Chlouvānem: Difference between revisions

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: ''tami šubīdṛke lenanājate.'' "we decided to tear it down."
: ''tami šubīdṛke lenanājate.'' "we decided to tear it down."


====Positional verbs====
====Positional and motion verbs====
Positional verbs are among the most complex features of Chlouvānem grammar. In order to build verbs such as "to stay", "to be seated", and "to lie", Chlouvānem uses a base which is then prefixed with a locative particle, building verbs meaning "to stay on", "to stay under", "to stay in", and so on. There are 26 prefixes for each of the three verbs:
''→ See [[Chlouvānem/Positional and motion verbs|Chlouvānem positional and motion verbs]].''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Prefix !! To stay (tiā-/tim-) !! To be seated (mirt-) !! To lie (ut-)
|-
| Generic position ('''ta-''') || tatiāke<br/><small>(''tatimu''; ''tatiāk''; ''taɂatiām'')</small> || tamirte<br/><small>(''tamertu''; ''tamirtau''; ''temirtim'')</small> || tokte<br/><small>(''tautu''; ''totau''; ''toʔutim'')</small>
|-
| On(to), above ('''ān-''') || āntiāke || āmmirte || ānukte
|-
| Under, below ('''šu-''') || šutiāke || šumirte || šūkte
|-
| In the middle of, between ('''khl-''') || khlatiāke || khlumirte || khlukte
|-
| Together with, among ('''gin-''') || gintiāke || gimmirte || ginukte
|-
| Within inside ('''nī-''') || nītiāke || nīmirte || nyukte
|-
| Near ('''ū(b)-''') || ūtiāke || ūmirte || ūbukte
|-
| Far ('''bis-''') || bistiāke || bismirte || bisukte
|-
| Physically attached; mounting an animal/a bike ('''tad-''') || tandiāke || tadmirte || tadukte
|-
| Hanging from; upside down ('''įs-''') || įstiāke || įsmirte || įsukte
|-
| In(to), inside ('''na(ñ)-''') || natiāke || namirte || nañukte
|-
| Outside, outwards ('''kau-''') || kautiāke || kaumirte || kavukte
|-
| Opposite to; somewhere else ('''viṣ-''') || viṣṭyāke || viṣmirte || viṣukte
|-
| Around ('''kami-''') || kamitiāke || kamimirte || kamyukte
|-
| Behind ('''prь-''') || pritiāke || primirte || priukte
|-
| In front of ('''mai-''') || maitiāke || maimirte || mayukte
|-
| In a corner; on a border; at the limits of ('''vai-''') || vaitiāke || vaimirte || vayukte
|-
| Next to; alongside ('''sāṭ-''') || sāṭṭyāke || sāṭmirte || sāṭukte
|-
| In the center of ('''lā(d)-''') || lātiāke || lāmirte || lādukte
|-
| On the left ('''vyā-''') || vyātiāke || vyāmirte || vyokte
|-
| On the right ('''māha-''') || māhatiāke || māhamirte || māhokte
|-
| Facing; towards ('''pid-''') || pindiāke || pidmirte || pidukte
|-
| Facing inside; near the center; <small>''mot.:'' convergent</small> ('''nalь-''') || nalьtiāke || nalьmirte || naliukte
|-
| Facing outside; far from the center; <small>''mot.:'' divergent</small> ('''vād-''') || vāndiāke || vādmirte || vādukte
|}
 
These basic forms have static meanings, and are always intransitive exterior verbs.<br/>Their causative forms translate the English verbs "to put", "to seat" and "to lay" respectively, and are transitive when exterior and intransitive (middle) when interior. Verbs equivalent to English ''to remain'' are formed by attaching these prefixes to the verb ''lįnake'' for the analogues of ''-tiā/-tim'' (e.g. ''tatiāke'' → ''lįnake''; ''āntiāke'' → ''āṃlįnake''; ''šutiāke'' → ''šulįnake'' and so on), while for the others (''to remain seated; to remain lying'') the construction ''lįnake + positional infinitive'' is used (e.g. ''tamirtelęnu'' "I remain seated").
 
Note that '''-tiā''' verbs all have their basic (present/imperative, subjunctive) stem in '''-tim-''': ''tatimu'', ''ēletimu'', ''kautimu''...
 
These verbs all use two different place arguments: ''actual position'', which requires '''locative''' case, and ''relative position'', requiring '''exessive''' case. The latter often denotes non-inclusion in the mentioned place. Some examples:
# ''jñūmat'' māhatimu.<br/>tree-<small>EX</small>.<small>SG</small>. stand.right.of.<small>IND</small>.<small>PRES</small>-<small>1SG</small>.<small>EXT</small>.<small>PATIENT.TRG</small>.<br/>I'm standing to the right of the tree.
# ''dvārme'' vaimertu.<br/>room-<small>LOC</small>.<small>SG</small>. be.seated.in.corner.<small>IND</small>.<small>PRES</small>-<small>1SG</small>.<small>EXT</small>.<small>PATIENT.TRG</small>.<br/>I'm sitting in a corner of the room.
# ''dvārmat'' vaimertu.<br/>room-<small>EX</small>.<small>SG</small>. be.seated.in.corner.<small>IND</small>.<small>PRES</small>-<small>1SG</small>.<small>EXT</small>.<small>PATIENT.TRG</small>.<br/>I'm sitting in a corner outside the room.
# ''jñūmat'' ''ūnime'' priotu.<br/>tree-<small>EX</small>.<small>SG</small>. street-<small>LOC</small>.<small>SG</small>. lie.behind.<small>IND</small>.<small>PRES</small>-<small>1SG</small>.<small>EXT</small>.<small>PATIENT.TRG</small>.<br/>I'm lying in the street, behind the tree.
 
=====Positional prefixes as derivational affixes=====
Positional prefixes are commonly used as derivational affixes, often with only a figurative representation of the positional meaning. Some examples:
* '''mai-''' (in front of) is often used for something done ''in advance'', or ''to someone''. It is also used for iteratives (e.g. ''maimilge'' "to keep hearing" (but also "to hear in advance"))
* '''ān-''' (above) and '''na(ñ)-''' (in, inside) may be used as intensives (but ''cam-'' is more common) or inceptives.
* '''šu-''' (down, below) (and also ''kau'' (outside), especially for states) may be used with a terminative meaning.
 
The root ''męlь-'' (to give) is a good example for this: from the basic verb ''męlike'' we can find derivations such as ''primęlike'' (to give back <small>(exterior)</small>, to return <small>(interior)</small>), ''maimęlike'' (to prepare), ''āmmęlike'' (to dedicate oneself (mentally) to), ''namęlike'' (to dedicate oneself (physically) to), or ''šumęlike'' (to renounce). An inceptive/terminative pair is ''pugle'' (to sleep) → ''nampugle'' (to fall asleep) and ''kaupugle'' (to wake up).
 
=====Positions without positional verbs=====
Positional prefixes may be used to express positions without position verbs. There are three possible strategies.
 
The morphologically easiest is to simply attach the positional prefix in front of the verb and express that position with the locative, so for example we have:
: ''lilǣ dvārme nateyašu'' "I read in my room".
: ''lilǣ dvārme natekilįm'' "we talk in my room".
 
However, while always correct, there may be some ambiguities because of the use of positional prefixes as derivational ones: the latter example shows one of these ambiguities, as ''nakulke'' means both "to talk (in somewhere)" and "to begin to talk/speak". Another strategy, very common in speech, is to use the appropriate positional verb followed by the action verb. This has the advantage of showing the type of position:
: ''lilǣ dvārme nañotu yašute'' "I read while laying in my room" (note that "to lay in one's room" idiomatically means "to lay on the bed").
: ''lilǣ dvārme namerįm kilįṃte'' "we talk while sitting in my room".
 
The third strategy, correct but more proper in formal writings than in speech is to put the position as the derived noun (in ''-timas'' / ''-mirtas'' / ''-utis'') in the locative and the location in the genitive:
: ''liliai dvārmi nañutie yašute'' "I read while laying in my room" (lit. "in a sitting position in the inside of my room").
: ''liliai dvārmi namirte kilįṃte'' "we talk while sitting in my room".
 
Note that some locations are often expressed with the last one anyway, especially if they're idiomatic — a notable example being ''yųljavyī ūtime/ūmirte'' "standing/sitting in the kitchen", as ''yųljavyāh'' originally meant "fire for [cooking] food" and while it later was extended to "kitchen" the location is still expressed as such ("in the kitchen" = "near the fire").
 
====Motion verbs - Duldaradhaus====
''→ See also [[Chlouvānem/Positional and motion verbs|Chlouvānem positional and motion verbs]].''
 
Along with positional verbs, ''motion verbs'' (sg. ''duldaradhūs'', pl. ''duldaradhaus'') are another complex but essential part of Chlouvānem grammar. Motion verbs can be ''monodirectional'' (''tūtugirdaradhūs'', ''-aus'') or ''multidirectional'' (''tailьgirdaradhūs'', ''-aus''), and all verbs come in pairs, each member of a pair being used in different contexts.<br/>
Historically, most of the multidirectional verbs (except the "suppletive" ''peithake'', ''pūrṣake'', and ''dulde'') have been derived as iterative forms of the original Proto-Lahob verbs (continued by the monodirectionals), as in PLB *mudʱ- → ''mudh''- vs. *máw-re-dʱ- → ''mordh''-.
 
The motion verbs of Chlouvānem are:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Meaning !! Monodirectional verb (root) !! Multidirectional verb (root)
|-
| to go, to walk || ''flulke'' (flun-) || ''peithake''
|-
| to go with a vehicle<small> (trans.)<br/>(except small boats, bikes, and airplanes)</small> || ''vaske'' || ''pūrṣake''
|-
| to ride, to mount <small>(trans.)</small> || ''nūkkhe'' (nūkh-) || ''nærkhake''
|-
| to go towards, to be directed to <small>(monodir.)</small><br/>to move <small>(multidir.)</small><ref>Causative forms of both verbs are "to move" (transitive) with the mono/multidirectional distinction kept.</ref> || ''girake'' || ''dulde'' (duld-)
|-
| to run || ''mṛcce'' || ''mālchake''
|-
| to swim || ''lįke'' || ''lærṣake''
|-
| to fly || ''mugdhe'' (mudh-) || ''mordhake''
|-
| to float in the air<br/>to go with a balloon or zeppelin || ''yåjyake'' || ''yējrake''
|-
| to float on water<br/>to go with a small boat, to row || ''uṭake'' || ''arṭake''
|-
| to run <small>(trans.)<br/>(e.g. river, water)</small><ref>In Chlouvānem, rivers run ''a territory'', not ''in'' nor ''through a territory''.</ref> || ''buñjñake'' || —
|-
| to roll || ''pṝke'' || ''pārlake''
|-
| to climb || ''nittake'' || ''nērpake''
|-
| to jump || ''mųke'' || ''mårṣake''
|-
| to crawl || ''ñulge'' (ñug-) || ''ñoerake''<ref>Irregular in the indicative present singular - ''ñoergu'', ''ñoergi'', ''ñoergē'' - regular everywhere else - ''ñoerayǣ'', ''ñoerįm'', ''ñoerau'', ''añoeram'', ''ñoeriṣyam''...</ref>
|-
| to fall || ''sturake'' || —
|-
| to carry, bring (on foot) <small>(trans.)</small> || ''dumbhake'' || ''dårbhake''
|-
| to carry, bring (using a vehicle) <small>(trans.)</small> || ''tulьje'' || ''lerjike''
|-
| to pull <small>(trans.)</small> || ''khulike'' || ''kharliake''
|}
 
Monodirectional verbs are used when there's movement in a single direction, or when the destination is the focus of the verb:
: ''jāyim tarlāmahom fliven'' - the girl walks to school.
: ''keikom vasau'' - I went to the park [using a vehicle].
: ''liliā ñæltai kitom jaje janāyų iliha'' - my sisters have swum home in the igarapé from the port.
This last example shows all three cases used for location complements: dative (in lative use) for directions (= ''tarlāmahom'', ''keikom'', ''kitom''), locative for where the action takes place (''jaje''), and ablative for origins (''janāyų'').


Multidirectional verbs have different uses:
Positional and motion verbs are a semantically and syntactically defined category of Chlouvānem verbs that constitutes one of the most complex parts overall of Chlouvānem grammar, with similar (though often more simplified with time) in all other Lahob languages; the Chlouvānem system is essentially the same as the one reconstructed for Proto-Lahob.
* Generic or habitual actions:
: ''jāyim tarlāmahom peithē'' - the girl regularly walks to school.
: ''saminą liliā ñæltai jaje lærṣayivē'' - when they were children, my sisters regularly swam in the igarapé.
* Movement inside a specific location (in locative case, or expressed through locative trigger voice), without any specified direction:
: ''marte peithalieh'' - we walk around the city.
: ''jaja lærṣērā'' - as for the igarapé, someone is swimming in there.
* Gnomic or potential meanings:
: ''gūṇai mordhīran'' - birds [can] fly.
: ''sūrṣirāhe lalāruṇai pāmvyų lilų nanū dårbhīrante'' - large lalāruṇai [can] carry more than three people.
*(in the past or perfect) completed movements: movement to a place and then returning back.
: ''liliā buneya galiākinom mordhek'' - my older sister went to Galiākina by plane [and came back].
: ''liliā buneya galiākinom mudhek'' - my older sister went to Galiākina by plane [but she's still there {or at least she was at the time relevant to the topic}].
Except for this last meaning, multidirectional verbs are never used in the perfect.<br/>
In auxiliary constructions, monodirectional verbs are never used as habituals (infinitive + ''ñeaɂake''), while multidirectional ones are never used as progressives (impf.subj. + ''lā'' + ''gyake''):
: ''liliā buneya galiākinom mordhakeñǣɂek'' - my older sister regularly went to Galiākina by plane.
: ''liliā buneya galiākinom mugdhīti lā moe'' - my older sister was flying to Galiākina.


Note that monodirectional verbs do not form frequentatives, as their multidirectional counterparts already have a frequentative meaning. Frequentative verbs derived from multidirectional ones have an iterative meaning:
Positional verbs (''jalyadaradhūs'', pl. ''jalyadaradhaus'') translate verbs such as "to stay", "to be seated", and "to lie", (as well as their middle and causative forms) with prefixes that are semantically comparable to English prepositions. Motion verbs are more similar to English, being satellite-framed (the satellite, in the Chlouvānem case, being the prefix), but there is an added complexity because motion verbs can be ''monodirectional'' (''tūtugirdaradhūs'', ''-aus'') or ''multidirectional'' (''tailьgirdaradhūs'', ''-aus''), and most verbs come in pairs, each member of a pair being used in different contexts.
: ''kitom flå'' - I walk/am walking home.
: ''tulūɂa bembīyi kitom peithu'' - I regularly walk home at six in the afternoon.
: ''tulūɂa bembīyi kitom peipathveyu'' - I keep walking/going home at six in the afternoon.


====Origin prefixes====
<!-- ====Origin prefixes====
Positional prefixes are used with motion verbs in order to more specifically state direction; as they get a directional meaning, most of these prefixes also have a corresponding origin prefix:
Positional prefixes are used with motion verbs in order to more specifically state direction; as they get a directional meaning, most of these prefixes also have a corresponding origin prefix:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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Note that the sense of "to wear" is most usually translated with patient-trigger voice - e.g. ''pāṇḍire jūnekah tę kamikyāyē'' "(s)he wears white robes" - while "to put on" with agent-trigger voice ''pāṇḍire jūneku kamitekyāyē'' "(s)he puts/is putting on white robes".
Note that the sense of "to wear" is most usually translated with patient-trigger voice - e.g. ''pāṇḍire jūnekah tę kamikyāyē'' "(s)he wears white robes" - while "to put on" with agent-trigger voice ''pāṇḍire jūneku kamitekyāyē'' "(s)he puts/is putting on white robes".


A few more specific verbs exist, like for example the pair ''kamilāṇṭake''/''kįlalāṇṭake'', used for putting on/taking off a ''lāṇṭepenai'' (colloquially just ''penai''), a kind of net made of Calemerian juta (''lāriṭa'') usually worn by adolescent girls (traditionally it was worn by unmarried women) with "cotton" hair (''bhadvausīs''<ref>Plural only, shaped on ''pārīs'' (hair).</ref>, or how Chlouvānem people call "Afro-textured hair").
A few more specific verbs exist, like for example the pair ''kamilāṇṭake''/''kįlalāṇṭake'', used for putting on/taking off a ''lāṇṭepenai'' (colloquially just ''penai''), a kind of net made of Calemerian juta (''lāriṭa'') usually worn by adolescent girls (traditionally it was worn by unmarried women) with "cotton" hair (''bhadvausīs''<ref>Plural only, shaped on ''pārīs'' (hair).</ref>, or how Chlouvānem people call "Afro-textured hair"). -->


===Relative clauses===
===Relative clauses===
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