Dundulanyä: Difference between revisions

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==Syntax==

===Verb phrase===

====Positional-classificatory verbs====

Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled.

Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories:

* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height;

* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;

* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);

* People, children, pets and farm animals;

* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;

* Non-contained liquids;

* Contained liquids;

* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour;

* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles;

* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks;

* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals.

According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are:

* Stative-existential:

** Horizontal ("to be; to lie");

** Seated ("to be; to sit");

** Vertical ("to be; to stand");

* Verbs of placing:

** Horizontal ("to put, lay");

** Seated ("to put, seat");

** Vertical ("to put, place");

* Verbs of carrying:

** in the hands or arms;

** on the head;

** on the back;

** by vehicle;

* Verbs of pulling, dragging;

* Verbs of throwing.

For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root.

Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash").

The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball".

Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".

{| class="redtable lightredbg"

|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots

|-

|-

! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place (vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle

|-

! Spherical/proportionate

| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' || - || - || ''√klem-'' || - || ''√śro-''

|-

! Long, stiff objects

| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' || ''√chās-'' || ''√dum-'' || ''√lun-'' || ''√yaṅk-'' || ''√eñj-'' || rowspan=2 | ''√khul-'' || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-''

|-

! Ropes Long, non stiff objects

| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' || rowspan=4 | - || - || -

|-

! People, children Pets and farm animals

| ''-√uṭ-'' (-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' (-akava) || ''-√de-'' (-edaya) || ''-√uṭ-on-'' || ''-√ko-on'' (-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' (-dayon-) || ''-√tul-'' || ''√yaṅk-'' || ''√eñj-'' || rowspan=7 | - || ''(√yug-)''

|-

! Masses, generic/uncategorized Contained, heterogeneous masses Figurative

| (amyava) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' || ''√kon-''

|-

! Non-contained liquids

| (emaya) || ''√me-'' || - || - || ''√mañc-''

|-

! Contained liquids

| (aśoma) || ''√śom-'' || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' || rowspan=2 | ''√lun-'' || rowspan=2 | ''√so-'' || ''√klem-'' || rowspan=2 | -

|-

! Contained masses of homogeneous solids

| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' || ''√ilm-''

|-

! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids Mixed bundles

| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' || ''√yup-'' || ''√ilm-'' || ''√so-'' || ''√klem-'' || ''√śro-''

|-

! Sheets, paper sheets Slabs, rocks

| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' || ''ta-√hās-'' || ''√ilm-'' || ''√so-'' || ''√khul-'' || ''√yug-''

|-

! Large objects that cannot be carried Wild animals

| (-edaya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' || ''√tvoṣ-'' || ''√chās-'' || - || - || - || ''√khul-'' || ''√khul-'' || -

|}

====Telicity in perception verbs====

A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs.

Dundulanyä: Difference between revisions

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