Sceptrian
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Sceptrian | |
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![]() Batop Lushan | |
Pronunciation | [[Help:IPA|ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ]] |
Created by | – |
Native to | Sceptre |
Native speakers | 12,203,650 (7th 641) |
West-Herookuan
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Dialect | Yerzonian, Mulish, Fanish |
Official status | |
Official language in | Empire of Sceptre |
Recognised minority language in | Coast of Temples, Negovia |
Regulated by | Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) |
Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects |
Sceptrian Batop Lushan | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Initial | Mixed | Final | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Nouns decline according to... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Case | Number | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Definiteness | Gender | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Verbs conjugate according to... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Voice | Mood | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Person | Number | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Tense | Aspect |
Sceptrian (batop lushan /ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ/ or simply lusha) is an a priori language created for the fantasy world Akekata by juhhmi. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 12 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking Khattish and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.
Phonology
Scetprian features 32 consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features, twelve vowels with long versions and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used as well.
Consonants
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular version.
Bilabial | Labio-dental | Dental | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | /ɱ/ | n ń /n/ | ng /ŋ/ | ||||||
Plosive | Voiceless | p | t | k | q | |||||
Voiced | b | d | g | |||||||
Breathy | ph bh /pʰ/ /bʱ/ |
th dh /tʰ/ /dʱ/ |
kh gh /kʰ/ /gʱ/ |
qh /qʰ/ |
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Lateral | pl bl /pˡ/ /bˡ/ |
tl dl /tˡ/ /dˡ/ |
kl gl /kˡ/ /gˡ/ |
ql /qˡ/ |
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Fricative | Voiceless | ph /ɸ/ | f | th /θ/ | s | sh /ʃ/ | h /ç/ | kh h /x/ | qh /χ/ | h |
Voiced | w bh /β/ | v | dh /ð/ | z | zh /ʒ/ | |||||
Lateral | sl /ɬ/ | |||||||||
Affricate | Voiceless | ts /t͡s/ | tsh /t͡ʃ/ | |||||||
Lateral | tsl /t͡ɬ/ | |||||||||
Approximant | Simple | j | ||||||||
Lateral | l | |||||||||
Trill | pr /ʙ/ | r ŕ /r/ /r̥/ |
The liquids r and l can appear as syllabic consonants: tlsl /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), prk /pr̩k/ (wagon) and trs /tr̩s/ (smith)
- Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill r and lateral approximant l are pronounced as voiceless /r̩̊/, /r̥/, /l̩̊/ and /l̥/ when in contact with only voiceless consonants: trs /tr̩̊s/ (smith) contrasting with trls /tr̩s/ (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); gatl /gɑtl̥/ (houses) whose pronunciation approaches /gɑtɬ/
- Meslatu Hirke made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of sl as plural indicator, when original plural l turned first into voiceless and then into sl after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely.
- In eastern dialects, pr is realized as /ʙ/
- Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.
Nasal /ɱ/ only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into /ŋ/.
Letter h has three allophones: /x/ appears word-finally, /ç/ with front vowels and /h/ with back vowels tihtóhnah /tiçˈtɔh.näx/ (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.
Vowels
Monophthongs
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | |
Close-mid | e | o /ɘ/ |
o /ɤ/ |
Mid | o /ə/ |
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Open-mid | é ø /ɛ/ /œ/ |
ó /ɔ/ | |
Near-open | æ | ||
Open | a /ä/ |
a /ɑ/ |
Schwa o is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → doth /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as /ɘ/, and in western dialects more clearly as /ɤ/: *dŧs → dothos /dəˈθɘˑs/
Vowel a is /ɑ/ after voiced consonants.
Diphthongs
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:
- Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/
- Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: tai (for long) vs. ta'i (past)
- In native script, separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register.
- In casual speech, ouV becomes owV and ViV VjV: oua→ówa and aia→aja. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ai'i→a'ii
Phonotactics
Onset
Basic syllabic structure is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type.
- It is possible to use liquids and approximants as glides (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending).
- Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: stak (fence), fkot (nest), ksaru (guard). Affricate ts takes may be accompanied only by w, j, n or m: tsma (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.
- Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.
Nucleus
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables.
- Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word.
- If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: dldlp /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)
Coda
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). Three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: kamps /kämps/ (marsh) → *kampsku → kamposku /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)
- Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants
- Approximants j, w and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): nad /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda.
- In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: gatl /gädˡl̩/ (jugs) vs. katl /kätˡl̩/ (knobs)
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible.
- Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: *katbas→katpas /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. oist baku /œi̯st(h) bä.ku/ (under a table)
Suprasegmentals
Primary stress in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, stress is placed on even-numbered syllables.
- If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa o /ə/, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.
- In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear o is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also o as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as /ɘ/.
- A non-final syllable with a long vowel, a closing diphthong or a syllabic consonant is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): doth (man) → dothku /ˈdɘθ.ku/ (near the man).
- Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: dothee /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), dothé /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), gatóo /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ¿Eikepoi? /ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦/ (Did you wash it?)
Morphophonology
Vowel form
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect)
- Lengthening: paata /pä:tä/ (separation), ée /ɛ:/-/ɛe̯/, óo /ɔ:/
- Not used word-finally.
- Lateral (release): pló /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), tlaf /tˡäf/ (sprig)
- Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.
- Aspiration/breathy voice: phó /pʰɔ/~/ɸɔ/ (along), kébhar /kɛˈbʱɑ˞/~/kɛˈβɑ˞/ (I will wash), tha /tʰä/~/θä/ (abstract "it"), dhaka /dʱɑkä/~/ðɑkä/ (abstract "that").
- Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. dhoku /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)
- Nasalization: on /ə̃~ɘ̃/ (compare oń /ən/) when n in coda
- Close vowels (u, o, ó and i) are always nasalized between two nasals and all vowels after short ng: mónge /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed), but nasalization does not occur with open vowels and long ńg: dothé næńgé /dəˈθɛˑ næŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).
- Rhotacization: or /ɚ/, ar /ä˞/ (compare oŕ /ər/~/r/ and aŕ /är/)
- Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): karon → karn /kæ̃˞/ (soup)
Consonant form
Combining sounds
- Lateralization
- s and z turn into sl and zh respectively
- f & v → fl & w
- l & r are geminated
- m & n → ng and ng → ńg
- Aspiration
- s and z turn into sh and zh
- f & v are geminated
- l & r → lh and rh
- Voicing and aspiration
- r → qh, l → ldh, v → w
Apophony
Apophony in the stressed syllable is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.
Full
- First:
- e→é, o→ø, a→æ, u→i
- ai→ei, ou→oi
- Second:
- e→ee, o→ó, a→aa, u→uu
- ai→ii, ou→óo
Partial
- When root contains vowels é, ó, i, æ or diphthongs ei, oi, the apophony is only partial: luwidh, luwidh, luwuudh
- With ø and long vowels, all forms are usually the same. Formal register uses ée as the second apophony of ee.
Orthography
Script
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts.
Diacritics on vowels mark different sounds. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: gat̆ (gatl "houses"), doŧ̆ (dolth "men")
aa aat |
ee eet |
ée eet maatikipi (opened e) |
ii iit |
oo oot |
óo oot guzbikipi (deepened o) |
uu uut |
ææ aat evadh (bright a) |
øø oot gudh (dark o) |
ai aat zaithon (rising a) |
ei eet zaithon (rising e) |
oi oot zaithon (rising o) |
ou óot bousoson (falling o) |
|
po poot |
bo bóot |
mo mool |
wo wool |
to toot |
do dóot |
|
tho toot hifdo (windy t) |
dho dóot hifdo (windy d) |
no nool |
so siit |
sho siit hifdo (windy s) |
zo ziit |
zho ziit gudh (dark z) |
ngo góot slenguhpi (g using nose) |
tso tsiit |
lo lool |
slo lool hifdo (windy l) |
fo fiit |
vo fiit gudh (dark f) |
jo jool |
ko koot |
go góot |
ho hiit |
qho hiit surmudh (strong h) |
qo koot venongp (k being swallowed) |
ro rool |
|
plo looh tisk (with l mark) |
pon slenguhpi tisk (using nose mark) |
por tisk prung (mark of trill) |
pho tisk hifn (mark of wind) |
poo tisk spiing (mark of length) |
Romanization
Modern
Consonant variation:
- Letter r is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization or /ɚ/. Letter ŕ is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels oŕ /ər/.
- Similarly letter n can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ń always as /n/: an /ã/ vs. ań /an/.
- With ng /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening nańgo /näŋ:ə/ or naŋŋo (sweaty).
- Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except u) or with w.
- Breathry voice is indicated with an h straight after a plosive. The h is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: nath /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".
Old
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).
Consonants:
- Nasal: ŋ ng /ŋ/
- Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ǥ for word-initial /ŋ/.
- Fricative: ŧ th /θ/, đ dh /ð/, ś sh /ʃ/, ź zh /ʒ/, ħ qh /χ/
- Affricate: c ts /t͡s/, č tsh /t͡ʃ/
- Lateral: š sl /ɬ/, ǩ kl /kˡ/, ǧ gl /gˡ/
Compact equivalents of sound altering:
- Lengthening with a bar: ṓ /ɔ:/ and ō /ə:/
- Lateral release with a breve diacritic: tŏ /tˡə/
- Nasalization with a tilde: õ /ə̃/, on /ən/
- Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ö /ɚ/, or /ər/
- Aspiration with a grave accent: pò /pʰə/, pô /pʰɔ/
Comparison between the systems:
- Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã
- Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)
Morphology
The most complete study of the structure of modern Sceptrian words was recently done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.
Sceptrian utilizes fusional inflections and has an absolutive-ergative morphosyntactic alignment. The language is rather head-initial and its primary word order is verb-agent-object.
Pronouns
Pronouns are used to refer people or things. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six cases.
Personal
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In.
Case | 1SG | 1PL | 2SG | 2PL | 2SG.POL | 2PL.POL | 3SG.Ab | 3SG.An | 3PL.A | 3SG.In | 3PL.In |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ABS | na | mo | fo | po | Nith | With | tha | su | slo | hi | klo |
ERG | næ | moslo | fø | poslo | Nithe | Widhes | thaa | suu | sloslo | hii | kloslo |
DAT | nai | mokli | foki | pokli | Nithki | Withkli | thai | swi | slokli | hiki | klokli |
POS | nar | moŕ | for | poŕ | Nithor | Withoŕ | thar | sur | sloŕ | hir | kloŕ |
COM | nas | mosh | fos | posh | Nithos | Withosh | thas | sus | slosh | his | klosh |
CAU | nape | moplo | fope | poplo | Nitti | Witti | thape | supe | sloplo | hipi | kloplo |
- Comitative case is used to indicate company: Mo slosh arakha. (We were with them yesterday.)
- Causal describes the cause of an action or origin of something: Aitesosai næ su fope (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), Hi supe foki. (It (is) from him to you.)
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.
Reflexive
Self-pronoun ru for reflexive and reciprocal: tesosón ru (they are watching themself), ónlatepón ru (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ónlatepón su (he is dancing with him); sónkephón ru (they are washing each other) vs. sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu (they are washing them)
- reflexive is easier with others: anlatepan (I'm dancing by myself); ankepan (I'm washing myself) vs. ankep ("I'm washing it"), kepan (I'm being washed)
Demonstrative
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with nouns, they behave similarly to adjectives. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the verb "to be":
- As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: Bouson qot ka. (This rock is falling.) Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla. (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)
- For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: Qot ka. (This is a rock.) Rkidh qot ka. (This rock is brown.) Qoth rkildh klo. (Those are brown rocks.)
- The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the "head" can rather be considered an attribute of the pronoun: Bouson ko qot. (That's falling, the rock, I mean.)
See also the table of correlatives.
Case | Proximal | Distal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
SG | PL | SG | PL | |
ABS | ka | kla | ko | klo |
ERG | kaa | klaa | kó | kló |
DAT | kai | klai | koi | kloi |
POS | kan | klang | kon | klong |
COM | kas | klash | kos | klosh |
CAU | kap | klapa | kop | klopo |
Table of correlatives
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in the table, where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to noun cases.
Interrogative | Demonstrative | Quantifier | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Proximal | Distal | Existential | Elective | Universal | Negatory | Alternative | |||
Determiner | sho | ka (SG) kla (PL) |
ko klo |
jofa (some) | ota (any) | orka (every, all) | ze (no) | so (another) solo | |
Pronoun | Abstract | ashu | thaka | dhaka | jaafa | thata | thorka | theso | thaso |
Animate | ¿soutu | saitu | soutu | jonfu | onta | ongka | souso | jonso | |
Inanimate | ¿ko | ka | ko | jofo | oto | orko | ze | so | |
Out of two | ¿tso | tsaka | tsoko | zho | tsoto | tsorko | tseso | tso | |
Out of many | ¿tsolo | tsalka | tsolko | zolo | tsolto | tsongko | tsleso | tsolo | |
Pro-adverb | Locative | sku | khau | khu | jofku | otku | orkhu | zengu | sokhu |
Temporal | sko | kha | kho | jofko | otko | orkho | zeng | sokho | |
Comitative | shos | kas | kos | jofos | otos | orkos | zeos | sos | |
Causal | spe | kap | kop | jov | otop | orkop | zenep | sonop | |
Manner | shi | khai | khoi | jofai | otai | orkai | zei | soi | |
What kind of | shodh | kadh | kodh | jodhi | othi | ordhi | zodhi | sothi |
- Negative determiner ze has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".
- Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu. (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)
- Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.
Nouns
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.
Gender
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, k, i and ei. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.
- Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in either vowel a, ó or i.
- Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (f, th, s, sh, h), nasal (m, n, ng) or vowel u. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.
- Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (p, t, k) or consonant l. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the l-ending group.
Number
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract i-nouns and inanimate l-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.
Cases
- Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs
- Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs
- Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession gat dothi (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)
- Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession dhoku dothor (the man's head)
- Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin -que; in antipassive constructions
- Lative (LAT): Movement to (+sublative (surface))
- Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place (+superessive); time (when/duration...verb telicity); with some adpositions
- Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal construction with particle ...
- Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections Alæ! (Hello! lit. "Day!")
Abstract | Animate | Inanimate | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | i | F | N | u | P | l | ||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | |||
Absolutive | A | Asl | i | F | (o)lF | N | Ning | u | ush | P | Pl | l |
Ergative | AA | AslA | ii | Fee | Fele | Nee | Neng | uu | uushu | Pee | Ple | le |
Dative | Ak | Akl | ik | Fi | Fil | Ni | Nil | (u)ji | (u)wi | Pei | Plei | lei |
Possessive | An | Ang | ing | For | Foŕ | Nor | Noŕ | ur | uŕ | -N | Pong | lon |
Instrumantal-comitative | Ah | Ash | ish | Fos | Fosh | Nos | Nosh | uh | ush | Ph | Ps | -dh |
Lative | AgA | AglA | iki | Fko | Fklo | Nong | Nongo | ugu | uglu | Póo | Plóo | lo |
Locative-temporal | AkhA | AlkhA | ikhi | Fku | Fklu | Nung | Nungu | ukhu | ulkhu | Pu | Plu | lu |
Ablative | ApA | AplA | ipi | Fp(o) | Fpl(o) | Nop | Nopl | upu | uplu | PPo | PPol | lp |
Vocative | Ae | Asl | ii | Fé | lFé | Né | Nin | -wé | -wésh | Pé | Plé | lé |
- A: vowels a and ó with nouns and o with adjectives
- Ae: ae = æ, óe = ø & oe=é
- F: fricatives f, th, s, sh and h; voiced counterparts and affricates ts and tsh are followed by o before plosive endings.
- N: nasals n, m and ng
- P: plosives p, t, k and q
- POS q→ng
- INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.
- - indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: tup → tun (stick → stick's)
Possessive
Different possessive forms and interpretations:
- Dativus possessivus (alienable): gat dothi "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"
- Comitative and alienable possessive suffix: doth gathos "man with his house which he has purchased"
- Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: doth gathozh "man and his birth place"
- Possessive case (almost inalienable): gat dothor "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man".
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the dativus possessivus from the indirect object or benefactive: Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli. "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)
Possessive affixes draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: Óntesoson dothee gats/vakuhoz. (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.
Person | Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
ALIEN | INAL | ALIEN | INAL | |
1st | (a)ń | (a)nga | (ó)m | (ó)ngó |
2nd | (o)f | (ø)fo | (e)v | (ø)vø |
3rd | (o)s | (o)zh | (o)sl | (o)zhol |
- Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: Posné! (My servant!), Polsmé! (Our servants!)
2nd person polite suffixes are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender:
- Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha
- Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó
- Example: gatathapa (from Your house)
See adverbial clauses which utilize some possessive suffixes with non-finite verb forms.
Adpositions
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.
Prepositions
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.
- voi (in) forms illative, inessive, elative
- loi (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"
- soi (on) to emphasize the surface aspect
- oist(i) (under) for movement under something
- roi (above) similarly to oist
- boi (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well
- zoi (up) used like boi
- moi (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative
- oil(i) (as) forms translative, essive, exessive
- koi (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"
- jon (... between)
- poi (... the middle of, among)
- tsoi (... front of; preceding)
- with time nouns in locative = before
- hoi (... behind; following)
- with time nouns in locative = after
- mots(i) (... on side)
- combined with postpositional dei (right) or lai (left)
- with time nouns in locative = ago
Postpositions
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.
- pón (through) with lative
- phó (along) with lative
- pló (opposite to, across) with locative
- sós (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"
- óp (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"
- ól (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"
- jak (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well
- mai (excluding) with ablative
- mak (except) with ablative
- mats (instead of) with ablative
- sai (including) with comitative
- sak (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)
- phe (for the sake of) with lative
Pronominal
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: voi nai (into me), voinga (inside me), voiń (from inside me)
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: voitha (in You; attributive), voithaga (into You), voithakha (inside You; predicative), voithapa (from inside You)
Derivational Morphology
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.
Noun
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:
- place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with sk-ending; fricative and u-ending ABS.PL with final t; nasal ABS.PL with final ku; plosive ABS.PL and l-declension receive an s-suffix
- collection, group: ABS.PL receives óf in animate óp in inanimate class; mulfóf (school of fish)
- being, person, creature: ABS with (o)s: trs (smith; compare trk "smithy")
- doer, agent: ERG with tu: kepeetu (washer)
- experiencer, patient: ABS with (k)ois: kepois (one being washed)
- origin: ABL with (o)su: ukopposu (person from north)
- characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and tu: luwishitu (beauty)
- material: ABS with (o)n (AN) or (o)l (INAN): koson (wood), qotol (stone)
- diminutive: reduplication of final sound with t between vowels and i between consonants: kosis (small tree)
- augmentative: reduplication of final sound with g between vowels and a between consonants: kosas (great tree)
- apotheosis: augmentative with a-ending: kosonana (godwood)
- abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with (k)oti: dothoti (manliness)
- gerund (act of doing): via derivated verb suffixed with (o)pi: glerkurpi (mace-battering)
Adjective
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:
- similarity, having something: dh suffix to abstract gender and animate u-ending; voicing of fricatives (h→qh, no change with affricates); nasals "lateralized" + o; voicing of plosives + o (q→g); l-declension as in INS-COM: evadh (bright), dodh (masculine)
- full of, having something: previous suffixed with ol: mel muvol (waters full of fish)
- material: ABS with (o)p: kosonop (wooden)
- origin, relation: ABL form with a final ó added or replacing the original ending vowel: kusupó (friendly)
- absence, without: ti suffixed to VOC form: evæti (lightless=dark)
- doing: on added after INS case: kephon (washing)
- who did: INS with ompu: kephompu (who washed = pessyt in Finnish)
- done by: INS with empo and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: kephemponga (washed by me)
- not done: LAT suffixed with tip: kepóotip (unwashed)
- experiencing: LAT suffixed with p: kepóop (being washed)
- result (wanted): LAT suffixed with pi: kepóopi (washed=clean)
- if unwanted: LAT suffixed with pot: vangostóopot (drunk)
- possible: POS with ta: kenta (washable)
- requiring: LOC with rt: kepurt (needs to be washed)
- opposite, negation: VOC with tot
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: dolth kepson (men who are washing)
Verb
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:
- ABS = "happens, is": kep (is washed)
- COM = "using": tuph (is poked with a stick), glerkh (is hit with a mace)
- POS + k = "similarity": melonk (is wet)
- DAT + k = "making/becoming" (no k with Abstract): zurmu → zurmjik (strong person → is strengthened), zurp → zurpeik (strong, durable object → hardens) & zurma → zurmak (strength → intensifies)
- LAT + t = "movement": glerkóot (swings a mace, INTR), melot (flows)
- LOC + r = "frequentative": glerkur (is battered with a mace), melur (rains; drips)
- VOC + k = "momentane": glerkék (is hit once with a mace), melék (splashes once)
- POS + (o)v = "consider, feel": vongv (is considered strange = oudoksutaan in Finnish)
Adjectives
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as noun declension. In the common dh-ending F-declension, o is added between dh and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: notlu luwidhulk (at/near beautiful objects)
ABS | ERG | DAT | POS | INS | LAT | LOC | ABL | VOC | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SG | dh | dhee | dhi | dhor | dhos | dhok | dhuk | dhop | dhé |
PL | ldh(o) | dhele | dhil | dhoŕ | dhosh | dholk | dhulk | dholp | ldhé |
Apophony in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: eja luwuudh, doth luwidh, latep luwidh
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix nga and attributive suffix æ: ngaluwuudh Nith (You are beautiful), shosleetha luwuudhæ (a beautiful knight)
Comparison
Positive of an adjective is the base form.
- When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ii begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition oil (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): Ii luwidh foki oil supe. ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)
- Negating happens with ze being joined to the ii particle.
- When comparing amounts, fadh (many, much) and fidh (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: Ii fældh dolth lutush. (As many men as women.)
Comparative (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: luwidhé (more beautiful). Suffixed with ti, the comparative gains a meaning of "less": luwidhéti (less beautiful).
- Manner quatifiers orkai, jofai and zei can be used to indicate the degree: luwidhé orkai (much more beautiful), luwidhé jofai (slightly more beautiful), luwidhé zei (not more beautiful)
- When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: luwildhé po swi (you all are more beautiful than he is)
- Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: luwildhév swi (you all are more beautiful than he is)
- When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional fadhé (more) or føødhi (less) can be used with noun plurals: dolth faldhé lutwi (more men than women)
Superlative is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with é between consonants and j between vowels, and an a added to the end: luwidhédha (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ti gives the meaning of "least": luwidhédhati (least beautiful).
Adverbs
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony and their genitive form being suffixed with é: zaivie luwuudhoré
Placed after adjective: luwidh óomidhoré (very beautiful < "largely")
Verbs
Missing verbs:
- "to be": apposition trs doth (a man is a smith) vs. doth trs (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and Berats trs (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. trs Berats (Berats is a smith); predicative before luwidh doth (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after doth luwidh (a beautiful man)
- Emphasizing ma: trs dothma (it is the man who is a smith)
- Temporal adverbs, such as ta'ikhi (in the past), indicate when something was or will be.
- "to have": various possessive forms, e.g. soput trsor dothi ("profession of a smith for the man")
Conjugation
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different moods is slightly more complex.
Root
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. First and second person forms use the first apophony in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony
Affixes
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the reflexive, but they have to be used in the formal register.
Tense | Aspect | 1SG | 1PL | 2SG | 2PL | 2SG.POL | 2PL.POL | 3SG.A | 3PL.A | 3SG.INAN | 3PL.INAN |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GNO-STAT | a | ha | e | he | ahi | aqhi | ó | hó | (o) | l | |
PRES | PROG | an | han | en | hen | ang | aing | ón | hón | on | lon |
INCEP | ast | last | est | lest | æst | hæst | ós | lós | os | osl | |
PST | IPFV | ajin | hajin | ejin | hejin | azing | izing | ójin | hójin | oin | loin |
PFV | ai | hai | ei | hei | athi | idhi | óji | hóji | oi | loi | |
FUT | har | +har | her | +her | athar | idhar | hór | +hór | ho | +ho |
- initial l in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive
- initial h is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply h after a vowel
- if the final plosive is already breathy, o is added after it
- + indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration
- simple h becomes qh
- Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding wa directly after the ó of animate and removing the j from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. Glerkóotówajin shosleetha. (A knight was swinging a mace.)
Tense | Aspect | 1SG | 1PL | 2SG | 2PL | 2SG.POL | 2PL.POL | 3SG.A | 3PL.A | 3SG.INAN | 3PL.INAN |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GNO-STAT | a | sa | e | se | æ | hæ | ó | só | o | lo | |
PRES | PROG | an | san | en | sen | nga | ngai | ón | són | on | lon |
INCEP | tsa | tsla | tse | tsle | tsæ | tshæ | tsó | tsló | so | slo | |
PST | IPFV | jan | zhan | jen | zhen | izæ | izhæ | jón | zhón | i | li |
PFV | ai | sai | ei | sei | thæ | dhæ | jó | zhó | oi | loi | |
FUT | ar | sar | er | ser | thar | dhar | ór | sór | or | lor |
- Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): Ai(v)eva(v)oi. (I illuminated it.)
Examples: Ónbouson dothee pof. (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), Bousón doth. (The man falls.) Bouson pof. (The feather (ABS) falls.).
Tense
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate.
Aspect
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths (sun rises) and static situations (I can speak English). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ("Clothes-on-me these yesterday")
Present progressive describes dynamic actions (I'm reading English at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.
- Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.
Endings with different tenses may be mixed:
- PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ai-tesos-Ø næ ka (I've seen this), ai-latep-a næ (I've taken myself dancing)
- PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): tsa-latép(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))
Mood
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.
Realis
Gnomic-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: Zait Hala uraha. (Sun rises tomorrow as well)
Indicative is the basic mood which is used for factual statements: Latepar urakha. (I'll dance tomorrow.)
Irrealis
Interrogative is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle shóo which is placed after the verb: ¿Rotlast shóo? (Shall we go?)
Imperative is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: Røt posné! (Go, O servant of mine!)
- The softer imperative is derived from the base with an r being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: Røtrest fo. (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: Røtrlast! (Let's go!)
Subjunctive is formed with second apophony and through initial left-to-right reduplication: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: lalateep (may dance), akaktaasos (may hear)
- The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished
Particles
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.
Realis
- pai mirative (with soft imperative in present): Røtóji pai! (He went!?)
- with adjectives or as an adverb: Luwi pai! (How beautiful!)
Evidentials (with causatives)
- atasi hearsay: Rotóji tasi fope. (I heard from you that he went.)
- tesei visual: Rótoutóji tesei nape. (I didn't see him go.)
Irrealis
- norka dubitative (with subjunctive): Rórótóji norka. (I doubt he went.)
- gana volitive (with future subjunctive): Lalateepar gana. (I wish I could dance.)
Conditional (with subjunctive)
- ta apodosis: Arzaizaither ta (I will raise you...)
- -ti- infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: boutibousen (if you fall)
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))
- Cohortative: Latéprlast kha! (Let's dance now!), Rótrlastonget khugu. (Let's not go there.)
- jokæ exhortative (inhortative through negation): Røtrest jokæ. (You really should go.)
Formal register differences:
- aktasosai (hears) conjugated for hearsay: Rótathi aiaktasosóji. (I heard from her that you left.)
- tesos (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: Rotóji tesosai. (I saw her go.)
- tsmaadhoré (doubtfully) used for dubitative
- tutaadhoré (wishfully) used for volitive
- alké permissive with dative: Rotest alké foki. (You may leave.)
- prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: Rótrostodi alké foki. (You aren't allowed to leave.)
- both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: Arzaizaither zaita boubousen bouti. (I will raise you if you fall.)
In literature to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:
- jø verbal irony: "Luwidh jø hi loi khu" jóbatophoi. ("Beautiful day out there" he said.)
- gæ sarcasm: Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai. (Oh, how beautiful you made it.)
Negation
Manner→ | Inability | Unwillingness | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Form→ | 2nd apophony +infix (before patient-suffix) |
Intranslative suffix |
Translative infix (after agent-prefix) | |||||
Person→ | All | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | |
PRES | SG | ost | net | fep | set | no | fo | so |
PL | osht | nget | vep | slet | ngo | flo | slo | |
PST | out | nait | me | |||||
FUT | oz | nort | mor |
Examples: Ailateepoutóji. (I couldn't dance with him), ¿Tsefølatéphar? (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)
Honoring negation for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with second apophony and saal-particle placed after the verb: Keepozathar saal. (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)
Second apophony of negation infixes with subjunctive mood: Róthórnórt. (He may not be willing to go.)
Non-finite forms
Gerund
- Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix (o)pi added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.
Infinitives
- PRES -odi, PST -oudi, FUT ordi
- used with modal verbs
- subjunctive form created with duplication
Participles
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.
IPFV | PFV | |
---|---|---|
Patientive (LAT) | p | pi/pot |
Negative (LAT) | tip | |
Active (INS) | on | ompu |
Agentive (INS) | empo |
- Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+rt and "possible" (GNO) POS+ta
- Past forms are created by adding i to the end: kephoni (was being washed)
- Future forms with or: kephonor (will be washed)
- Examples shown already in derivations
Relative form with word-order and prefix? + formal register particle
Auxiliary verbs
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.
- tut "want" (from tuta "craving, wish"): Tutajin kepoudi his. (I wanted to wash it.)
- infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": Tutan kepordiki his. (I want it to be washed.)
- "be going to" (FUT): Titar latepordi. (I'm going to dance.)
- "wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent to be-verb: Tutuutan khau fos. (I wish you were here)
- mép "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from mépi "skill"): Mépa latepodi ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)
- kuut "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from kuutó "possibility"): Kuutest rotordi. (You may leave.), Fendógópot kuutó pai. (He may unexpectedly be dead.)
- particle nor added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": Fendógópi kuut nor. (It might be dead.)
- particle ga added for "should, must": Fendógópi kuut ga. (It should be dead, as we wanted.)
- khet "must" (deontic) (from kheti "necessity"): Khetan rotodi. (I must go now), Khetar rotordi. (I must go soon)
- khurd "dare" (from khurdi "daring"): ¿Khurde glerkékodi nas? (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)
Voice
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.
- Irregularities‽
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). Emphasizing clitics are used to mark the topic.
- Ónzaiton dothee pof.
/ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/
ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø
3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS
A man is lifting a feather.
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb circumfix remains untouched.
- Zaiton pof (dothpo).
/zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/
zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)
lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)
A feather is being lifted (by a man).
Antipassive construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent and is suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ma in the formal register.
- Doth ónzait(ma) (pofos).
/dəθ ɔ̃zaɪ̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/
doth-Ø ón-zait-Ø(/ma) (pof-os)
man-ABS 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(.FORM) (feather-INS)
The man is lifting (a feather).
Instrument and turning it into an agent:
- Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh. (...with his own hand...)
- Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir. (the feather is raised by the man's hand)
- Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli. (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!
- Vakuh ónzait pofos. (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!
- Tup onzait dothpo pofos. (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate tup.
Numerals
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain.
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: opl tupl (two sticks)
Number | Number | Cardinal | Ordinal | Fractional | Multiplicative adverb | Multiplicative adjective | Group | Polygon |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zero | ozi | oz | ozhi | - | zeng (never) | - | ze (no) | - |
One | ipi | ip | iphi | liku (whole) | ohu (once) | ipitse (onefold) | ipis (singular) | ipir (dot) |
Two | opi | op | ophi | lopu (half) | ophu (twice) | opitse (twofold) | opis (pair) | opart (line) |
Three | oki | ok | okhi | loku | okhu | okitse | okis | okart (triangle) |
Four | óppi | óp | óphi | lóppu | óphu | óphitse | óphis | ópart |
Five | ofi | of | offi | lofu | offu | ofitse | ofis | ofart |
Six | ókki | ók | ókhi | lókku | ókhu | ókhitse | ókhis | ókart |
Seven | omi | om | ongi | lomu | ongu | omitse | omis | omart |
Eight | ngovi | ngov | ngovvi | longovu | ngovvu | ngovitse | ngovis | jart |
Nine | ngoipi | ngoip | ngoiphi | longoipu | ngoiphu | ngoipitse | ngoipis | ngoipart |
Ten | jopi | jop | jophi | lojopu | jophu | jopitse | jopis | jopart |
Eleven | Twelve | Thirteen | Fourteen | Fifteen | Sixteen | Seventeen | Eighteen | Nineteen | Twenty |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ngoki | ngópi | ngofi | ngóki | ngomi | ophungonvi | jopomi | jopingovi | jopingoipi | ophujopi |
Twenty-one | Thirty | Fourty | Fifty | Sixty | Sixty-four | Sixty-five | Seventy | Eighty | Ninety |
ophujopipi | okhujopi | offungovi | offujopi | ókhujopi | mouti | moutipi | ongujopi | ngowopi | ngoiphujopi |
One hundred | One hundred and twenty-two |
One hundred and sixty-six |
Two hundred | Thousand | Three thousand four hundred |
Ten thousand | Hundred thousand | Million | Billion |
toti | toti(s) ophujopopi |
toti(s) moutókki |
ophutoti | mopi | okhumopi(s) óphutoti |
tothutoti | tothumopi | hamisi | mowisi |
- Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)
- Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.
- Fractions are constructed by placing the l(o)-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: okhu lóppu ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: lopuji tuppo (for one half of a stick)
- Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register s-letter is added between each power of ten.
Syntax
Word order
- VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive
- possessives follow nouns
- predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns
Emphasizing clitics
Suffixes ma (for ABS) and noh (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: Ónzaiton dotheenoh pof. (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. Ónzaiton dothee pofma. (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used with verbs in antipassive constructions.
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma. (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.)
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: Jóvakuhoi suu pof swima swi. (He gave her feather to him.)
Clauses
Noun clauses
WIP ... to be redone
- Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe. (I see that he washes his hands) vs. Onluvakan kepóo vakuhos supe. (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)
Relative clauses
participles
Adverbial clauses
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject
Conditional clauses
subjunctive
Register
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location...
Intimate
Agent prefixes aren't used. No t in inceptive.
Casual
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): latepóji (he danced AN) vs. bousoi (he fell INAN)
Formal
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? Ondakon næ ka Nithki. (I humbly offer this to You)
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: luwi... nas ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. en fø na (you are making me blind)
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (wa)
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)
Lexicon
See the dictionary page.