genders    = 2
|Declined  = Yes
|Conjugated = Yes
|Case  = no
|Number = Yes
|Definiteness = Yes
|Gender = Yes
|Voice  = Yes
|Mood  = Yes
|Person = Yes
|Number = Yes
|Tense  = Yes
|Aspect = Yes
|}}
==Background==
The Themsaran language constitutes a [[Proto-Talsmic|separate branch]] of the Zachydic language family, along with other para-Themsaran languages which are spoken in the island of Tálsèm. Themsaran is a typological and lexical outlier in its family due to its long period of isolation and substrate influence. The language possesses strongly head-initial syntax, head-marking in both clauses and possessive NPs, mixed fusional and agglutinative inflection, and nominative-accusative morphosyntax. The name of the language comes from the Themsár region, from whose dialect arose the prestige language of the island. This elevated language existed in a state of diglossia with the diverse and often mutually unintelligible vernacular "dialects". This article describes Classical Themsaran, used as a living language by the ruling class for a period spanning 600 years until its demise in the year ca. 220.
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="graytable lightgraybg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 68px; "|
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial
! style="width: 68px; " |Labio-dental
! style="width: 68px; " |Dental
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Post-alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 68px; " |Dorsal
! style="width: 68px; " |Radical
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal
|-
! style="" |Nasal
| m
|
| n
|
|
|
| ŋ
|
|
|-
! style="" |Plosive
| p b
|
|
| t d
|
|
| k g
| (ʡ)
| (ʔ)
|-
! style="" |Fricative
|
| f v
| θ ⟨th⟩
| s z
| ʃ ⟨š⟩ ʒ ⟨ž⟩
|
| x ⟨ch⟩
| ħ~ʜ~ʢ ⟨ħ⟩
| h~ɦ ⟨h⟩
|-
! style="" |Affricate
|
|
|
|
| tʃ ⟨ť⟩
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Approximant
|
| (ʋ)
|
|
|
| j
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Trill
|
|
|
| r
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Lateral app.
|
|
|
| l
|
| ʎ ⟨ļ⟩
|
|
|
|}
[v] is in free variation with [ʋ]. [ʔ] may occur only in morpheme boundaries.
====Conditioned allophony====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="graytable lightgraybg" style="width: 570px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 120px; "|Phoneme
! style="width: 120px; " |Allophone
! style="width: 120px; " |Condition(s)
|-
| rowspan="2"| /ħ/
| [ħ~ʜ]
| #_, C[+voiceless]_
|-
| [ʡ~ʢ]
| V_V, C[+voiced]_
|-
| /h/
| [ɦ]
| V_V, C[+voiced]_
|-
| C[+obstruent, ±voiced]
| C[+obstruent, ∓voiced]
| _C[+obstruent, -guttural, ∓voiced]
|}
===Vowels===
Themaran has six vowels, short and long. Short vowels have one mora (except for epenthetic ''e'' which has zero morae), and long vowels have two morae.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="graytable lightgraybg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; " |Front
! style="width: 90px; " |Central
! style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
! style="" |Close
| i ⟨i⟩ iː ⟨ī⟩
| ʉ ⟨y⟩ ʉː ⟨ȳ⟩
| u ⟨u⟩ uː ⟨ū⟩
|-
! style="" |Mid
| e̞ ⟨e⟩ e̞ː ⟨ē⟩
|
| o̞ ⟨o⟩ o̞ː ⟨ō⟩
|-
! style="" |Open
|
| a ⟨a⟩ aː ⟨ā⟩
|
|}
The following are the diphthongs, all falling: /ai au ei ie~ia uo~ua/ ⟨ai au ei ie ua⟩. All diphthongs are bimoraic.
===Pitch accent===
Pitch accent, or tone, is phonemic in Themsaran. The following is the notation for tones:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="graytable lightgraybg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; " |Short
! style="width: 90px; " |Long
! style="width: 90px; " |Diphthong
|-
! style="" |Unmarked
| '''a'''
| '''ā'''
| '''ai'''
|-
! style="" |High
| '''á'''
| '''a̋'''
| '''ái'''
|-
! style="" |Low
| '''à'''
| '''ȁ'''
| '''ài'''
|-
! style="" |Falling
| -
| '''â'''
| '''âi'''
|-
! style="" |Rising
| -
| '''ǎ'''
| '''ǎi'''
|}
The pitch accent of a word (of more than one mora) consists of two components: the lexical tone, and the position of the downstep (the latter is confined to appear after the 3rd-to-last mora). A high-tone word is consistently high until the downstep, whereafter the pitch drops sharply. A low-tone word starts low and has the highest pitch at the tonic mora, which is immediately before the downstep.
The following are the rules governing the marking Themsaran pitch accent:
#High lexical tone is marked in the initial syllable; low tone is not marked, unless necessitated by rule 2.
#The tonic syllable is always marked:
##If the downstep occurs after a long syllable (syllable with a long vowel or diphthong), the syllable is rising in a low-tone word, and high in a high-tone word. 
##If the downstep occurs between the two morae of a long syllable, the syllable has falling tone.
#If the first syllable is tonic, the second syllable is marked as low.
If the downstep occurred word-finally, the first syllable of a following high tone word would have slightly lower pitch. In [[w:Pausa|pausa]], a word final high short syllable is realized as a falling, short vowel.
Clitics, unmarked, phonologically behave as parts of the following word and inherit the tone of the following word.
==Orthography==
==Morphology==
Í===Nouns===
Nouns and adjectives have a rich morphology, albeit less ornate than verbs. They inflect for number, definiteness and possessedness, but not for case. Nouns have two genders, masculine and feminine. In third-person possessed forms, Themsaran makes a distinction, realized tonally, between the ''absolute'' possessed form, which indicates a noun possessed by a pronoun, and the ''conjunct'' possessed form, used to indicate a possessive relationship between two nouns and agreeing with the gender of the possessor.
Definite forms are used as the vocative. Names of deities or deifications are primarily indefinite, but take definite agreement.
====First declension====
The first declension consists primarily of masculine nouns. Nouns ending in a consonant may contain an epenthetic ''e'' to break up a forbidden consonant clusters, particularly those ending in resonants.
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 660px; text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="9"| '''First declension'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="4" scope="col"|Singular
! colspan="4" scope="col"|Plural
|-
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Indefinite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Definite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Indefinite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Definite
|-
!scope="row"|Unpossessed
|colspan="2"|-Ø
|colspan="2"|''-ē''
|colspan="2"|''-ach''
|colspan="2"|''-ō''
|-
!scope="row"|1sg
|colspan="2"|''-ken''
|colspan="2"|''-n''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-ast''
|-
!scope="row"|2sg.m
|colspan="2"|''-gze''
|colspan="2"|''-ze''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2sg.f
|colspan="2"|''-kvi''
|colspan="2"|''-vi''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3sg.m
|colspan="2"|''-ku''
|colspan="2"|''-u''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-ū''
|-
!scope="row"|3sg.f
|colspan="2"|''-ki''
|colspan="2"|''-i''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-ȳ''
|-
!scope="row"|4sg.m
|colspan="2"|''-ksu''
|colspan="2"|''-thu''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-thū''
|-
!scope="row"|4sg.f
|colspan="2"|''-ksi''
|colspan="2"|''-thi''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-thȳ''
|-
!scope="row"|1ex
|colspan="2"|''-kam''
|colspan="2"|''-am''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-che''
|-
!scope="row"|1in
|colspan="2"|''-kent''
|colspan="2"|''-ent''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2pl.m
|colspan="2"|''-kys''
|colspan="2"|''-ys''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2pl.f
|colspan="2"|''-kyth''
|colspan="2"|''-yth''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3pl.m
|colspan="2"|''-kech''
|colspan="2"|''-eich''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3pl.f
|colspan="2"|''-ker''
|colspan="2"|''-ier''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4pl.m
|colspan="2"|''-ksech''
|colspan="2"|''-theich''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4pl.f
|colspan="2"|''-kser''
|colspan="2"|''-thier''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}
====Second declension====
The second declension consists primarily of feminine nouns.
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 660px; text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="9"| '''Second declension'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="4" scope="col"|Singular
! colspan="4" scope="col"|Plural
|-
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Indefinite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Definite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Indefinite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Definite
|-
!scope="row"|Unpossessed
|colspan="2"|''-e''
|colspan="2"|''-ā''
|colspan="2"|''-ir''
|colspan="2"|''-enā''
|-
!scope="row"|1sg
|colspan="2"|''-ťen''
|colspan="2"|''-an''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-aist''
|-
!scope="row"|2sg.m
|colspan="2"|''-zze''
|colspan="2"|''-za''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2sg.f
|colspan="2"|''-ťve''
|colspan="2"|''-va''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3sg.m
|colspan="2"|''-ťu''
|colspan="2"|''-au''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3sg.f
|colspan="2"|''-ťi''
|colspan="2"|''-ai''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4sg.m
|colspan="2"|''-šťu''
|colspan="2"|''-ath''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4sg.f
|colspan="2"|''-šťi''
|colspan="2"|''-eth''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|1ex
|colspan="2"|''-ťem''
|colspan="2"|''-iem''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|1in
|colspan="2"|''-ťent''
|colspan="2"|''-ant''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2pl.m
|colspan="2"|''-ťis''
|colspan="2"|''-ais''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2pl.f
|colspan="2"|''-ťith''
|colspan="2"|''-aith''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3pl.m
|colspan="2"|''-ťech''
|colspan="2"|''-āch''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3pl.f
|colspan="2"|''-ťer''
|colspan="2"|''-air''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4pl.m
|colspan="2"|''-šťech''
|colspan="2"|''-thāch''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4pl.f
|colspan="2"|''-šťer''
|colspan="2"|''-thair''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}
====Third declension====
The third declension consists mainly of mass, collective and abstract nouns of both genders.
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 660px; text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="9"| '''Third declension'''
|-
! rowspan="2"|
|-
! colspan="4" scope="col"|Singular
! colspan="4" scope="col"|Plural
|-
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Indefinite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Definite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Indefinite
!colspan="2" scope="col"|Definite
|-
!scope="row"|Unpossessed
|colspan="2"|-Ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|1sg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nin''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2sg.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nize''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2sg.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nivi''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3sg.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nu''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3sg.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-ni''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4sg.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nthu''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4sg.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nthi''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|1ex
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nīm''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|1in
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nint''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2pl.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nys''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|2pl.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nyth''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3pl.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nīch''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|3pl.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nīr''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4pl.m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nthich''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!scope="row"|4pl.f
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|''-nthir''
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}
====Tonal patterns of nominals====
Every noun falls under one of three tonal paradigms.
====Irregular nouns====
===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in not only number, definiteness and gender with their heads, but also in possessedness. Adjectival declension disagrees with nouns in that absolute possessive form of adjectives modifies the conjunct possessive of nouns. Adjectives also take degree inflection (positive, "less/least", "more/most", elative, "X enough", "too X"). Adjectives exhibit tonal ablaut like those of nouns.
====Declension====
====Degree====
Adjectives with degree inflections may be nominalized to derive, for example, meanings such as "supreme strength" from "the very strongest".
====Irregular adjectives====
===Pronouns===
====Personal====
The independent personal pronouns are used in equational sentences, and for emphasis of what is already marked on the heads, whether the marking is about the subject, direct object, or oblique.
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"| '''Independent personal pronouns'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
''na̋''
|
<!--pl-->
''châm''
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
''táŋên''
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
''zéi''
|
<!--pl-->
''srâs''
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
''véi''
|
<!--pl-->
''srâth''
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
''žá''
|
<!--pl-->
''žû''
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
''žî''
|
<!--pl-->
''žân''
|-
!|4.m
|
<!--sg-->
''ťá''
|
<!--pl-->
''ťû''
|-
!|4.f
|
<!--sg-->
''ťî''
|
<!--pl-->
''ťân''
|}
The fourth person has a more "focused" meaning, so it is used as the obviative and for other functions.
====Demonstrative====
The demonstratives have identical endings to personal pronouns in feminine singular and the plural. The adnominal demonstratives are ''mé'' (near speaker), ''ħé'' (near hearer), and ''ťá'' (distal; identical to 4th person pronoun), and the pronominal demonstratives are ''ím(e)'', ''íž(a)'', and ''íť(a)''.
When a demonstrative modifies a noun phrase, the noun and adjective modified take the indefinite form if unpossessed, and the definite form if possessed.
====Reflexive====
The reflexive pronoun is ''ktên'', identical to the gender and number of the subject.
====Reciprocal====
The reciprocal pronoun, "each other", is ''nadnék''. It originated from an adverb that was later reanalyzed as a pronoun.
===Table of correlatives===
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 600px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="10"|Table of correlatives
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Interrogative
!style="width: 120px; "|Near speaker
!style="width: 120px; "|Near hearer
!style="width: 120px; "|Distal
!style="width: 120px; "|Existential
!style="width: 120px; "|Negational
!style="width: 120px; "|Elective
!style="width: 120px; "|Collective
!style="width: 120px; "|Distributive
|}
The difference between the two words for 'here' is that of clusivity: ''mách'' means "where I am/we(exc) are" whereas ''dátè'' means "where we(inc) are".
===Verbs===
Finite verbs are marked for TAM, mirativity, voice (active and mediopassive), the subject's person, number, and gender and, if the direct object is definite, is obligatorily marked with the (usually direct) object's person, number, and gender in most TAMs, except in the imperative. The verb may agree with an indirect object (which is typically animate) instead of with the direct object. Object agreement is often omitted in poetry. Verbs also have several non-finite forms, used with various subordinating conjunctions and relative clauses.
{| class=wikitable
|+Finite verb template
!&minus;2!!&minus;1!!0!!1!!2!!3!!/Downstep
|-
|Mood/Evidential/Mirative||Preterite prefix||'''STEM'''||Supplementary aspect||Supplementary voice||Voice-TAM-Subject-Object||Voice-TAM-Subject-Object
|}
====Tense-Aspect-Mood====
=====Basic TAMs=====
The basic tenses, marked with a combination of tone, suffixes and prefixes, are:
*Imperative
*Present
*Past imperfective
*Past perfective
*Future imperfective
*Future perfective
*Jussive
======Imperative======
The imperative is used to issue positive, direct orders.
======Present======
The present is used for events that take/are taking place in the present time, or for gnomic statemnets.
======Jussive======
The jussive bears a wide range of uses:
* optatives (wishes), polite requests and hortatives (urging);
* prohibitions, with the prohibitive marker (''Ham skőtîr!'' "Don't walk!");
* imperatives in indirect speech, with a complementizer ("He ordered me to go back");
* purpose clauses, with a relativizer or other conjunctions; ("the word to say").
=====Supplementary aspects=====
======Inceptive======
The inceptive is the suffix ''-iħ'' (first conjugation) placed after the stem.
======Cessative======
The cessative is the suffix ''-ša'' (second conjugation).
======Perfect======
The perfect is formed periphrastically. The perfect clitic ''lakš'' is used with the past tenses to give the present perfect or pluperfect (there is no distinction) tense and is used with the future tense to give the future perfect tenses.
=====Supplementary voices=====
The applicative suffix, placed after the masculine singular imperative, is ''-t(e)n''.
=====Supplementary moods=====
The mirative is marked by a prefix consisting of first consonant of stem + e + last consonant of stem. This reduplicant is prefixed before the stem and any TAM affixes.
The subjunctive, used for doubtful statements and for hypothetical outcomes, is marked by a similar prefix, except that the consonants being in reverse order.
=====Non-finite forms=====
The non-finite forms are participles and two infinitives.
The participle, which is available for all verbal categories, is used to construct VOS clauses, where O and S are full noun phrases, or O is a noun and S is a third- or fourth-person pronoun. VOS sentences lend more emphasis to the predicate than the neutral VSO.
The possessor of the first infinitive represents the verb's subject. It is used in reason clauses, time clauses, indirect speech (as the first infinitive copula ''váls'' + participle) whose truth is doubted by the speaker, and more rarely purpose clauses.
The possessor of the second infinitive represents the verb's object. It is used as a complement to certain verbs and in any other situation calling for a verb with no independent subject or TAM, and is used adverbially with prepositions.
====Conjugation of the active====
The active voice is the default voice, used when the subject is the agent of the verb.
The three conjugations of Themsaran verbs are demonstrated below respectively with the verbs ''mól'' - 'thank', ''nésà'' - 'kill', ''tákvè'' - 'know'. The first conjugation subsumes ''ħ''-stem verbs, where the ''ħ'' assimilates into any consonant that begins an ending, and ''h''-stem verbs, for which only fricative-beginning endings are so geminated, and for other consonants, undergoes compensatory lengthening of the vowel preceding the ending.
=====Subject affixes=====
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | '''Imperative'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--sg-->
-
|
<!--pl-->
''mólè'''ns'''!''<br/>
''né'''àns'''!''<br/>
''takv'''êns'''!''
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
''mól!''<br/>
''nés'''à'''!''<br/>
''tákv'''è'''!''
|
<!--pl-->
''mólè'''ls'''!''<br/>
''nés'''àls'''!''<br/>
''takv'''êls'''!''
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''t'''!''<br/>
''nés'''àt'''!''<br/>
''takv'''ét'''!''
|
<!--pl-->
''mólè'''rs'''!''<br/>
''nés'''àrs'''!''<br/>
''takv'''êrs'''!''
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | '''Present'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''ȉ'''''<br/>
''nés'''ài'''''<br/>
''tákv'''èi'''''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''mà'''''<br/>
''nés'''àma'''''<br/>
''takv'''êma'''''
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
''mólè'''nse'''''<br/>
''nés'''ànse'''''<br/>
''takv'''ênse'''''
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
''mólè'''r'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''àr'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êr'''''
|
<!--pl-->
''mólè'''lse'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''àlse'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êlse'''''
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''ȅ'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''ȁ'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''îe'''''
|
<!--pl-->
''mólè'''rse'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''àrse'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êrse'''''
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''è'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''à'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''ȅ'''''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''vì'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''àvi'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''évi'''''
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''ìs'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''àis'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''ìes'''''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''tì'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''àti'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''éti'''''
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | '''Past imperfective'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
''mólé'''n'''<br/>
''chrīg'''án'''<br/>
''ga̋l'''îen'''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''àm'''<br/>
''chrǐg'''ȁm'''<br/>
''ga̋l'''éjam'''
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''tȁ'''<br/>
''chrīg'''átā'''<br/>
''ga̋l'''étā'''
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
''mólé'''r'''<br/>
''chrīg'''ár'''<br/>
''ga̋l'''îer'''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''slé'''<br/>
''chrīg'''aslé'''<br/>
''ga̋l'''ēslé'''
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''é'''<br/>
''chrīg'''â'''<br/>
''gāl'''ê'''
|rowspan=2|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''sré'''<br/>
''chrīg'''asré'''<br/>
''ga̋l'''ēsré'''
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''ès'''<br/>
''chrīg'''às'''<br/>
''ga̋l'''ês'''
<!--pl sync w/ 2fs-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''sàr'''<br/>
''chrǐg'''àsar'''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êsar'''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''srí'''<br/>
''chrīg'''asrí'''<br/>
''ga̋l'''ēsrí'''
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | '''Past perfective'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
'''''hé'''mol'''êi'''<br/>
'''''he'''chrīg'''âi'''<br/>
'''''hé'''gāl'''îe'''
|
<!--pl-->
'''''hé'''mól'''me'''<br/>
'''''he'''chrīg'''áme'''<br/>
'''''hé'''gāl'''éme'''
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
'''''hé'''mól'''tā'''<br/>
'''''he'''chrīg'''átā'''<br/>
'''''hé'''gāl'''étā'''
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
'''''hé'''molé'''r'''<br/>
'''''he'''chrīg'''ár'''<br/>
'''''hé'''gāl'''êr'''
|
<!--pl-->
'''''hé'''mol'''slé'''<br/>
'''''he'''chrīg'''aslé'''<br/>
'''''hé'''gāl'''ēslé'''
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
'''''hé'''mol'''é'''<br/>
'''''he'''chrīg'''â'''<br/>
'''''hé'''gāl'''ê'''
|rowspan=2|
<!--pl-->
'''''hé'''mol'''sré'''<br/>
'''''he'''chrīg'''asré'''<br/>
'''''hé'''gāl'''ēsré'''
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
'''''hé'''móle'''n'''<br/>
'''''he'''chrīg'''án'''<br/>
'''''hé'''gāl'''ên'''
<!--pl sync w/ 2fs-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
'''''hé'''mól'''ni'''<br/>
'''''he'''chrīg'''áni'''<br/>
'''''hé'''gāl'''éni'''
|
<!--pl-->
'''''hé'''mol'''srí'''<br/>
'''''he'''chrīg'''asrí'''<br/>
'''''hé'''gāl'''ēsrí'''
|}
With initial vowels the ''he'' prefix combines thus:
*''he+a→hā''
*''he+e→hē''
*''he+i→hei''
*''he+o→hō''
*''he+u→hev''
*''he+y→hev''
*he+long vowel/diphthong = h+long vowel/diphthong
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | '''Future imperfective'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''chè'''''<br/>
''chrǐg'''àche'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''éche'''''
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | '''Future perfective'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | '''Jussive'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''î'''''<br/>
''chrīg'''âi'''''<br/>
''gāl'''êi'''''<br/>
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''émt'''''<br/>
''chrīg'''ámt'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êmt'''''<br/>
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''édna'''''<br/>
''chrīg'''ádna'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''ědna'''''<br/>
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''îr'''''<br/>
''chrīg'''âir'''''<br/>
''gāl'''êir'''''<br/>
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''élt'''''<br/>
''chrīg'''ált'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êlt'''''
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''ét'''''<br/>
''chrīg'''ât'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êt'''''
|
<!--pl-->
''mól'''ért'''''<br/>
''chrīg'''árt'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''êrt'''''
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''ìn'''''<br/>
''chrīg'''àin'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''èin'''''<br/>
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
''mól'''isá'''''<br/>
''chrīg'''asá'''''<br/>
''ga̋l'''esá'''''<br/>
|
<!--pl-->
|}
=====Non-finite forms=====
The active participle is formed by infixing ⟨''an''⟩ before the nucleus of the first syllable of the stem of the third person masculine form and removing any final vowels.
The first infinitive is formed by suffixing ''-s'' to the 2nd person masculine singular imperative.
====Conjugation of the mediopassive====
The mediopassive marks the subject as a patient of the verb. Apart from passivity, mediopassives may have a derivational function; they may indicate reflexive action or change of state. As such there are quite a few deponent verbs, verbs that are inherently mediopassive, and also mediopassive counterparts of active intransitive verbs.
=====Subject affixes=====
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |'''Imperative'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--sg-->
-
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |'''Present'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
mólè'''rem'''
chrǐg'''àrem'''
ga̋l'''êrem'''
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |'''Past imperfective'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |'''Past perfective'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |'''Future imperfective'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |'''Future perfective'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 300px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" |'''Jussive'''
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|Singular
!style="width: 120px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|rowspan="2"|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|1.in
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|2.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.m
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|-
!|3.f
|
<!--sg-->
|
<!--pl-->
|}
====Object affixes====
:''Main article: [[Themsaran/Bipersonal affixes|Themsaran bipersonal affixes]]''
The object affixes combine at the end of the verb, sometimes in less predictable ways, to agree with the direct object.
{| class="graytable lightgraybg " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="15" |'''Object affixes'''
|-
!|1sg
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|3sg.m
!|3sg.f
!|4sg.m
!|4sg.f
!|1ex
!|1in
!|2pl.m
!|2pl.f
!|3pl.m
!|3pl.f
!|4pl.m
!|4pl.f
|-
|''-(e)n''
|''-ze''
|''-ve''
|''-(j)u''
|''-(j)i''
|''-thu''
|''-thi''
|''-am''
|''-(e)nt''
|''-sŋa''
|''-sŋe''
|''-(e)ch'', ''-ū''
|''-(e)r'', ''-īn''
|''-thech'', ''-thū''
|''-ther'', ''-thīn''
|}
====Non-finite forms====
The static passive participle is formed through the infix ⟨''ir''⟩ in the stem.
The dynamic passive participle is formed with the ⟨''(i)s''⟩.
===Prepositions===
Prepositions in Themsaran are inflected with pronominal enclitics. If the resulting combination is monosyllabic the syllable takes ´ or ˆ as the accent. If disyllabic the second takes the ´ accent.
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="15" |'''Pronominal enclitics on prepositions'''
|-
!|1sg
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|3sg.m
!|3sg.f
!|4sg.m
!|4sg.f
!|1ex
!|1in
!|2pl.m
!|2pl.f
!|3pl.m
!|3pl.f
!|4pl.m
!|4pl.f
|-
|''-(e)n''
|''-ze''
|''-vi''
|''-(j)u''
|''-(j)i''
|''-thu''
|''-thi''
|''-am''
|''-(e)nt''
|''-sra''
|''-sre''
|''-(e)ch''
|''-(e)r''
|''-thech''
|''-ther''
|}
The following are irregular prepositions:
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="15" |'''Inflection of ''ā, āC'' (comitative)'''
|-
!|1sg
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|3sg.m
!|3sg.f
!|4sg.m
!|4sg.f
!|1ex
!|1in
!|2pl.m
!|2pl.f
!|3pl.m
!|3pl.f
!|4pl.m
!|4pl.f
|-
|''āħán''
|''āzzé''
|''āvví''
|''āħá''
|''āħé''
|''ātthú''
|''ātthí''
|''ǎm''
|''ǎnt''
|''āsrá''
|''āsré''
|''āħách''
|''āħár''
|''ātthéch''
|''ātthér''
|}
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="15" |'''Inflection of ''di, d''' 'in, at''''
|-
!|1sg
!|2sg.m
!|2sg.f
!|3sg.m
!|3sg.f
!|4sg.m
!|4sg.f
!|1ex
!|1in
!|2pl.m
!|2pl.f
!|3pl.m
!|3pl.f
!|4pl.m
!|4pl.f
|-
|''dîen''
|''dîeze''
|''dîevi''
|''dîe''
|''dî''
|''dîethu''
|''dîethi''
|''dîem''
|''dîent''
|''dîesra''
|''dîesre''
|''dîech''
|''dîer''
|''dîethech''
|''dîether''
|}
===Numerals===
Themsaran employs a vigesimal numeral system.
{| class="graytable lightgraybg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="8"|Themsaran numerals
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|''n''
!style="width: 120px; "|''n''th
!style="width: 120px; "|''n'' times
!style="width: 120px; "|''n'' each/at a time
!style="width: 120px; "|1/''n''
!style="width: 120px; "|''n'' days
!style="width: 120px; "|''n'' years
|-
|?
|''jǐes''
|
|
|''jísslè''
|
|
|
|-
|1
|''kêm''
|
|
|''kêmslè''
|
|
|
|-
|2
|''títhâr''
|
|
|''tístlè''
|
|
|
|-
|3
|''nárgè''
|
|
|''nárslè''
|
|
|
|-
|4
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|5
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|6
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|7
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|8
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|9
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|10
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|11
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|12
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|13
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|14
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|15
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|16
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|17
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|18
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|19
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|20
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|21
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|40
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|60
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|80
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|100
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|120
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|140
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|160
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|180
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|200
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|220
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|240
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|260
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|280
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|300
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|320
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|340
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|360
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|380
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|400
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|20<sup>3</sup>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|20<sup>4</sup>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
==Syntax==
The default constituent order is verb-subject-pronominal oblique object-direct object. Any constituent may be topicalized or focalized by being placed in front of the verb.
===Noun phrases===
Numerals precede nouns; possessors follow their possessa (with poetic exceptions); demonstratives occur after attributive adjectives, which follow nouns. Inflected quantifiers (uninflected quantifiers, such as ''rôg'' "every/all", precede the numeral) come after the adjective by default, but precede the noun when a demonstrative is used and precede the numeral when a numeral is used. Within these boundaries there is a lot of leeway; an attributive adjective or a demonstrative can occupy any position between its head and the relative clause.
====Distributive possession====
To express the meaning of "our/your/their respective NP", the last noun of the NP is reduplicated in absolute possessed forms. The plural persons are decomposed as follows:
*1{{sc|ex.m}}: noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-3{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} or noun-3{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}}
*1{{sc|ex.f}}: noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-3{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} or noun-3{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}}
*1{{sc|in.m}}: noun-2{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} or noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-2{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}}
*1{{sc|in.f}}: noun-2{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} or noun-1{{sc|sg}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-2{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}}
*2{{sc|pl.m}}: noun-2{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-2{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}}
*2{{sc|pl.f}}: noun-2{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-2{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}}
*3{{sc|pl.m}}: noun-3{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-3{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}}
*3{{sc|pl.f}}: noun-3{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-3{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}}
*4{{sc|pl.m}}: noun-4{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-4{{sc|sg.m}}›{{sc|sg}}
*4{{sc|pl.f}}: noun-4{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}} noun-4{{sc|sg.f}}›{{sc|sg}}
These exact forms are always used disregarding the finer aspects of gender composition in the group. Thus, for example, if the only male in a group speaks of "our (exclusive) respective villages", he will still say "my village his village".
===Equational sentences===
The copula ''vák'' is rarely used in the present tense. Instead, a 3rd- or a 4th-person pronoun (cliticized and therefore toneless) agreeing with the subject may be used anywhere in the sentence, or omitted. Both subject-predicate and predicate-subject orders may be found. The predicate-subject order tends to indicate a more permanent state of being, while the subject-predicate order denotes a more temporary state. The uncliticized pronoun is used when the subject is pronominal or when the copular pronoun is used at the end of a clause.
===Predicative possession===
"X has Y" is expressed with the verb ''gîe'' (exist, there is) followed by the possessive noun phrase "Y-indefinite-of X".
===Relative clauses===
The participial relative clause is introduced with a participle. An active participle's possessor is the object and a passive participle's possessor is the agent.
The finite relative clause is introduced optionally with a relativizer ''rin'' (non-restrictive and default) or ''nitrôg'' (restrictive; etymologically "whenever").
===Coreferentiality===
There are several situations where the strictly head-marking language tracks coreferentiality, or which agreeing noun a verb or pronoun taking a given agreement refers to, with fourth person pronouns or by other means.
====Across clauses====
====Content questions====
The fourth person object suffix is used on the verb, not the third person, when the interrogative word is the direct object.
{{Gloss|phrase = Jé henesan{{blue|ú}}?|IPA=/jéꜜ hènesanuꜜ/|morphemes = jé ⟨he⟩nesa⟨n⟩-{{blue|u}} |gloss = who ⟨PAST.PFV⟩kill.animate.subject⟨PAST.PFV.3SG.M.NOM⟩-{{blue|3SG.M.OBJ}}  |translation = Who killed him?}}
{{Gloss|phrase = Jé henesan{{blue|thú}}?|IPA=/jéꜜ hènesanθuꜜ/|morphemes = jé ⟨he⟩nesa⟨n⟩-{{blue|thu}} |gloss = who ⟨PAST.PFV⟩kill.animate.subject⟨PAST.PFV.3SG.M.NOM⟩-{{blue|4SG.M.OBJ}}  |translation = Whom did he kill?/Who is it he killed?}}
====Polar questions and focus====
Constituents fronted in front of the verb is the focused element. Without fronting, the question becomes a neutral question about the truth value. The "fourth person" object may be better seen as a type of [[w:inverse marking|inverse marking]]; it indicates that what is expected to be the subject (the noun preceding the verb, or otherwise the noun directly after the verb) is not the subject.
{{Gloss|phrase = Ei henesanú Júlèm?|IPA=/èihenesanuꜜ júꜜlem/|morphemes = ei=⟨he⟩nesa⟨n⟩-u J. |gloss = Q=⟨PAST.PFV⟩kill.animate.subject⟨PAST.PFV.3SG.M.NOM⟩-3SG.M.OBJ  |translation = Did Júlèm kill him? (or didn't he?)}}
{{Gloss|phrase = Ei henesanthú Júlèm?|IPA=/èihenesanθuꜜ júꜜlem/|morphemes = ei=⟨he⟩nesa⟨n⟩-thu J. |gloss = Q=⟨PAST.PFV⟩kill.animate.subject⟨PAST.PFV.3SG.M.NOM⟩-4SG.M.OBJ J. |translation = Did he kill Júlèm? (or didn't he?)}}
{{Gloss|phrase = Ei Júlèm henesanthú?|IPA=/éijuꜜlem hènesanθuꜜ/|morphemes = ei=⟨he⟩nesa⟨n⟩-thu J. |gloss = Q=J. ⟨PAST.PFV⟩kill.animate.subject⟨PAST.PFV.3SG.M.NOM⟩-4SG.M.OBJ  |translation = Is Júlèm the one he killed?}}
{{Gloss|phrase = Ei Júlèm henesanú?|IPA=/éijuꜜlem hènesanuꜜ/|morphemes = ei=⟨he⟩nesa⟨n⟩-u J. |gloss = Q=J. ⟨PAST.PFV⟩kill.animate.subject⟨PAST.PFV.3SG.M.NOM⟩-3SG.M.OBJ  |translation = Is Júlèm the one who killed him?}}
{{Gloss|phrase = Ei ťá henesanú Júlèm?|IPA=/éit͡ʃ´aꜜ júꜜlem hènesanuꜜ/|morphemes = ei=ťá ⟨he⟩nesa⟨n⟩-u J. |gloss = Q= 4SG.M ⟨PAST.PFV⟩kill.animate.subject⟨PAST.PFV.3SG.M.NOM⟩-3SG.M.OBJ  |translation = Is he the one who killed Júlèm?}}
{{Gloss|phrase = Ei ťá henesanthú Júlèm?|IPA=/éit͡ʃ´aꜜ júꜜlem hènesanθuꜜ/|morphemes = ei=ťá ⟨he⟩nesa⟨n⟩-thu J. |gloss = Q= 4SG.M ⟨PAST.PFV⟩kill.animate.subject⟨PAST.PFV.3SG.M.NOM⟩-4SG.M.OBJ  |translation = Is he the one Júlèm killed?}}
====Possessives====
If an absolute possessed noun has a possessor who is the subject of the clause it is in, the third person is used. All other possessors of the same gender and number are in the fourth person.
====Relative clauses====
Any pronoun which corefers with the head of the relative clause is in the fourth person (or first/second person if referring to first/second person). The non-resumptive third-person pronouns are all ordinary third person.
====Indirect speech====
If the complement clause's subject corefers with the subject of the main clause, it is left unstated in the complement clause. Otherwise the third- or fourth-person pronoun is used as the subject as appropriate.
==="Impersonal" sentences===
There exist impersonal pronouns (identical to the interrogative "who"/"what", and distinguished by not being fronted), but they are only used as an intransitive subject. In other cases, the verb is put into the mediopassive (or mediopassive of causative or applicative, as appropriate).
==Derivational morphology==
*-ínt-: diminutive
*-īd (''f'', 3): abstract nouns
*-ol- (1/2): pejorative
==Sample text==
'''''Sárthaittígā Ťirléŋħā sŋéfȉl Láugvi̋dnīch Itávō'''''
'''Universal Declaration of Human Rights
'''''Méisȁ 1'''''
'''Article 1'''
''Ta̋ŋrèvi rôg itávō dûanach ie státhe̋dach sŋéfȉl ħalgīdnîch ie láugvīdnîch.''
be.born.-{{sc|pres.3pl.m}} all human-{{sc|pl.def}} free.{{sc|pl.m}} and equal.{{sc|pl.m}} w.r.t. dignity-{{sc|3pl.m›def.sg}} and entitlement-{{sc|3pl.m›def.sg}}
All humans are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
''Pirláħe votéch ťlâħe ie ftiļiny̋že, tóríš širŋúr tolbasêich ān nadnék nai hélki šyrfǎmīd.''
bestow.{{sc|‹pss.stat.ptcp›}}-{{sc|sg.f}} {{sc|dat}}-{{sc|3pl.m}} reason and conscience, therefore compulsory.{{sc|sg.m}} behave.{{sc|first.inf-3pl.m›def}} {{sc|com}} one.another {{sc|ins}} spirit-{{sc|3sg.f›indef.sg/conj}} brotherhood.
They have been endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A priori]]

Latest revision as of 16:14, 12 April 2022

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