Tigol/Proto-Tigol

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Tigol/Proto-Tigol
gávthȁ themsármā
Type
Fusional
Alignment
Nominative-accusative
Head direction
Initial Mixed Final
Primary word order
Verb-subject-object
Tonal
Yes
Declensions
Yes
Conjugations
Yes
Genders
2
Nouns decline according to...
Case Number
Definiteness Gender
Verbs conjugate according to...
Voice Mood
Person Number
Tense Aspect

Themsaran is my first constructed language, for my conworld of Hheergrem. The grammar and syntax emits an overpowering odor of Semitic/Celtic languages. The nonconcatenative (tonal) inflection... yeah, I reckon that's Semitic too. Aesthetically it has hints of Baltic, Germanic, Celtic, Semitic, Khmer and Gyeongsang Korean. The main departure from Semitic grammar is that the language has been augmented with new features such as strict and complex head-marking inflection, the applicative voice and borderline polysynthesis. So I guess it ends up a tad more like some Native American languages. Other purposes of my language include mixing in un-English verb syntax, such as the use of optatives in subordinate clauses, and using principally non-finite subordinate clauses in the indicative.

Background

The Themsaran language (gávthȁ themsármā [gáʊ̯fθàː θè̞msármàː] "the Themsaran mouth") constitutes a separate branch of the Zachydic language family, along with other para-Themsaran languages which are/were spoken in the island of Tálsèm. Due to its long period of isolation and substrate influence, Themsaran is a typological and lexical outlier in its family, within which it is distinguished by its heavily head-marking inflection in both clauses and possessive NPs as well as its strongly head-initial syntax. The language possesses mixed fusional and agglutinative inflection, and nominative-accusative morphosyntax (mostly). The name of the language comes from the Themsár region, from whose dialect arose the prestige language of the island. This elevated language existed in a state of diglossia with the diverse and often mutually unintelligible vernacular "dialects". Classical Themsaran was used as a living language by the ruling class for a period spanning 600 years until its demise in the year ca. 220, and was continued to be used as an important literary, academic and religious language on the island and surrounding mainland areas.

Phonology

Consonants

Bilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Dorsal Radical Glottal
Nasal m n ŋ
Plosive p b t d k g ħ~ʜ~ʢ~ʡ ⟨ħ⟩ (ʔ)
Fricative f v θ ⟨th⟩ s z ʃ ⟨š⟩ ʒ ⟨ž⟩ x ⟨ch⟩ h~ɦ ⟨h⟩
Affricate tʃ ⟨ŧ⟩
Approximant (ʋ) j
Trill r
Lateral app. l ʎ ⟨ļ⟩

[v] is in free variation with [ʋ]. [ʔ] may occur only in morpheme boundaries.

Conditioned allophony

Phoneme Allophone Condition(s)
/ħ/ [ħ~ʜ] #_, C[+voiceless]_
[ʡ~ʢ] V_V, C[+voiced]_
/h/ [ɦ] V_V, C[+voiced]_
C[+obstruent, ±voiced] C[+obstruent, ∓voiced] _C[+obstruent, -guttural, ∓voiced]

Vowels

Themsaran has six vowels, short and long. Short vowels have one mora (except for epenthetic e which has zero morae), and long vowels have two morae. Short vowels in open syllables were pronounced approximately 1.5 times as long as short vowels in closed syllables; long vowels in closed syllables, 2.5 times as long; open long vowels, thrice as long.

Front Central Back
Close i /i/ ī /iː/ y /ʉ̜/ ȳ /ʉ̜ː/ u /u/ ū /uː/
Mid e /e̞/ ē /e̞ː/ o /o̞/ ō /o̞ː/
Open a /a/ ā /aː/

y ȳ is a close central half-rounded vowel.


The following are the diphthongs, all falling: ai au ei ie ua /ai au ei ie~ia uo~ua/. All diphthongs are bimoraic.

Pitch accent

Pitch accent, or tone, is phonemic in Themsaran. The following is the notation for tones:

Short Long Diphthong
Unmarked a ā ai
High á a̋ ái
Low à ȁ ài
Falling - â âi
Rising - ǎ ǎi

The pitch accent of a word (of more than one mora) consists of two components: the lexical tone, and the position of the downstep (the latter is confined to appear after the 3rd-to-last mora). A high-tone word is consistently high until the downstep, whereafter the pitch drops sharply. A low-tone word starts low and has the highest pitch at the tonic mora, which is immediately before the downstep.

The following are the rules governing the marking Themsaran pitch accent:

  1. High lexical tone is marked in the initial syllable; low tone is not marked, unless necessitated by rule 2.
  2. The tonic syllable is always marked:
    1. If the downstep occurs after a long syllable (syllable with a long vowel or diphthong), the syllable is rising in a low-tone word, and high in a high-tone word.
    2. If the downstep occurs between the two morae of a long syllable, the syllable has falling tone.
  3. If the first syllable is tonic, the second syllable is marked as low.

If the downstep occurred word-finally, the first syllable of a following high tone word would have slightly lower pitch. In pausa, a word final high short syllable is realized as a falling, short vowel.

Clitics, unmarked, phonologically behave as parts of the following word and inherit the tone of the following word. Preceding a word with high lexical tone, the clitic is marked as high.

Phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure is CCCVCC, where V is any vowel or diphthong, the third consonant in the complex onset must be /j/, and the second consonant in the complex coda must be an obstruent. /ħ/ and /h/ are disallowed to occur in coda. Up to CCCC medial clusters are permitted, where the fourth consonant must be /j/. Vowel hiatus is prohibited, as in Balto-Slavic and Semitic languages.

Orthography

Tone diacritics in Themsaran script, written under or over a vowel letter.

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns and adjectives have a rich morphology, albeit less ornate than verbs. They inflect for number, definiteness and possessedness, but not for case. Nouns have two genders, masculine and feminine. In third-person possessed forms, Themsaran makes a distinction, realized tonally, between the absolute possessed form, which indicates a noun possessed by a pronoun, and the conjunct possessed form, used to indicate a possessive relationship between two nouns and agreeing with the gender of the possessor.

Definite forms are used as the vocative. Names of proper names, deities or deifications are primarily indefinite, but take definite agreement.

First declension

The first declension consists primarily of masculine nouns. Nouns ending in a consonant may contain an epenthetic e to break up a forbidden consonant clusters, particularly those ending in resonants. The ħ-stem nouns always end in -ā, and this mutates to -aħ- before a ending beginning with a vowel, and exhibits the form -aC- before an ending beginning with any consonant. The h-stems have a long vowel ending by default, which shortens in front of a consonant ending, along with gemination of any fricative-onset endings. The j-stem nouns, ending in -i, display the -i before a possessive suffix beginning with a consonant, and a -j before one beginning with a vowel.

First declension
Singular Plural
Indefinite Definite Indefinite Definite
Unpossessed -Ø -ē -ach -ō
1sg -ken -n -āst
2sg.m -gze -ze -ūgit
2sg.f -kvi -vi -ūgis
3sg.m -ku -u -ū
3sg.f -ki -i -ȳ
4sg.m -ksu -thu -thū
4sg.f -ksi -thi -thȳ
1ex -kam -am -ūche
1in -kent -ent -ūša
2pl.m -kys -ys -ūsra
2pl.f -kyth -yth -ūsre
3pl.m -kech -eich -ūcb
3pl.f -ker -ier -ūr
3pl.m.inv -ksech -theich -thūch
3pl.f.inv -kser -thier -thūr

Second declension

The second declension consists primarily of feminine nouns.

Second declension
Singular Plural
Indefinite Definite Indefinite Definite
Unpossessed -e -ā -ir -enā
1sg -ŧen -an -aist
2sg.m -zze -za -aŋgit
2sg.f -ŧve -va -aŋgis
3sg.m -ŧu -au -ana
3sg.f -ŧi -ai -anī
4sg.m -šŧu -ath anŧu
4sg.f -šŧi -eth anŧi
1ex -ŧem -iem -ānche
1in -ŧent -ant -anša
2pl.m -ŧis -ais -ansra
2pl.f -ŧith -aith -ansre
3pl.m -ŧech -āch -anech
3pl.f -ŧer -air -aner
3pl.m.inv -šŧech -thāch -anthech
3pl.f.inv -šŧer -thair -anther

Third declension

The third declension consists mainly of mass, collective and abstract nouns of both genders.

Third declension
Singular Plural
Indefinite Definite Indefinite Definite
Unpossessed -Ø
1sg -tun -in
2sg.m -tize -ize
2sg.f -tive -ivi
3sg.m -tu -ju
3sg.f -ti -ji
4sg.m -ssu -thu
4sg.f -ssi -thi
1ex -tēm -īm
1in -tent -int
2pl.m -tys -ȳs
2pl.f -tyth -ȳth
3pl.m -tech -īch
3pl.f -ter -īr
4pl.m -ssech -thich
4pl.f -sser -thir

Tonal patterns of nominals

Every noun falls under one of four tonal paradigms.

  1. kanǔar ('sitting'): The most common paradigm, the downstep remains stationary, except as required by downstep rules or in the presence of the downstep-attracting absolute possession suffixes.
  2. šanŧǐel ('shunning/evading'): The downstep is never on the suffix.
  3. ('standing')
  4. gánħāŋém ('skipping/tumbling'): The downstep is one mora before the boundary of the suffix in the base form, and moves to the desinence upon inflection by a definite suffix.

Irregular nouns

Fossilized case marking

A descendant of a language with developed noun and adjective cases, Themsaran preserves vestigial case marking.

Irregular definiteness

The definite unpossessed inflection is a generalization from the accusative case, which marked the definite direct object in addition to adverbial uses, certain oblique objects and time expressions. As such definiteness is required in objects of a small number of prepositions, and some time expressions (e.g. nǐežȁm/minâm/krúamâm (< *nējžȁ-mî etc., instead of the expected **nējžè-mî) "today"/"tonight"/"tomorrow", nǐežȁŧ ("that day"), krúamâ/ra̋zȁ/ħíŋšȁ/minâ "in the morning/at daytime/at dusk/at night") and adverbial expressions.

Fossilized oblique cases

The frozen oblique cases (ablative, instrumental/locative and allative) are largely found in two lexical classes: adverbs and prepositions. Ablatives end in -ēn, -ān, and -īn for the first, second and third declensions respectively; the instrumental/locative ends in -īl; and the allative ends in -st.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives agree in number, definiteness, gender and possessedness with their heads. Adjectival declension disagrees with nouns in that absolute possessive form of adjectives modifies the conjunct possessive of nouns. Predicate adjectives are declined differently. Adjectives also take degree inflection (positive, "less/least", "more/most", elative, "X enough", "too X"). Adjectives exhibit tonal ablaut like those of nouns.

Declension

Adjectives are either declined in 1st declension in the masculine and the 2nd for feminine, or the 3rd declension for masculine and 2nd for feminine with an extra suffix -m- added between the stem and the ending.

Predicate adjectives
1st/2nd declension
Singular Plural
Masculine -e -ū
Feminine -a -ān


3rd declension
Singular Plural
Masculine -et -tie
Feminine -em -mtie

Degree

Adjectives with degree inflections may be nominalized to derive meanings such as "supreme strength" from "the very strongest".

Irregular adjectives

Adverb formation

The adverbial suffix is -ar, and it can mean "[adjective]ly", or "like a [noun]" (latter meaning is less productive).

Pronouns

Personal

The independent personal pronouns are used in equational sentences, and for emphasis of what is already marked on the heads, whether the marking is about the subject, direct object, or oblique.

Independent personal pronouns
Singular Plural
1.ex

na̋

châm

1.in

táŋên

2.m

zéi

srâs

2.f

véi

srâth

3.m

žá

žû

3.f

žî

žân

4.m

ŧá

ŧû

4.f

ŧî

ŧân

The fourth person has a more "focused" meaning, so it is used as the obviative and for other functions.

Demonstrative

The demonstratives have identical endings to personal pronouns in feminine singular and the plural. The adnominal demonstratives are mé (near speaker), ħé (near hearer), and ŧá (distal; identical to 4th person pronoun), and the pronominal demonstratives are ím(é), íž(á), and íŧ(á).

When a demonstrative modifies a noun phrase, the noun and adjective modified take the indefinite form if unpossessed, and the definite form if possessed.

Reflexive

The reflexive pronoun is ktên, identical to the gender and number of the subject.

Reciprocal

The reciprocal pronoun, "each other", is nadnék. It originated from an adverb that was later reanalyzed as a pronoun.

Table of correlatives

Table of correlatives
Interrogative Near speaker Near hearer Distal Existential Negational Elective Collective Distributive
Adnominal jé (who);
jî (fem., rare);
ján (what) 		mé ħé ŧá rôg
Pronominal ímé ížá íŧá jajélt
Quality (what kind of) jélt (declined like ímé) mélt ħélt ŧélt
Place jách; émmâ mách*; dátè* ħách ŧách
Origin gléjách; glêm; jáche̋n glémách/máche̋n*; glédát/dáte̋n* gláħách; ħáche̋n gléŧách; ŧáche̋n
Destination
Time
Quantity/Extent
Manner jêr; díeŋkúl mêr ħêr ŧêr
Cause jěn měn ħěn ŧěn
Purpose jást mést ħést ŧést

*The difference between the two words for 'here' is that of clusivity: mách means "where I am/we(exc) are or pointing" whereas dátè means "where we(inc) are".

In highly humble language (roughly equivalent to German Ihr), the "near speaker" and "near hearer" demonstratives are used in epithets for 1st and 2nd person respectively in lieu of grammatical 1st or 2nd person. (e.g. klûdil mé: "this humble subject", áchèr ħé/tīné ħî/slǐerè ħî: Your Majesty/Highness; lit. "that king/hand/throne", dírmár/íra̋them ħé/a̋thmȉd ħî, "that called one/sanctified one/holiness"; used to address a priest, mách/ħách generic humble language, used for locative obliques instead of 1st or 2nd person inflected prepositions)

Verbs

Finite verbs are marked for TAM, mirativity, voice (active and mediopassive), the subject's person, number, and gender and, if the direct object is definite, is obligatorily marked with the (usually direct) object's person, number, and gender in most TAMs, except in the imperative. The verb may agree with an indirect object (which is typically animate) instead of with the direct object. Object agreement is often omitted in poetry. Verbs also have several non-finite forms, used with various subordinating conjunctions and relative clauses.

Themsaran finite verb template
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 /Downstep
Mood/Evidential/Mirative Applicative prefix Imperfective prefix STEM Supplementary aspect Supplementary voice Voice-TAM-Subject-Object Voice-TAM-Subject-Object

An example of a fully inflected verb:

zekmiheklēzittnévrīn
/zèkmihekleːzitːnevꜜriːn/
RDPL-mi-he-klēz-iħ-tn-évrīn
SBJV-APP.GOAL-PAST.IPFV-mix-ICP-APP/PAST.IPFV.PSS.3SG.F>3PL.F
they supposedly were beginning to obtain it by mixing them

Tense-Aspect-Mood

Basic TAMs

The basic tenses, marked with a combination of tone, suffixes and prefixes, are:

  • Imperative
  • Present
  • Past imperfective
  • Past perfective
  • Future imperfective
  • Future perfective
  • Jussive
Imperative

The imperative is used to issue positive, direct orders.

Present

The present is used for events that take/are taking place in the present time, or for gnomic statemnets.

Past imperfective

The past imperfective indicates a background event or events that happened in the past frequently or over a period of time. Therefore it corresponds to past frequentative, habitual or progressive.

Past perfective

The past perfective, preterite, or aorist is for events that were completed at some point in time in the past.

Future imperfective

The future imperfective indicates actions which will take place in the future but whose aspectual meaning is similar to past imperfective. Future imperfective is also used as imperatives where the imperfectiveness of the action is emphasized ("[you shall] always/regularly strive!").

Future perfective

The future perfective denotes actions which will be completed at some point in the future.

Jussive

The jussive bears a wide range of uses:

  • optatives (wishes), polite requests and hortatives (urging);
  • prohibitions, with the prohibitive marker (Ham skőtîr! "Don't walk!");
  • imperatives in indirect speech, with the complementizer ne (Kýlês ne stumî. "He ordered me to go back.");
  • purpose clauses, with a relativizer or other conjunctions; (ħéistê rin ti̋gamthé "the word to say"/"the word that should be said").
Supplementary aspects
Inceptive

The inceptive is the suffix -iħ (first conjugation) placed after the stem.

Cessative

The cessative is the suffix -lša (second conjugation).

Perfect

The perfect is formed periphrastically. The perfect clitic lakš is used with the past tenses to give the present perfect or pluperfect (there is no distinction) tense and is used with the future tenses to give the future perfect tenses.

Supplementary moods

The mirative, marking information, inference or realization new to the speaker, is marked by a prefix consisting of first consonant of stem + e + last consonant of stem. The subjunctive, used for doubtful statements and for hypothetical outcomes, is marked by a similar prefix, with said consonants in reverse order.

gélga̋lis!
/gélgaːꜜlis/
RDPL-ga̋lìs
MIR-sing-PRES.3SG.F
(Hey, look,) she's singing!
légga̋lis
/léggaːꜜlis/
RDPL-ga̋lìs
SBJV-sing-PRES.3SG.F
She supposedly sings/She would sing

Voice

Basic voices
Active

The active voice is the default voice, used when the subject is the agent of the verb.

Mediopassive

The mediopassive marks the subject as a patient of the verb. Apart from passivity, mediopassives may have a derivational function; they may indicate reflexive action or change of state. As such there are quite a few deponent verbs, verbs that are inherently mediopassive, and also mediopassive counterparts of active intransitive verbs.

Supplementary voices
Causative

The causative expresses causation or facilitation of the action. It is indicated by the suffix -nuh- after the masculine singular imperative, where the h assimilates to any fricative or may leave compensatory lengthening of the u.

Applicative

The applicative suffix, placed after the masculine singular imperative, is -t(e)n-. The applicative promotes an oblique object of a verb to the direct object position, for example "fight (a war)" > "fight (someone)" and downgrades the core object argument to an oblique argument. An optional applicative prefix may be used to qualify the relationship of the new object to the base verb (vi- for instrument, ša- for location, lua- for comitation, and mi- for goal or benefactive). In the passive, the applicative finds much syntactic utility in constructing impersonal statements about an oblique object.


Non-finite forms

The non-finite forms are participles and two infinitives.

The participle, which is available for all verbal categories, is used to construct VOS clauses, where O and S are full noun phrases, or O is a noun and S is a third- or fourth-person pronoun. VOS sentences lend more emphasis to the predicate than the neutral VSO. The tense of a participle is the tense relative to the tense of the main clause.

The possessor of the first infinitive represents the verb's subject. It is used in reason clauses, time clauses, indirect speech (as the first infinitive copula váls + participle) whose truth is doubted by the speaker, and more rarely purpose clauses.

The possessor of the second infinitive represents the verb's object. It is used as a complement to certain verbs and in any other situation calling for a verb with no independent subject or TAM, and is used adverbially with prepositions.

Conjugation

The three conjugations of Themsaran verbs are demonstrated below respectively with the verbs mólî - 'let me thank', nesâi - 'let me slay/kill (animate subject)', takvêi - 'let me know' (The citation form is the 1st person jussive). The first conjugation subsumes:

  • j-stem verbs, whose j- stays j- before a vowel-onset ending (except plain -e), and assumes the form i otherwise;
  • ħ-stem verbs, where the ħ assimilates into any consonant that begins an ending, and becomes -â in the 2nd person masculine singular imperative;
  • h-stem verbs, for which only fricative-beginning endings are so geminated, and for other consonants, undergoes compensatory lengthening of the vowel preceding the ending, and ends in a bare long vowel with a falling tone in the 2sg.m imperative.
Active subject affixes
Imperative
Singular Plural
1.in

-

mólèns!
nésàns!
takvêns!

2.m

mól!
nésà!
tákvè!

mólèls!
nésàls!
takvêls!

2.f

mólt!
nésàt!
takvét!

mólèrs!
nésàrs!
takvêrs!


Present
Singular Plural
1.ex

mólȉ
nésài
tákvèi

mólmà
nésàma
takvêma

1.in

mólènse
nésànse
takvênse

2.m

mólèr
nésàr
takvêr

mólèlse
nésàlse
takvêlse

2.f

mólȅ
nésȁ
takvîe

mólèrse
nésàrse
takvêrse

3.m

mólè
nésà
tákvȅ

mólvì
nésàvi
takvévi

3.f

mólìs
nésàis
tákvìes

móltì
nésàti
takvéti


Past imperfective
Singular Plural
1.ex

hémolêi
 henesâi
 hetakvîe

hémólme
 henesáme
 hetakvéme

1.in

hémóltā
 henesátā
 hetakvétā

2.m

hémolér
 henesár
 hetakvêr

hémolslé
 henesaslé
 hetakvēslé

2.f

hémolé
 henesâ
 hetakvê

hémolsré
 henesasré
 hetakvēsré

3.m

hémólen
 henesán
 hetakvên

3.f

hémólni
 henesáni
 hetakvéni

hémolstí
 henesastí
 hetakvēstí

With initial vowels the he prefix combines thus:

  • he+a→hā
  • he+e→hē
  • he+i→hei
  • he+o→hō
  • he+u→hū
  • he+y→hȳ
  • he+long vowel/diphthong = h+long vowel/diphthong


Past perfective
Singular Plural
1.ex

mólén
 nesán
 takvîen

mólàm
 nésȁm
 takvéjam

1.in

móltȁ
 nesátā
 takvétā

2.m

mólér
 nesár
 takvîer

mólslé
 nesaslé
 takvēslé

2.f

mólé
 nesâ
 takvê

mólsré
 nesasré
 takvēsré

3.m

mólès
 nesàs
 takvês

3.f

mólsàr
 nésàsar
 takvêsar

mólstí
 nesastí
 takvēstí


Future imperfective
Singular Plural
1.ex

kámólin
kanésjan
katákvjēn

kámólam
kanésām
katákviem

1.in

kámólit
kanésait
katákviet

2.m

kámólelai
kanésalai
katakvélai

2.f

kámólerai
kanésarai
katakvérai

3.m
3.f

The ka- future imperfective prefix is combined the following way:

  • ka-+a=kā-
  • ka-+e=kai-
  • ka-+i=kai-
  • ka-+o=kā-
  • ka-+a=kau-
  • ka-+y=kau-
Future perfective
Singular Plural
1.ex

mólchì
nésàchì
takvéchì

mólchỳm
nésachym
takvêchym

1.in

mólenai
nésanai
takvénai

2.m

mólchèr
nesácher
takvécher

mólelai
nésalai
takvélai

2.f

mólchȅ
nesáchē
takvéchē

mólerai
nésarai
takvérai

3.m

mólchè
nésàche
takvéche

mólchȅr
nesáchēr
takvéchēr

3.f

mólchà
nésàcha
takvécha

mólchȅt
nesáchēt
takvéchēt


Jussive
Singular Plural
1.ex

mólî
nesâi
takvêi

mólémt
nesámt
takvêmt

1.in

mólédna
nesádna
takvědna

2.m

mólîr
nesâir
takvêir

mólélt
nesált
takvêlt

2.f

mólét
nesât
takvêt

mólért
nesárt
takvêrt

3.m

mólìm
nesàim
tákvèim

mólivá
nesavá
takvevá

3.f

mólisá
nesasá
takvesá

mólitá
nesatá
takvetá

Non-finite forms of the active

The active participle is formed by infixing ⟨an⟩ before the nucleus of the first syllable of the stem of the third person masculine form and removing any final vowels.

The first infinitive is formed by suffixing -s to the 2nd person masculine singular imperative.

Mediopassive subject affixes
Imperative
Singular Plural
1.in

-

mólvàns!
nesávans!
takvévans!

2.m

mólvàr!
nesávar!
takvévar!

mólvàls!
nesávals!
takvévals!

2.f

mólvȁ!
nesávā!
takvévā!

mólvàrs!
nesávars!
takvévars!


Present
Singular Plural
1.ex

mólȉv
nésȁv
tákvèiv

mólchỳs
nésàchỳs
takvêchỳs

1.in

mólnìv
nesániv
takéniv

2.m

mólèrem
nésàrem
takvêrem

móllìv
nesáliv
takvéliv

2.f

mólèrte
nésàrte
takvêrte

mólrìv
nesáriv
takvériv

3.m

mólèv
nésàv
tákvȅv

mólvìni
nesávini
takvévini

3.f

mólvìn
nésàvìn
tákvȅvìn

mólvìti
nesáviti
takvéviti


Past imperfective
Singular Plural
1.ex
1.in
2.m

hémólū
henésau
hetakvû

2.f
3.m

hémólev
henésav
hetakvêv

3.f

hémólever
henésaver
hetakvêver


Past perfective
Singular Plural
1.ex
1.in
2.m

mólû
nesâu
takvǔ

2.f
3.m
3.f


Future imperfective
Singular Plural
1.ex
1.in
2.m
2.f
3.m
3.f


Future perfective
Singular Plural
1.ex
1.in
2.m
2.f
3.m
3.f


Jussive
Singular Plural
1.ex
1.in
2.m
2.f
3.m

mólémth
nesámth
takvêmth

3.f
Non-finite forms of the passive

The static passive participle is formed through the infix ⟨ir⟩ in the stem. The dynamic passive participle is formed with the ⟨(i)s⟩.

Object affixes
Main article: Themsaran bipersonal affixes

The object affixes combine at the end of the verb, sometimes in less predictable ways, to agree with the direct object.

Object affixes
1sg 2sg.m 2sg.f 3sg.m.dir 3sg.f.dir 4sg.m 4sg.f 3sg.m.inv 3sg.f.inv 1ex 1in 2pl.m 2pl.f 3pl.m.dir 3pl.f.dir 4pl.m 4pl.f 3sg.m.inv 3sg.f.inv
-(e)n -ze -ve -(j)u -(j)i -ŧ(u) -ŧi -th(u) -thi -am -(e)nt -sŋa -sŋe -(e)ch, -ū -(e)r, -īn -ŧech, -ŧū -ŧer, -ŧīn -thech, -thū -ther, -thīn

Prepositions

Prepositions in Themsaran are inflected with pronominal enclitics. If the resulting combination is monosyllabic the syllable takes ´ or ˆ as the accent. If disyllabic (unless 1s, 3mp and 3fp) the second takes the ´ accent.

Inflection of prepositions
1sg 2sg.m 2sg.f 3sg.m 3sg.f 4sg.m 4sg.f 1ex 1in 2pl.m 2pl.f 3pl.m 3pl.f 4pl.m 4pl.f
-en -ze -vi -(j)u -(j)i -thu -thi -am -(e)nt -sra -sre -(e)ch -(e)r -thech -ther


Inflection of example preposition
1sg 2sg.m 2sg.f 3sg.m 3sg.f 3sg.m.inv 3sg.f.inv 1ex 1in 2pl.m 2pl.f 3pl.m 3pl.f 3pl.m.inv 3pl.f.inv
aštén aštezé aštví aštú aští aštethú aštethí aštám ašént aštesrá aštesré aštéch aštér aštethech -ther

The following prepositions have completely regular inflection:

  • ašt 'without'
  • chaŋ (! definite object) 'concerning'
  • det 'towards'
  • dienem 'inside, amidst'
  • flyr 'agent'
  • ħal 'in front of'
  • mel 'agent, interchangeable with flyr'
  • rimên 'because of (cause)'
  • tor 'because (implication)'
  • trig 'around'
  • vórêl 'for, for sake of'

The following are inflections of irregular prepositions:

Inflection of ā, āC (comitative)
1sg 2sg.m 2sg.f 3sg.m 3sg.f 3sg.m.inv 3sg.f.inv 1ex 1in 2pl.m 2pl.f 3pl.m 3pl.f 3pl.m.inv 3pl.f.inv
âħan āzzé āvví āħá āħé ātthú ātthí ǎm ǎnt āsrá āsré āħách āħár ātthéch ātthér


Inflection of di, d' 'in, at'
1sg 2sg.m 2sg.f 3sg.m 3sg.f 3sg.m.inv 3sg.f.inv 1ex 1in 2pl.m 2pl.f 3pl.m 3pl.f 3pl.m.inv 3pl.f.inv
dîen dîeze dîevi dîe dî dîethu dîethi dîem dîent dîesra dîesre dîech dîer dîethech dîether


Inflection of vo 'to, for'
1sg 2sg.m 2sg.f 3sg.m 3sg.f 3sg.m.inv 3sg.f.inv 1ex 1in 2pl.m 2pl.f 3pl.m 3pl.f 3pl.m.inv 3pl.f.inv
vôjen vôzze vôvví vū vȳ vôthu vôthi vōtám vônt vōsrá vōsré vōjéch, vôch vōjér, vôr vosséch vossér


Inflection of nai' 'with, by means of'
1sg 2sg.m 2sg.f 3sg.m 3sg.f 3sg.m.inv 3sg.f.inv 1ex 1in 2pl.m 2pl.f 3pl.m 3pl.f 3pl.m.inv 3pl.f.inv
nâin naizé naiví nājú nājí naithú naithí nājám nâint naisrá naisré nâich nâir naithéch naithér


Inflection of la 'also
1sg 2sg.m 2sg.f 3sg.m 3sg.f 3sg.m.inv 3sg.f.inv 1ex 1in 2pl.m 2pl.f 3pl.m 3pl.f 3pl.m.inv 3pl.f.inv
lâin laizé laiví lajú lâi laithú laithí lajám lâint laisrá laisré lâich lâir laséch lasér


Inflection of gle, gl' 'from' (ablative, partitive, substance)
1sg 2sg.m 2sg.f 3sg.m 3sg.f 3sg.m.inv 3sg.f.inv 1ex 1in 2pl.m 2pl.f 3pl.m 3pl.f 3pl.m.inv 3pl.f.inv
glên glēzé glēvé glējú glî glēthú glēthí glējám glênt glēsrá glēsré glêch glêr glēthéch glēthér

Numerals

Themsaran employs a vigesimal numeral system. In transcriptions of Themsaran, if positional numerals are desired, the vigesimal positional numerals should be used.

Themsaran numerals
n nth n times n each/at a time 1/n n days n years
? jǐes jínáš jísslè jissínde
1 kêm félàš kêmslè -
2 títhâr ŷrnàš tístlè ra̋ħé
3 nárgè palsáš nárslè nárgínde
4 mullé mulláš mulslé mullínde
5 nimŧé nimŧáš nimŧlé nimŧínde
6 ftāmé ftāmáš ftāmslé ftāmínde
7
8
9
10/A20 ħíttè ħíttàš ħístlè ħíttínde
11/B20
12/C20
13/D20
14/E20
15/F20
16/G20
17/H20
18/J20
19/K20
20/1020
21/1120
40/2020
60/3020
80/4020
100/5020
120/6020
140/7020
160/8020
180/9020
200/A020
220/B020
240/C020
260/D020
280/E020
300/F020
320/G020
340/H020
360/J020
380/K020
400/10020
203/100020
204/1000020

Syntax

The default constituent order is (time-place)-verb-subject-pronominal oblique object-direct object-(place-time). Any constituent may be topicalized or focalized by being placed in front of the verb.

Noun phrases

Numerals precede nouns; possessors follow their possessa (with poetic exceptions); demonstratives occur after attributive adjectives, which follow nouns. Inflected quantifiers (uninflected quantifiers, such as rôg "every/all", precede the numeral) come after the adjective by default, but precede the noun when a demonstrative is used and precede the numeral when a numeral is used. Within these boundaries there is a lot of leeway; an attributive adjective or a demonstrative can occupy any position between its head and the relative clause.

Distributive possession

To express the meaning of "our/your/their respective NP", the last noun of the NP is reduplicated in absolute possessed forms. The plural persons are decomposed as follows:

  • 1ex.m: noun-1sg›sg noun-3sg.m›sg or noun-3sg.m›sg noun-1sg›sg
  • 1ex.f: noun-1sg›sg noun-3sg.f›sg or noun-3sg.f›sg noun-1sg›sg
  • 1in.m: noun-2sg.m›sg noun-1sg›sg or noun-1sg›sg noun-2sg.m›sg
  • 1in.f: noun-2sg.f›sg noun-1sg›sg or noun-1sg›sg noun-2sg.f›sg
  • 2pl.m: noun-2sg.m›sg noun-2sg.m›sg
  • 2pl.f: noun-2sg.f›sg noun-2sg.f›sg
  • 3pl.m: noun-3sg.m›sg noun-3sg.m›sg
  • 3pl.f: noun-3sg.f›sg noun-3sg.f›sg
  • 4pl.m: noun-4sg.m›sg noun-4sg.m›sg
  • 4pl.f: noun-4sg.f›sg noun-4sg.f›sg


These exact forms are always used disregarding the finer aspects of gender composition in the group. Thus, for example, if the only male in a group speaks of "our (exclusive) respective villages", he will still say chmásán chmásâu "my village his village".

Equational sentences

The copula vákî is rarely used in the present tense. Instead, a 3rd- or a 4th-person pronoun (cliticized and therefore toneless) agreeing with the subject may be used anywhere in the sentence, or omitted (as is often the case, as the predicate adjectives and the end of each noun phrase are quite transparent). Both subject-predicate and predicate-subject orders may be found. The predicate-subject order tends to indicate a more permanent state of being, while the subject-predicate order denotes a more temporary state. The uncliticized pronoun is used when the subject is pronominal or when the copular pronoun is used at the end of a clause.

Predicative possession

"X has Y" is expressed with the verb gîe (exist, there is) followed by the possessive noun phrase "Y-indefinite-of X", if X is animate. If X is inanimate, the construction X ā Y ('X is with Y') is used.

Subordinating clauses

Themsaran prefers sentences with one independent (tensed realis) clause, with infinitives, jussives or participles in subordinate clauses (except usually in complement clauses). Using a finite verb in a dependent clause instead of an infinitive or participle carries focus, on the verb or another constituent.

Subordinating conjunctions

ach: although

ānne: when (with finite verb)

ar: if (provisional)

at: or

gin: if (metaphorical/counterfactual)

ie: and

ielaš: although

ne: that (complementizer)

nit: if (gnomic)

nitrôg/trôg: that (restrictive)

nu: xor/nand

rin: that, which (non-restrictive)

seim: but, however

Relative clauses

The participial relative clause is introduced with a participle. An active participle's possessor is the object and a passive participle's possessor is the agent. It is the default relative clause formation method.

The finite relative clause is introduced optionally with a relativizer rin (non-restrictive and default) or nitrôg/trôg (restrictive; etymologically "whenever"). When the head is omitted, the relativizer is mandatory.

Complement clauses

Themsaran uses chiefly finite complement clauses, unlike for other types of subordinate clauses.

Negation

Finite negation is done with the pre-verbal clitic tir, except in the future imperfective, where the particle vēt is used with the jussive.

The predicate negator is dâ(r).

Imperatives and jussives are negated by using the irrealis negation clitic ham with the jussive. Hám may be used as a standalone exclamation ("do not!"/"may it not happen!").

Coreferentiality

There are several situations where the strictly head-marking language tracks coreferentiality, or which agreeing noun a verb or pronoun taking a given agreement refers to.

Inverse marking

Themsaran has verbal affixes that force a particular, marked order of the sentence, called inverse marking. This marker serves simultaneously to trigger a more focused meaning on the more fronted constituent.

Verbal inverse marking
Constituents Direct (unless otherwise marked) Inverse (forced reading)
VN VS VO
NV SV OV
VNN VSO VOS
NVN SVO OVS
NNV OSV SOV

Proximate/Obviative

The 3rd person, or proximate, marks topical or foreground referents, while the 4th person, or obviative, refers to background referents. The span governed by a discourse topic varies widely among writers; while earlier writers maintained a strict distinction between proximate and obviative reference in narrating events, later writers preferred a much shorter span, often only a single sentence, thereby reducing the scope of the obviative system to that of a topic-focus system.

Relative clauses

Any pronoun which corefers with the head of the relative clause is in the inverse person (or first/second person if referring to first/second person).

Comparison

The comparative particle 'than' is rā. Themsaran enables one to discriminate "He loved me more than she [loved me]" and "He loved me more than [he loved] her", by focusing the argument in the main clause that is compared. The comparative phrase is by default placed after the subject or verb, and the compared noun phrase is stated, or repeated with a pronoun.

žá hārbenín slá ra̋ žî
/ʒá hàːrbeninꜜ sláꜜ ráːʒíꜜiː/
žá he-arb-nin/ slá rā žî
3SG.M PAST.IPFV-teach/PAST.IPFV.3SG.M>1SG more.ADV than 3SG.F
He taught me more than she did.
na̋ hārbenín slá ra̋ žî
/náː hàːrbeninꜜ sláꜜ ráːʒiꜜiː/
na̋ he-arb-nin/ slá rā žî
1SG PAST.IPFV-teach/PAST.IPFV.3SG.M>1SG more.ADV than 3SG.F
He taught me more than he did her.

Note that the fronting does not automatically imply that the fronted noun phrase is compared, but simply that it is given the most focus. The compared argument is the closer argument to the comparative:

na̋ hārbenín žá slá ra̋ žî
/náː hàːrbeninꜜ ʒáꜜ sláꜜ ráːʒiꜜiː/
na̋ he-arb-nin/ žá slá rā žî
1SG PAST.IPFV-teach/PAST.IPFV.3SG.M>1SG 3SG.M more.ADV than 3SG.F
It is I whom he taught more than she did.

Indirect speech

If the complement clause's subject corefers with the subject of the main clause, it is left unstated in the complement clause. Otherwise the third- or fourth-person pronoun is used as the subject as appropriate.

"Impersonal" sentences

There exist impersonal pronouns (identical to the interrogative "who"/"what", and distinguished by not being fronted), but they are only used as an intransitive subject. In other cases, the verb is put into the mediopassive (or mediopassive of causative or applicative, as appropriate).

Modal constructions

Themsaran is poor in true modal and auxiliary verbs; "adverbial" and "adjectival" modal constructions are more common.

Modal adjectives

Modal adverbs

  • ŋídâ: "ably", used to express ability to do something.
  • ļámȉl: "possibly".
  • arzên: "surely", used to express certainty by implication (English epistemic "must").

Modal verbs

"To want" is sréŋî. It is used with a verb in the first infinitive, always with a subject possessor: (Sréŋȉ mispasén d'insé "I want to travel in a city", lit. "I want my traveling in a city")

Derivational morphology

Affixal

Nouns and Adjectives

  • -alg-: semantic agent of [verb]
  • -ber (m, 1): resultative of [verb]
  • -índ-: diminutive
  • -īd (f, 3): abstract noun
  • kī-: -less
  • -m-: originating from [noun/adjective]
  • -ol-: pejorative
  • -se (f, 2): singulative
  • tir-: non-, un-
  • capable of agenthood
  • semantic patient of [verb]
  • capable of patienthood
  • fit to be a [noun/adjective]
  • action of [verb]
  • a noun associated with [noun]
  • [noun]-like
  • instrument
  • place
  • -ful
  • manner of [verb]ing
  • [noun]-manship, proper way of [verb]ing/being [adjective]

Verbs

  • dynamic from [adjective]
  • cause to be [adjective]
  • intensive
  • iterative
  • momentane
  • see/depict as
  • [verb] to completion
  • un-, dis- (intransitive)
  • un-, dis- (transitive)
  • intransitivizer (not productive)
  • transitivizer (not productive)

Compounding

Sample texts

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This language was made-to-attract-attention at-one-time.

Because-of the best-ness of its quality, its believability and its ways-of-using, its being-made-to-attract-attention was agreed-upon/assented.


Sárthaittígā Tirléŋħā sŋéfȉl Láugvi̋dnīch Itávō

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Méisȁ 1

Article 1

Ta̋ŋrèvi rôg itávō dǔanȕ íe státhe̋dū sŋéfȉl ħalgīdîch íe láugvīdîch.

be.born.-pres.3pl.m all human-pl.def free.pl.m.pred and equal.pl.m.pred w.r.t. dignity-3pl.m›def.sg and entitlement-3pl.m›def.sg

All humans are born free and equal in dignity and rights.

Tór pláħévnier ŧlâħe ie ftiļiny̋že vōjéch, širŋúre tolbasêich ān nadnék nái hélki šyrfǎmīd.

as.implied.by bestow.pass.first.inf-3pl.f/conj reason and conscience dat.3pl.m, compulsory.-sg.m.pred behave.first.inf-3pl.m›def com one.another ins spirit-3sg.f›indef.sg/conj brotherhood.

They have been endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

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