Valthungian

Valthungian
Grējutungiška Rasta
Pronunciation	[/ˈgrai̯.juˌtuŋ.giʃ.kɑ ˈrɑs.tɑ/]
Created by	BenJamin P. Johnson, additionally creator of: Brooding Dlatci Grayis Maltcégj Northeadish Valthungian
Date	2010
Language family	Indo-European Germanic East Germanic Valthungian
Language codes
ISO 639-3	none

Valthungian is an East Germanic language descended from a language that was probably mutually intelligible with Gothic, though much of its corpus cannot have been inherited from the language of Wulfilas. It is likely, however, that the speakers of the ancestor of Valthungian did consider themselves Goths, as reflected in its name. (It is likely similar in development to Modern High German – Deutsch – which is not directly descended from Old High German, but rather a similar dialect spoken by a group who also considered themselves “Diutisk.”) While it shares many of the areal changes of the Northwest Germanic languages, it is also marked by distinctive changes in palatalization, which, while similar to those of Old English, are most likely influenced by contact with Slavic languages.

Writing System

Alphabet & Pronunciation

Here I give the traditional Valthungian letters followed by the Romanization I use for them in the second row. The Romanization is used throughout this article.

a	ǣ	b	g	ǧ	d	ð	e
[ɑ] aska ‘ash’	[e̞ː] ǣjus ‘horse’	[b] berkna ‘birch’	[ɡ] giva ‘gift’	[ʤ] ǧus ‘creature’	[d] daǧ ‘day’	[ð] ǣði ‘mother’	[e̞] erða ‘earth’
ž	h	þ	i	j	k	l	m
[ʐ] akuže ‘axe’	[h] haglas ‘hail’	[θ] þornus ‘thorn’	[i] igil ‘hedgehog’	[j] jēr ‘year’	[k,kʰ] kune ‘family’	[l] lagus ‘lake’	[m] matna ‘man’
n	o	p	r	s	š	t	č
[n] nǭþs ‘need’	[o̞] orte ‘garden’	[p,pʰ] perðra ‘chance’	[r] rǣða ‘wheel’	[s] sōgil ‘sun’	[ʃ] šug ‘household’	[t],tʰ] tījus ‘Teu’	[ʧ] čukin ‘chicken’
u	v	f	w	œ	y	ǭ
[u] uvils ‘bad’	[v] ivras ‘boar’	[f] fǣjo ‘cattle’	[w] wynia ‘joy’	[ø̞] œrča ‘farmer’	[y] ynča ‘ounce’	[o̞ː] ǭsus ‘ox’

Non-Alphabetic Variants

ā	ē	ī	ō	ū	œ̄	ȳ
[ɑː] āde ‘egg’	[ai̯] ēls ‘eel’	[iː] īs ‘ice’	[au̯] ōðlas ‘inheritance’	[uː] ūrus ‘aurochs’	[ø̞ː] auge ‘island’	[yː] ȳftigi ‘timeliness’

Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered to be part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically to be the equivalent of its doubled short counterpart. That is, ‹ā› is equivalent to ‹aa›, ‹ē› to ‹ee›, ‹ī› to ‹ii›, and so on. (The long vowels ‹ǣ› and ‹ǭ› are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their Romanized forms.)

(NB: The Valthungian alphabet, while mainly latin- and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented in this wiki are a Romanization of the letters shown in the table above.)

Orthography

The orthography of Valthungian is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions:

1. The letter ‹n› is used before ‹g› or ‹k› to indicate the velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, ‹ng› is [ŋg] and ‹nk› is [ŋk]. (E.g. drinkna [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.)
2. In combinations where ‹ng› is followed by another nasal consonant, [g] is elided in speech: ‹ngm› is [ŋm] and ‹ngn› is [ŋn]. (E.g. gangna [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋg.na].) In rapid speech this may also occur to the other nasal-stop combinations ‹mbn›, ‹mbm›, ‹ndm›, and ‹ndn›; sometimes the stop may also become glottal.
3. The realization of ‹ē› as /ai̯/ may vary greatly: [ɛi̯ ~ ʌi̯ ~ æi̯ ~ ai̯ ~ ɑi̯]
4. The realization of ‹ō› as /au̯/ may vary greatly: [ɔu̯ ~ ʌu̯ ~ au̯ ~ ɑu̯ ~ ɒu̯]
5. The combination ‹rju› is realized as [rɛu̯] (rather than the expected [rju]). (E.g. frjusna [frɛu̯s.na] ‘to freeze’.)
6. The diphthong ‹eu› is realized as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. sneugna [snɛu̯g.na] ‘to snow’.)
7. The diphthong ‹œu› is realized as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]).
8. For some speakers, word-final ‹þs› may be realized as [t̪s].
9. For some speakers, medial ‹tl› (usually derived from earlier /ll/) may be realized as [dɮ].

Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent only if:

1. The stress is not on the first syllable, and
2. the stressed syllable is a short vowel. (Long vowels cannot be unstressed, though they may sometimes take secondary stress.)

For example, fergúne ‘mountain’, but garǣts ‘correct’.

Ligatures & Liaisons

When two like vowels of equal value come together, the words may form a ligature. This is most common with the articles (sā + a-, sō + u-, etc.) and particles (e.g nī + i-).

• Articles
  • Mandatory:
    • sā, hwā, twā + a-, ā- → s’ā-, hw’ā-, tw’ā-
      • sā aplas → s’āplas, ‘the apple’
      • twā aðna → tw’āðna ‘two seasons’
    • sō, þō, hō + u-, ō- → s’ō-, þ’ō-, h’ō-
      • sō uréča → s’ōréča, ‘the persuit’
      • sō ōs → s’ōs, ‘the ewe’
    • þǣ, twǣ + e-, ǣ- → þ’ǣ-, tw’ǣ-
      • þǣ ǣjus → þ’ǣjus ‘the horses’
      • twǣ elis → tw’ǣlis ‘two others’
    • nī, þrī, hī + i-, ī- → n’ī-, þr’ī-, h’ī-
      • nī ist → n’īst, ‘isn’t’
      • hī īsran → h’īsran ‘this iron’
  • Optional:
    • sō, þō + V- → sw’V-, þw’V-
      • sō akuže, sw’akuže ‘the axe’
      • þō ī, þw’ī ‘those which’

Alternative Writing Systems

Cursive

Coming soon...

Phonology

Vowels

	Short Vowels			Long Vowels			Diphthongs
	Front	Back		Front	Back		Front	Back
Closed	i · y [i · y]	u [u]		ī · ȳ [iː · yː]	ū [uː]	Closed-to-
Mid	e · œ [e̞ · ø̞]	o [o̞]		ǣ · œ̄ [e̞ː · ø̞ː]	ǭ [o̞ː]	Mid-to-	œu [œy̑]	eu [ɛu̯]
Open		a [ɑ]			ā [ɑː]	Open-to-	ē [ai̯]	ō [au̯]

Consonants

	Bilabial	Labio- dental	Dental	Alveolar	Palato- alveolar	Velar	Glottal
Plosive	p · b [p~pʰ · b]			t · d [t~tʰ · d]		k · g [k~kʰ · g]
Affricate					č · ǧ [ʧ · ʤ]
Nasal	· m [m]			· n [n]		· n1 [ŋ]
Fricative		f · v [f · v]	ð · þ [ð · θ]	s · [s]	š · ž [ʃ · ʒ]		h · [h]
Tap or Trill				· r [r~ɾ]
Approximant					· j [j]	· w [w]
Lateral approximant				· l [l]

¹Before ‹g› or ‹k›.

[r]-Assimilation

This is a persistent rule that does not have much effect on declensions within the language, but does have some effect on the development of certain words. This rule is described in the Rules chapter of this document in Assimilation of [ɾ]. Specifically, /r/ is deleted when immediately followed by /ž/. For example, the possessive adjective inkur ‘your’, from earlier igqar /inkwar/ has the genitive plural form inkuža from earlier igqaraizō /inkwarɛ̄zō/ rather than the otherwise expected **inkurža. Similarly, marzjan ‘to offend’ and baurza /bɔrza/ ‘perch, bass’ → mežin, boža.

Voicing Alternation

This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Valthungian. (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular knife and plural knives, or the noun strife and the verb strive.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between ‹f› or ‹þ›, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and ‹b› or ‹d›, used elsewhere, e.g. giban, ‘to give’, gaf, ‘gave’. There are three main realizations of this rule in Valthungian:

• v → f
• ð → þ } at the end of a word, or before an unvoiced consonant.
• ž → s

The implications of this rule for Valthungian are:

• ‹f› or ‹þ› occur before ‹s› in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. þlǣfs ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive þlǣvis.
• ‹f› or ‹þ› occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. blōþ ‘blood’, but genitive blōðis.
• ‹f› occurs when word-final or before ‹t› in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. gaf, gaft, ‘gave’, but infinitive givna.
• ‹þ› also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to ‹s› before ‹t› in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below), e.g. biǧin ‘to bid’ has the first- and third-person preterit baþ but second-person bast.
• The implications for ‹s› and ‹ž› can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic, and intervocalic /s/ was not later voiced (as it was in many other Germanic languages, leveling out this particular conundrum), so many words retain ‹s› throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon.

Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic ‹f› or ‹þ› from earlier ‹h› which is not affected by this rule.

Palatalization

Palatalization is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Valthungian, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Valthungian. There are actually several types of palatalization that occur in Valthungian, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules:

• Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in ‹d› or ‹g› become palatalized before ‹s› in the nominative singular of a-, i-, and u-stems (but not feminine ō-stems). E.g. Gothic dags ‘day’, gards ‘yard’ become daǧ, garǧ. This type of palatalization only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Gothic /ds/ or /gs/).
• A much more common form of palatalization, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with ‹j›, e.g. strong masculine ja-stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. In these cases, the following occurs:
  • d or g + j → ǧ
  • t or k + j → č
  • s or h + j → š
  • z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of ‹z› eventually became ‹ž›, but that’s not applicable to this section.)

Palatalization of the latter type often goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below.

[b]/[v] Alternation

A less common alternation is that of ‹b› and ‹v›. This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalization (above), but instead of a true palatalization, instead there is a shift of ‹v› to ‹b›; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original ‹j› are able to shift from ‹b› to ‹v› when intervocalic, but those with ‹j› are blocked from spirantizing.

For example, the adjective drœ̄vis ‘muddy’ (from Gothic drōbeis) has the dative singular form drœ̄bia (from drōbja).

Umlaut

Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language.

• The accusative singular of nouns with palatalization are not umlauted. All other forms of nouns with palatalization are umlauted.
• The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted (except for the 3rd person singular in formal speech). (First person singular is palatalized and umlauted.)
• Most class 1 weak verbs and strong verbs ending in –jan in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with –in in Valthungian.

Umlaut in Valthungian initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word:

• a → e - satjan ‘to set’ → sečin
• ā → ǣ - hlahjan ‘to laugh’ → þlǣn
• ǭ (Got. ‹áu›) → œ̄ - hausjan ‘to hear’ → hœ̄šin
• o (Got. ‹aú›) → œ - þaursjan ‘to thirst’ → þœršin
• ō → œ̄ - hwōtjan ‘to threaten’ → hwœ̄čin
• u → y - hugjan ‘to think’ → hyǧin
• ū → ȳ - hrūkjan ‘to crow’ → þrȳčin

NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j-umlaut, u/w-umlaut, and a-umlaut most commonly – but only one type is present in Valthungian: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j-umlaut, also known as i-umlaut, or front umlaut.

Coronal Consonant Assimilation

This rule has a formidable name, but is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by ‹t› or ‹st›, the coronal consonant becomes s. This accounts for the English word best, from earlier betst, from *batest. This applies mainly to second person preterit strong verbs, e.g. ǧutna ‘to pour’ and biǧin ‘to bid’ have a second person preterit of gǭst ‘you poured’ and bast ‘you bade’, rather than the otherwise expected **gǭtt and **baþt.

Syncope of Unstressed Non-High Middle Vowel

...um, working on it. I'll get back to you on this one...

Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking

Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like bagms and aþn, and again before Valthungian, most notably collapsing the infinitive -an to -n. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, brōþar ‘brother’ became brōðra via an intermediate */brōðr̩/. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the ‹a› before the sonorant could not be deleted; if it were, the word would have been unpronounceable. This metathesis (which, in reality, is not really metathesis, but that’s what I’m calling it for now) is also blocked after any non-intervocalic voiced continuant; that is, V[v/ð]S shifts as expected (e.g. widan > wiðn̩ > wiðna), but VC[v/ð]S does not (e.g. haldan > halðan, not **halðna).

The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Valthungian is that:

• Dative plural a-stem nouns whose roots end in ‹–m› have the ending of ‹–am› rather than ‹–ma›, e.g. worms ‘worm’ has the dative plural of wormam rather than **wormma.
• Masculine accusative plural strong a-stem nouns ending in ‹–n› have the ending of ‹–ans› rather than ‹–nas›, e.g. ǭns ‘oven’ has the accusative plural of ǭnans rather than **ǭnnas.
• Infinitives of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs whose roots end with ‹lð›, ‹lv›, ‹rð›, or ‹rv› have ‹–an› instead of ‹–na›, e.g. Gothic þaurban becomes þorvan rather than the otherwise expected **þorvna.
• The third person plural indicative of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs end in -anþ rather than **naþ.

Assimilation of [r] and [s]

Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Valthungian paradigms.

The change initially applies to "light"-syllable nouns with stems ending in ‹-s› or ‹-r› in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final ‹-z› in the nominative singular. E.g. PGmc. *weraz, *drusiz → (Mora Loss: Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *werz, *drusz → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → wers, druss → (r/s-Assimilation) → Gothic waír /wer/, drus.

Later, beginning around the time of Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had "heavy" syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in ‹-r› and ‹-s› do not take an (additional) ‹-s› in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. bērs → bēr ‘boar’, stiur → sčur ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic tersaz (mentula) which became tairs in Gothic, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r-rule (instead of the s-rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ter in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.)

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
1sg	ik	mīn	mis	mik	I, my, (to) me, me
2sg	þū	þīn	þis	þik	thou, thy, (to) thee, thee
3sg.masc	is	is	itma	in	he, his, (to) him, him
3sg.neu	it	is	itma	it	it, its, (to) it, it
3sg.fem	sī	ižas	iža	ī, īja	she, her, (to) her, her
3sg.ind	sist	is	itma	sist	they, their, (to) them, them
1du	wit	unkar	unkis	unk	we two, our, (to) us, us
2du	jut	inkur	inkus	ink	you/ye two, your, (to) you, you
1pl	wīs	unsar	unsis	uns	we all, our, (to) us, us
2pl	jūs	ižur	ižus	ižus	you/ye all, your, (to) you, you
3pl.masc	īs	iža	im	ins	they, their, (to) them, them
3pl.neu	ī, īja	iža	im	ī, īja	they, their, (to) them, them
3pl.fem	ījas	iža	im	ījas	they, their, (to) them, them

Relative Pronouns

There are two types of relative pronouns in Valthungian, and although they are used interchangeably, I present them here in two separate tables: The first (more common) forms are with the Gothic clitic particle ei- having separated from the pronouns (see Clitic Separation), and the second, more “traditional” forms where the clitic is still attached to the word.

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
sg.masc	is ī	þis ī	þatm’ī	þan ī		iži	þiži	þetmi	þeni
sg.neu	þat ī	þis ī	þatm’ī	þat ī		þī, þeti	þiži	þetmi	þī, þeti
sg.fem	sō ī, sw’ī	þižas ī	þiž’ī	þō ī, þw’ī		sī	þižaži	þiži	þī
pl.masc	īs ī, þǣ ī	þiž’ī	þǣm ī	þans ī		iži	þiži	þǣmi	þenǧi
pl.neu	þō ī, þw’ī	þiž’ī	þǣm ī	þō ī, þw’ī		þœ̄gi	þiži	þǣmi	þœ̄gi
pl.fem	þōs ī	þiž’ī	þǣm ī	þōs ī		þœ̄ži	þiži	þǣmi	þœ̄ži

Indefinite Pronouns

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
inter.masc	hwas	hwis	hwatma	hwan	who, whose, to whom, whom
inter.neu	hwā	hwis	hwatma	hwat	what, &c
inter.fem	hwō	hwižas	hwiža	hwō	who, &c
gen.	sist	is	itma	sist	one, one’s, &c
neg.	nima hun	nimis hun	nimin hun	nimna hun	noöne, noöne’s, &c
refl.	-	sīn	sis	sik	himself, herself, itself, &c

Numbers

Declinable Numerals

Singular (‘one’)

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	ǣns	ǣnis	ǣnatma	ǣnan
neu.	ǣn(at)	ǣnis	ǣnatma	ǣn(at)
fem.	ǣna	ǣnažas	ǣna	ǣna

Dual (‘two, both’)

	Numeral					Distributive (short)					Distributive (long)
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	twǣ	twǣǧa	twǣm	twans		bǣ	bǣža	bǣm	bans		beǧiþs	beǧiðiža	beǧiðum	beǧiðnas
neu.	twā	twǣǧa	twǣm	twā		bā	bǣža	bǣm	bā		beǧiða	beǧiðiža	beǧiðum	beǧiða
fem.	twōs	twǣǧa	twǣm	twōs		beǧis	bǣža	bǣm	beǧis		beǧiðas	beǧiðiža	beǧiðum	beǧiðas

Trial (‘three, all three’)

	Numeral					Distributive
	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	þrīs	þrīja	þrim	þrins		þrǣ	þrǣža	þrǣm	þrans
neu.	þrī	þrīja	þrim	þrī		þrā	þrǣža	þrǣm	þrā
fem.	þrīs	þrīja	þrim	þrins		þreǧis	þrǣža	þrǣm	þreǧis

Undeclinable Numerals

	#	1#	2#	#0	#00	#000	#000
0	(nǣns)	tǣjun, tǣn	twǣtiǧis	-tiǧis	tēhund	þūsunde	-ljǭn
1	(ǣns)	ǣnlif	twǣtiǧis ǣns	tǣjun	ǣn hund	ǣna þūsunde	miljǭn
2	(twǣ)	twalif	twǣtiǧi twǣ	twǣtiǧis	twā hunda	twōs þūsunǧis	biljǭn
3	(þrīs)	þrītǣn	twǣtiǧi þrīs	þrīstiǧis	þrī hunda	þrīs þūsunǧis	þriljǭn
4	fiður, fiðra	fiðratǣn	twǣtiǧi fiður	fiðratiǧis	fiður hunda	fiður þūsunǧis	friljǭn
5	fim	fimtǣn	twǣtiǧi fim	fimtiǧis	fim hunda	fim þūsunǧis	fimfiljǭn
6	sǣs	sǣstǣn	twǣtiǧi sǣs	sǣstiǧis	sǣs hunda	sǣs þūsunǧis	sǣsiljǭn
7	sivun, sivna	sivnatǣn	twǣtiǧi sivun	sivnatiǧis	sivun hunda	sivun þūsunǧis	sivniljǭn
8	āta	ātatǣn	twǣtiǧis āta	ātatiǧis	āta hunda	āta þūsunǧis	ātatiljǭn
9	njun	njuntǣn	twǣtiǧi njun	njuntiǧis	njun hunda	njun þūsunǧis	njuniljǭn

The numbers in Valthungian – as in most languages – have gone through more phonological change than other words, and as a result, there are some irregularities. Four numbers have two forms (some of which may be optional). There is also an innovated trial distributive (‘all three’), probably by assimilation from the dual (‘both’). The number ‘one’, usually alternating with the indefinite article in most languages, is used merely for counting purposes, as an indefinite article is not used in Valthungian.

The number ‘four’ is fiður, where we would normally expect **fidur through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in fidwōr). There is also a further lenited form of fiðra, which is optional when it stands alone, but required in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: fidwōr and a compound form fidur.)

The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of sivun, but also a lenited form of sivna, again, required in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is āta, but may optionally be lenited to āt. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is tǣjun or lenited tǣn, the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers, the former being preferred elsewhere, though still optional.

For compounding numbers, Gothic separated each of the number’s components with the word jah (‘and’, now jā), but Valthungian has dispensed with this and now uses i – believed to be a shortened form of jā – only before the last component. For numbers ending with –tiǧis, a further contraction has become standard, and it is shortened to –tiǧi, e.g. þrīstiǧi fim ‘thirty-five’. Hund becomes hundi and hunda is also contracted to hund’i, þūsunde to þūsund’i, and þūsunǧis to þūsunǧi. (Note the lack of apostrophe in -tiǧi, hundi, and þūsunǧi.) No -i- is added before numbers beginning with a vowel, i.e. ǣn- and āta.

Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. þriljǭn ‘trillion’, fiðriljǭn ‘quadrillion’, fimfiljǭn ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **triljǭn, **kwaðriljǭn, and **kwintiljǭn.

Another note concerning the higher numbers: Valthungian follows the short scale for higher numbers (whereas most European countries currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘-ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards:

N⁰	Numerals	Valthungian	Short	Hybrid	Long	Metric
10³	1,000	þūsunde	thousand			kilo
10⁶	1,000,000	miljǭn	million			Mega
10⁹	1,000,000,000	biljǭn	billion	milliard	thousand million	Giga
10¹²	1,000,000,000,000	þriljǭn	trillion	billion	billion	Tera
10¹⁵	1,000,000,000,000,000	fiðriljǭn	quadrillion	billiard	thousand billion	Peta
10¹⁸	1,000,000,000,000,000,000	fimfiljǭn	quintillion	trillion	trillion	Exa
10²¹	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	sǣsiljǭn	sextillion	trilliard	thousand trillion	Zetta
10²⁴	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	sivniljǭn	septillion	quadrillion	quadrillion	Yotta
10²⁷	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	ātatiljǭn	octillion	quadrilliard	thousand quadrillion	-
10³⁰	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	njuniljǭn	nonillion	quintillion	quintillion	-

Ordinal Numbers

Ordinal numbers are usually formed by adding a dental suffix to the end of a number, though there is some suppletion for the first and second ordinals, and the third is irregular (just as is the case in English).

In Proto-Germanic and Gothic, all of the ordinals except for first and second used only the weak declension, but all ordinals now use both strong and weak declensions according to standard rules.

1	frumist (frumista), frums (fruma)	first
2	anðra (anðra)	second
3	þrīǧis (þrīǧa)	third
4	fiðraþs (fiðraða)	fourth
5	fimft (fimfta)	fifth
6	sǣst (sǣsta)	sixth
7	sivunþs (sivunþa)	seventh
8	ātuþs (ātuða)	eighth
9	njunþs (njunþa)	ninth
10	tǣjunþs (tǣjunþa), tǣnþs (tǣnþa)	tenth
11	ǣnlift (ǣnlifta)	eleventh
12	twālift (twālifta)	twelfth
13	þrītǣnþs (þrītǣnþa)	thirteenth
20	twǣtiǧist (twǣtiǧista)	twentieth
100	hundaþs (hundaða)	hundredth
1,000	þūsundiþs (þūsundiða)	thousandth
1,000,000	miljǭnþs (miljǭnþa)	millionth

Alternative Numbers

The Gothic number system, modeled after the Greek system, which used the letters of the alphabet instead of separate unique characters, continued to be used well into the middle ages (Middle Valthungian), and certain taboo numbers came to be called by their character representation rather than their numeric form. Primarily among these numbers was '13', which was written in Gothic as ·ig·. This also occurred with the numbers '113' (rig), '213' (sig), '313' (tig), '413' (wig), and '513' (fig). (This was not mirrored in the higher numbers of the hundreds, because most of those combinations would have been unpronounceable.)

The number '19' is also sometimes called iþ by the same formulation.

Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, a 'road' or 'highway' is sometimes referred to as a '413' (fiðrahunda þrījatǣn or fiðra-þrītǣn), written wig (the accusative singular of wiǧ ('road').

A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number '843' to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ·omg·.

Articles & Determiners

Valthungian has two definite articles, sā and his, both of which are equivalent to ‘the,’ but may also be translated as ‘that’ and ‘this’, respectively. Where there is a lack of clear proximity-based dichotomy, sā is usually preferred.

There is no indefinite article in Valthungian.

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	sā	þis	þatma	þan		his	his	hitma	hin
neu.sg	þat	þis	þatma	þat		hit	his	hitma	hit
fem.sg	sō	þižas	þiža	þō		hīja	hižas	hiža	hī, hīja
masc.pl	þǣ	þiža	þǣm	þans		hīs	hiža	him	hins
neu.pl	þō	þiža	þǣm	þō		hī, hīja	hiža	him	hī, hīja
fem.pl	þōs	þiža	þǣm	þōs		hījas	hiža	him	hījas

Nouns

Noun classes differ by suffix vowel class and by gender. They may also differ by glides (/j/ or /w/) suffixed to the stem and/or the presence of infixive /n/. The main classes are those stems in /a/ or /ō/, in /i/, in /u/, or in /n/ (as described below: See A Note on Strong and Weak Nouns). There are also a few minor classes in consonant stems (a.k.a. Ø-stem), in /r/ (a very small class having to do with familial relations), and in /nd/ (based on the nominalization of the present participle). These minor classes will be discussed here, but for the learner who is new to Germanic languages, these should be treated as irregular declensions and learned by rote. Many of these have also been regularized in Valthungian through the process of paradigmatic levelling, and their declensions have been assimilated into other classes.

Every noun in Valthungian (and most Germanic languages) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).

Masculine and feminine strong nouns usually take an ending of –s for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by –is (this is equivalent to the “ ’s ” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes –a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.

In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take –as as an ending; neuter takes –a. The genitive plural also takes –a. The dative plural takes –am, but in most cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it –ma. Finally, the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is usually –ans, but again may metathesize to –nas; neuter accusative plurals generally take –a.

Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardized, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation (See Phonology). It is important to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section of this document in order to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.

A Note on Strong and Weak Nouns

In most Germanic languages, nouns, verbs, and adjectives tend to be broken into categories considered “strong” and “weak.” In nouns and adjectives, “weak” means that the words cling to their determiner endings inherited from Proto-Indo-European, which usually have an /n/ inserted between the root and the ending. For the purposes of this text, I will dispense with the traditional strong and weak categories as relates to nouns and simply relate the various categories into which nouns can be classified, based on their inherited Proto-Germanic endings (which include the /n/ infix where applicable). Since these endings can be irregular and each class must be learned by rote anyway, there is no need in the context of the Valthungian language to add this additional arbitrary distinction.

a- and ō-stems

By far the most common type of noun in all of the Germanic languages, a- and ō-stems become the basis of several sub-classes of nouns. Masculine and neuter nouns took and ending of -a (from Proto-Indo-European -o), while feminine nouns took -ō (from PIE -ā).

a- and ō-stems

Strong Masculine a-Stems

This is the most common type of noun class in Valthungian as well as in most Germanic languages. As such, it is also the most varied in terms of declension.

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	slǣpaz	slǣpis	slǣpai	slǣpą	slǣpōz	slǣpǫ̂	slǣpamaz	slǣpanz	‘sleep’
Gothic:	slēps	slēpis	slēpa	slēp	slēpōs	slēpē	slēpam	slēpans
Valthungian:	slēps	slēpis	slēpa	slēp	slēpas	slēpa	slēpma	slēpnas
	This is the default declension of the a-stem paradigm. Variations are demonstrated below.
Syllabics:	bagmas	bagmis	bagma	bagma	bagmas	bagma	bagmam	bagmans	‘tree’
	Nouns with roots ending in a syllabic sonorant (i.e. an obstruent followed by a sonorant consonant) have a slightly different paradigm. There is an epenthetic /a/ in the nominative and accusative singular, and lack of metathesis in the dative and accusative plural.
Clusters:	ast_	astis	asta	ast	astas	asta	astma	astnas	‘branch’
	wer_	weris	wera	wer	weras	wera	werma	wernas	‘man’
	ams_	amsis	amsa	ams	amsas	amsa	amsma	amsnas	‘shoulder’
	This category deals with three different types of changes, but because the results are the same, I’ve combined them here. In all of these examples, the final /s/ is deleted (or assimilated) from the nominative. In the first example, this is the result of a cluster simplification rule (sps, sts, sks, fts → sp, st, sk, ft, respectively). The second and third examples are the result of much earlier (pre-Gothic) assimilation of /s/ in words ending with /s/ or /r/. In Gothic, the second type only applied to certain short syllables, but it became universal for all nouns ending in /r/ by the time of Valthungian.
Voicing Alternation:	þlǣfs	þlǣvis	þlǣva	þlǣf	þlǣvas	þlǣva	þlǣvma	þlǣvnas	‘bread’
	ǭþs	ǭðis	ǭða	ǭþ	ǭðas	ǭða	ǭðma	ǭðnas	‘fortune’
	gǣs_	gǣžis	gǣža	gǣs	gǣžas	gǣža	gǣžma	gǣžnas	‘spear’
	In the Voicing Alternation category, the final consonant of nouns in the nominative and accusative singular are devoiced. This is a rule inherited from Gothic times, but it has changed slightly in application. Note that in the last example, the s of the nominative singular is also assimilated as per the rules of root-final s in Clusters (above) This now also applies to nouns in -f# and -þ# which go through a post-Gothic voicing rather than a pre-Gothic devoicing. (Voicing alternation is shown with devoiced consonants in blue and voiced in green.)
Affrication:	daǧ	dagis	daga	dag	dagas	daga	dagma	dagnas	‘day’
	winǧ	windis	winda	wind	windas	winda	windma	windnas	‘wind’
	Roots ending in /g/ or /d/ undergo affrication in the nominative singular. They are otherwise declined normally. Furthermore, nouns traditionally classified as “nd-stems” in Proto-Germanic and Gothic have been assimilated into this class.
Continuant Clusters:	hwerbs	hwervis	hwerva	hwerb	hwervas	hwerva	hwervam	hwervans	‘planet’
	barǧ	barðis	barða	bard	barðas	barða	barðam	barðans	‘beard’
	Roots ending in a cluster of a liquid followed by a voiced fricative (i.e /lv, rv, lð, rð, lž/), similar to the Syllabics group, blocks metathesis in the Dative and Accusative Plural declensions. Other phonological considerations from other groups may also apply (indicated in blue).

Strong Neuter a-Stems

The strong neuter a-stems are just like the masculine, except that the neuter does not take an ‹-s› on the nominative singular (i.e. the nominative is the same as the accusative), and the nominative and accusative plurals are identical to the dative singular. In other words, any of the irregularities discussed above that have to do with these categories will no longer apply for neuter a-stem nouns.

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	barną	barnis	barnai	barną	barnō	barnǫ̂	barnamaz	barnō	‘child’
Gothic:	barn	barnis	barna	barn	barna	barnē	barnam	barna
Valthungian:	barn	barnis	barna	barn	barna	barna	barnma	barnnas
	This is the default declension of the a-stem paradigm. Note the metathesis in the endings on the dative and accusative plural. The variations for this class of nouns are similar to those of the masculine, though not as plentiful.
Syllabics:	bragna	bragnis	bragna	bragna	bragna	bragna	bragnam	bragna	‘brain’
	Nouns with roots ending in a syllabic sonorant (i.e. an obstruent followed by a sonorant consonant) have a slightly different paradigm. There is an epenthetic /a/ in the nominative and accusative singular, and lack of metathesis in the dative and accusative plural.
Voicing Alternation:	þrōf	þrōvis	þrōva	þrōf	þrōva	þrōva	þrōvma	þrōva	‘bread’
	hǭviþ	hǭviðis	hǭviða	hǭviþ	hǭviða	hǭviða	hǭviðma	hǭviða	‘head’
	bjus	bjužis	bjuža	bjus	bjuža	bjuža	bjužma	bjuža	‘beer’
	In the Voicing Alternation category, the final consonant of nouns in the nominative and accusative singular are devoiced. This is a rule inherited from Gothic times, but now also applies to neuter nouns in -f# and -þ# which go through a post-Gothic voicing rather than a pre-Gothic devoicing.
Continuant Clusters:	kalb	kalvis	kalva	kalb	kalva	kalva	kalvam	kalva	‘calf’
	bord	borðis	borða	bord	borða	borða	borðam	borða	‘table’
	Roots ending in a cluster of a liquid followed by a voiced fricative (i.e /lv, rv, lð, rð, lž/), similar to the Syllabics group, blocks metathesis in the Dative and Accusative Plural declensions. Other phonological considerations from other groups may also apply (indicated in blue).

Strong Feminine ō-Stems

The simplest noun class by far is the strong feminine ō-stem. There are mercifully no variations.

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	erþō	erþōz	erþōi	erþǭ	erþôz	erþǫ̂	erþōmaz	erþôz	‘earth’
Gothic:	aírþa	aírþais	aírþai	aírþa	aírþōs	aírþō	aírþōm	aírþōs
Valthungian:	erða	erðis	erða	erða	erðas	erða	erðam	erðas
	This is the default declension of the ō-stem paradigm. Note the assimilation of the genitive singular (from the expected “-as”).

ja- and jō-stems

While traditionally listed as sub-classes of a- and ō-stems, the j-stem nouns differ from these in two important ways: Umlaut and Palatalization. In the examples below, an asterisk (*) by a form indicates that Umlaut applies to that form. A dagger (†) indicates that palatalization and umlaut both apply. (Umlaut can be triggered without palatalization, but wherever palatalization occurs, umlaut does as well.)

Umlaut: If the stressed vowel of the stem is a back vowel (a, ā, o, ǭ, ō, u, or ū), there is umlaut in this form. (Note: Umlaut does not occur if any unstressed syllables intercede between the stressed vowel and the ending; for example, þūsunde ‘thousand’ is a feminine ijō-stem noun, but there is no umlaut in the dative or genitive (þūsunǧis, þūsunǧa) because of the unstressed /a/ between the /ū/ and the ending.)

Palatalization: If the stem ends in d, g, t, k, s, or v there is palatalization in this form. (In this case, b/v alternation will be considered a type of palatalization, because it occurs in the same environment.)

Strong Masculine ja-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	harjaz	harjis	harjai	harją	harjōz	harjǫ̂	harjamaz	harjanz	‘army’
Gothic:	harjis	harjis	harja	hari	harjōs	harjē	harjam	harjans
Valthungian:	heris†	heris†	heria†	hare	heris†	heria†	herim†	herins†
	Note that the accusative singular is the only form which does not have umlaut or palatalization.

Strong Neuter ja-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	fergunją	fergunjis	fergunjai	fergunją	fergunjō	fergunjǫ̂	fergunjamaz	fergunjō	‘mountain’
Gothic:	faírguni	faírgunjis	faírgunja	faírguni	faírgunja	faírgunjē	faírgunjam	faírgunja
Valthungian:	fergúne	fergýnis†	fergýnia†	fergúne	fergýnia†	fergýnia†	fergýnim†	fergýnia†
	Like the masculine form, but the nominative singular is the same as the accusative, and the nominative and accusative plural are the same as the dative singular (just as with the a-stems).

Strong Feminine jō-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	banjō	banjōz	banjōi	banjǭ	banjôz	banjǫ̂	banjōmaz	banjôz	‘wound’
Gothic:	banja	banjōs	banjai	banja	banjōs	banjō	banjōm	banjōs
Valthungian:	benia†	benis†	benia†	benia†	benis†	benia†	benim†	benis†
	Because all feminine jō-stem nouns are subject to umlaut and palatalization, there is no perceived change in form, so these have ostensibly become regular.

ija- and ijō-stems

These nouns are very similar to the previous category, but in Proto-Germanic an extra syllable was added after a “long stem” – a phenomenon known as Siever’s Law – which caused the discrepancy seen in Gothic between nouns with -jis and those with -eis. In Valthungian, the main remnant of these long stem nouns is that umlaut applies, but not palatalization.

Strong Masculine ija-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	blōstrijaz	blōstrijis	blōstrijai	blōstriją	blōstrijōz	blōstrijǫ̂	blōstrijamaz	blōstrijanz	‘worshipper’
Gothic:	blōstrjis	blōstrjis	blōstrja	blōstri	blōstrjōs	blōstrjē	blōstrjam	blōstrjans
Valthungian:	blœ̄stris*	blœ̄stris*	blœ̄stria†	blōstre	blœ̄stris†	blœ̄stria†	blœ̄strim†	blœ̄strins†

Strong Neuter ija-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	anþiją	anþīs	anþijai	anþiją	anþijō	anþijǫ̂	anþijamaz	anþijō	‘forehead’
Gothic:	anþi	anþjis	anþja	anþi	anþja	anþjē	anþjam	anþja
Valthungian:	anþe	enþis*	enþia†	anþe	enþia†	enþia†	enþim†	enþia†
	Note: In Gothic, neuter ija-stems were assimilated into the neuter ja-stems, so -jis appears in the genitive instead of the expected -eis. This assimilation did not take place for the ancestor of Valthungian.

Strong Feminine ijō-Stems

(This is also sometimes referred to as ī-stem or ī/jō-stem because of the form of the nominative singular.)

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	aurī	aurijōz	aurijōi	aurijǭ	aurijôz	aurijǫ̂	aurijōmaz	aurijôz	‘riverbank’
Gothic:	auri	aurjōs	aurjai	aurja	aurjōs	aurjō	aurjōm	aurjōs
Valthungian:	ǭre	œ̄ris†	œ̄ria†	œ̄ria†	œ̄ris†	œ̄ria†	œ̄rim†	œ̄ris†

wa- and wō-stems

Nouns in these classes are fairly rare, but a large number of them are also fairly irregular; namely those nouns whose roots end with a vowel or h-, which causes some rather unexpected things to happen to the w. (These will be treated separately.)

Strong Masculine wa-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	sparwaz	sparwis	sparwai	sparwą	sparwōz	sparwǫ̂	sparwamaz	sparwanz	‘shadow’
Gothic:	sparws	sparwis	sparwa	sparw	sparwōs	sparwē	sparwam	sparwans
Valthungian:	sparus	sparis	sparua	sparo	sparus	sparua	sparum	sparuns

Strong Neuter wa-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	melwą	melwis	melwai	melwą	melwō	melwǫ̂	melwamaz	melwō	‘flour, meal’
Gothic:	milu	milwis	milwa	milu	milwa	milwē	milwam	milwa
Valthungian:	milo	milus	milua	milo	milua	milua	milum	milua
Vwa-stems:	strǭ	straugis	strauga	strǭ	strauga	strauga	straugma	strauga	‘straw’
	knio	knjugis	knjuga	knio	knjuga	knjuga	knjugma	knjuga	‘knee’
		When the /-wa/ ending was immediately preceded by a vowel, the paradigm was altered by the second expansion of East Germanic umlaut; /g/ was inserted into the paradigm, and when preceded by /i/, it changes to /j/ in the same environment where /g/ is inserted. When this happens, the process that normally causes the dative ending of wa-stem nouns to avoid metathesis is interrupted.

Strong Feminine wō-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	wulwō	wulwōz	wulwōi	wulwǭ	wulwôz	wulwǫ̂	wulwōmaz	wulwôz	‘robbery’
Gothic:	wulwa	wulwōs	wulwai	wulwa	wulwōs	wulwō	wulwōm	wulwōs
Valthungian:	wulua	wulus	wulua	wulua	wulus	wulua	wulum	wulus

wja- and wjō-stems

Um... stay tuned. These are a little bit too "varsity-level" for what I want to include on this page right now.

i-stems

The feminine i-stem paradigm is identical to that of the masculine. There is no neuter i-stem in Valthungian.

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	matiz	matīz	matī	matį	matīz	matjǫ̂	matimaz	matinz	‘food’
Gothic:	mats	matis	mata	mat	mateis	matē	matim	matins
Valthungian:	mats	matis	mata	mat	metis*	mata	matim	matins

Consonant-stems

Proto-Germanic and Gothic consonant-stems don't really belong here under i-stem nouns, but these were all assimilated into the i-stem class in Valthungian. (Neuter consonant stems are... more complicated.)

u-stems

Strong Masculine & Feminine u-Stems

The feminine u-stem paradigm is identical to that of the masculine.

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	sunuz	sunauz	suniwi	sunų	suniwiz	suniwǫ̂	sunumaz	sununz	‘son’
Gothic:	sunus	sunaus	sunau	sunu	sunjus	suniwē	sunum	sununs
Valthungian:	sunus	sunis	suna	suno	synis†	synjuga†	sunum	sununs

Strong Neuter u-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	līþu	līþauz	līþiwi	līþu	līþū	līþiwǫ̂	līþumaz	līþū	‘cider’
Gothic:	leiþu	leiþaus	leiþau	leiþu	leiþu	leiþiwē	leiþum	leiþu
Valthungian:	līðo	līðus	līða	līðo	līðo	līǧuga†	līðum	līðo

Strong Masculine & Feminine ju-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	stubjuz	stubjauz	stubjiwi	stubjų	stubjiwiz	stubjiwǫ̂	stubjumaz	stubjunz	‘dust’
Gothic:	stubjus	stubjaus	stubjau	stubju	stubjus	stubjiwē	stubjum	stubjuns
Valthungian:	stybis†	stybis†	stybia†	stybio†	stybis†	stybjuga†	stybim†	stybins†

r-stems

This is a small class of masculine and feminine nouns that make up some of the oldest words in the Proto-Indo-European lexicon. There are seven extant examples of this category in Valthungian (only four were attested in Gothic, though þjūstra is probably an innovation based on þjūtra), all consisting of immediate family members. There is one other term related to this category, also possibly extrapolated from þjūtra, which is ǧūtra ‘grandchild’; this has been reanalyzed as a neuter a-stem, but may be found with the dative plural r-stem -um instead of the neuter -am. Rather than expound on a formula to remember them, here: Just memorize them all!

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	-ēr	-urz	-ri	-erų	-riz	-rǫ̂	-rumaz	-runz
Gothic:	-ar	-rs	-r	-ar	-rjus	-rē	-rum	-runs
Valthungian:	-ra	-ris	-ra	-ra	-ris*	-ra	-rum	-runs
brōþēr - brōþar	brōðra	brōðris	brōðra	brōðra	brœ̄ðris*	brōðra	brōðrum	brōðruns	‘brother’
fadēr - fadar	faðra	faðris	faðra	faðra	feðris*	faðra	faðrum	faðruns	‘father’
mōþēr – [mōþar]	mōðra	mōðris	mōðra	mōðra	mœ̄ðris*	mōðra	mōðrum	mōðruns	‘mother’
swestēr - swistar	swistra	swistris	swistra	swistra	swistris*	swistra	swistrum	swistruns	‘sister’
duhtēr - dauhtar	dǭtra	dǭtris	dǭtra	dǭtra	dœ̄tris*	dǭtra	dǭtrum	dǭtruns	‘daughter’
[þeuhstēr] – [þiuhstar]	þjūstra	þjūstris	þjūstra	þjūstra	þjūstris*	þjūstra	þjūstrum	þjūstruns	‘granddaughter’
þeuhtēr – [þiuhtar]	þjūtra	þjūtris	þjūtra	þjūtra	þjūtris*	þjūtra	þjūtrum	þjūtruns	‘grandson’
deuhtēr – [diuhtar]	ǧūtra	ǧūtris	ǧūtra	ǧūtra	ǧūtra	ǧūtra	ǧūtrum, ǧūtram	ǧūtra	‘grandchild’

an- and ōn-stems

Weak Masculine an-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	uhsô	uhsiniz	uhsini	uhsanų	uhsaniz	uhsanǫ̂	uhsammaz	uhsanunz	‘ox’
Gothic:	auhsa	auhsins	auhsin	auhsan	auhsans	auhsanē	auhsam	auhsans
Valthungian:	ǭsa	ǭsins	ǭsin	ǭsna	ǭsnas	ǭsana	ǭsma	ǭsnas

Weak Neuter an-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	hertô	hertiniz	hertini	hertô	hertōnō	hertanǫ̂	hertammaz	hertōnō	‘heart’
Gothic:	hairtō	hairtins	hairtin	hairtō	hairtōna	hairtanē	hairtam	hairtōna
Valthungian:	herta	hertins	hertin	herta	hertana	hertana	hertma	hertana

Weak Feminine ōn-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	kwenǭ	kwenōniz	kwenōni	kwenōnų	kwenōniz	kwenōnǫ̂	kwenōmaz	kwenōnunz	‘woman’
Gothic:	qinō	qinōns	qinōn	qinōn	qinōns	qinōnō	qinōm	qinōns
Valthungian:	kwina	kwinans	kwinan	kwinan	kwinans	kwinana	kwinam	kwinans

(i)jan- and (i)jōn-stems

I will treat the –ja- and –ija- stems together, since they are identical in Gothic and Valthungian. Note that paltalization (and, by extension, umlaut) applies in all declensions.

Weak Masculine (i)jan-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	wiljô	wiljiniz	wiljini	wiljanų	wiljaniz	wiljanǫ̂	wiljammaz	wiljanunz	‘will, desire’
Gothic:	wilja	wiljins	wiljin	wiljan	wiljans	wiljanē	wiljam	wiljans
Valthungian:	wilia†	wilins†	wilin†	wilin†	wilins†	wilina†	wilim†	wilins†

Weak Neuter (i)jan-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	‡siglijô	‡siglijiniz	‡siglijini	‡siglijô	‡siglijōnō	‡siglijanǫ̂	‡siglijammaz	‡siglijōnō	‘sigil, seal’
Gothic:	sigljō	sigljins	sigljin	sigljō	sigljōna	sigljanē	sigljam	sigljōna
Valthungian:	siglia†	siglins†	siglin†	siglia†	siglina†	siglina†	siglim†	siglina†
	‡ This noun was borrowed into Gothic from Latin; the Proto-Germanic here is extrapolated. The –(i)- in the Proto-Germanic form would have appeared in this declension (had it existed), but I leave it in parentheses here because there is still a difference between –jô and –ijô stems in Proto-Germanic.

Weak Feminine (i)jōn-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	brunjǭ	brunjōniz	brunjōni	brunjōnų	brunjōniz	brunjōnǫ̂	brunjōmaz	brunjōnunz	‘breastplate’
Gothic:	brunjō	brunjōns	brunjōn	brunjōn	brunjōns	brunjōnō	brunjōm	brunjōns
Valthungian:	brynia†	brynins†	brynin†	brynin†	brynins†	brynina†	brynim†	brynins†

wan- and wōn-stems

Weak Masculine wan-Stems

Weak Neuter wan-Stems

Weak Feminine wōn-Stems

īn-stems

This is a highly productive class of exclusively feminine nouns.

Weak Feminine īn-Stems

	Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
PGmc:	aiþį̄	aiþīniz	aiþīni	aiþīnų	aiþīniz	aiþīnǫ̂	aiþīmaz	aiþīnunz	‘mother’
Gothic:	aiþei	aiþeins	aiþein	aiþein	aiþeins	aiþeinō	aiþeim	aiþeins
Valthungian:	ǣði*	ǣðins*	ǣðin*	ǣðin*	ǣðins*	ǣðina*	ǣðim*	ǣðins*

Verbs

Strong Verbs

Strong Verbs: Class I (ī – ǣ – i – i)

Non-finite		Past Ind.	Past Sbj.	Pres. Ind.	Pres. Sbj.	Imperative
Infinitive:	ik	grǣp	gripia†	grīpa	grīpa
grīpna	þū	grǣft	gripis	grīpis	gripas	grīp
Gerund:	is/sī/it	grǣp	gripe	gripiþ	gripa	gripaða
grīpnaþs	wit/wīs	gripum	gripim	grīpma	grīpam	grīpma
Part.:	jut/jūs	gripuþ	gripiþ	grīpiþ	grīpaþ	grīpiþ
gripnas	ī(ja)(s)	gripun	gripin	grīpnaþ	grīpan	grīnaða

Strong Verbs: Class II (ju – ǭ – u – u)

Non-finite		Past Ind.	Past Sbj.	Pres. Ind.	Pres. Sbj.	Imperative
Infinitive:	ik	strǭp	strypia†	strjupa	strjupa
strjupna	þū	strǭft	strypis*	strjupis	strjupas	strjup
Gerund:	is/sī/it	strǭp	strupe	strjupiþ	strjupa	strjupaða
strjupnaþs	wit/wīs	strupum	strypim*	strjupma	strjupam	strjupma
Part.:	jut/jūs	strupuþ	strypiþ*	strjupiþ	strjupaþ	strjupiþ
strupnas	ī(ja)(s)	strupun	strypin*	strjupnaþ	strjupan	strjupanþa

Strong Verbs: Class III (i – a – u – u)

Non-finite		Past Ind.	Past Sbj.	Pres. Ind.	Pres. Sbj.	Imperative
Infinitive:	ik	band	bynǧa†	binda	binda
bindna	þū	banst	byndis*	bindis	bindas	bind
Gerund:	is/sī/it	band	bunde	bindiþ	binda	bindaða
bindnaþs	wit/wīs	bundum	byndim*	bindma	bindam	bindma
Part.:	jut/jūs	bunduþ	byndiþ*	bindiþ	bindaþ	bindiþ
bundnas	īs/ījas/ī	bundun	byndin*	bindnaþ	bindan	bindnaða

Non-finite		Past Ind.	Past Sbj.	Pres. Ind.	Pres. Sbj.	Imperative
Infinitive:	ik	barg	bœrǧa†	berga	berga
bergna	þū	bart	bœrgis*	bergis	bergas	berg
Gerund:	is/sī/it	barg	borge	bergiþ	berga	bergaða
bergnaþs	wit/wīs	borgum	bœrgim*	bergma	bergam	bergma
Part.:	jut/jūs	borguþ	bœrgiþ*	bergiþ	bergaþ	bergiþ
borgnas	īs/ījas/ī	borgun	bœrgin*	bergnaþ	bergan	bergnaða

Strong Verbs: Class IV (i – a – ē – u)

Non-finite		Past Ind.	Past Sbj.	Pres. Ind.	Pres. Sbj.	Imperative
Infinitive:	ik	kwam	kwēmia†	kwima	kwima
kwimna	þū	kwamt	kwēmis*	kwimis	kwimas	kwim
Gerund:	is/sī/it	kwam	kwēme	kwimiþ	kwima	kwimaða
kwimnaþs	wit/wīs	kwēmum	kwēmim*	kwimam	kwimam	kwimam
Part.:	jut/jūs	kwēmuþ	kwēmiþ*	kwimiþ	kwimaþ	kwimiþ
kwmnas	īs/ījas/ī	kwēmun	kwēmin*	kwimnaþ	kwiman	kwimnaða

Non-finite		Past Ind.	Past Sbj.	Pres. Ind.	Pres. Sbj.	Imperative
Infinitive:	ik	bar	bœria†	bera	bera
berna	þū	bart	bœris*	beris	beras	ber
Gerund:	is/sī/it	bar	bore	beriþ	bera	beraða
bernaþs	wit/wīs	borum	bœrim*	berma	beram	berma
Part.:	jut/jūs	boruþ	bœriþ*	beriþ	beraþ	beriþ
bornas	īs/ījas/ī	borun	bœrin*	bernaþ	beran	bernaða

Strong Verbs: Class V (i – a – ē – i)

Non-finite		Past Ind.	Past Sbj.	Pres. Ind.	Pres. Sbj.	Imperative
Infinitive:	ik	kwaþ	kwēþia†	kwiða	kwiþia
kwiðna	þū	kwast	kwēðis*	kwiðis	kwiðas	kwiþ
Gerund:	is/sī/it	kwaþ	kwēðe	kwiðiþ	kwiða	kwiðaða
kwiðnaþs	wit/wīs	kwēðum	kwēðim*	kwiðma	kwiðam	kwiðma
Part.:	jut/jūs	kwēðuþ	kwēðiþ*	kwiðiþ	kwiðaþ	kwiðiþ
kwiðnas	īs/ījas/ī	kwēðun	kwēðin*	kwiðnaþ	kwiðan	kwiðnaða

Strong Verbs: Class VI (a – ō – ō – a)

Non-finite		Past Ind.	Past Sbj.	Pres. Ind.	Pres. Sbj.	Imperative
Infinitive:	ik	drōg	drœ̄ǧa†	draga	draga
dragna	þū	drōft	drœ̄gis*	dragis	dragas	drag
Gerund:	is/sī/it	drōg	drōge	dragiþ	draga	dragaða
dragnaþs	wit/wīs	drōgum	drœ̄gim*	dragma	dragam	dragma
Part.:	jut/jūs	drōguþ	drœ̄giþ*	dragiþ	dragaþ	dragiþ
dragnas	īs/ījas/ī	drōgun	drœ̄gin*	dragnaþ	dragan	dragnaða