Proto-Rugic
Proto-Rugic is the hypothetical ancestor of the Rugic languages.
| Proto-Rugic | |
|---|---|
| *þaudiskaz | |
| Pronunciation | [ˈθɑuðiskɑz] |
| Created by | Shariifka |
Indo-European
| |
Early forms | |
Introduction
Proto-Rugic is the result of taking a Balto-Slavic base and applying a rough approximation of the PIE to Proto-Germanic sound changes.
The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
- PPR lack the *eu to *jau sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
Phonology
Orthography
Consonants
Vowels
Prosody
Stress
Intonation
Phonotactics
Morphophonology
Morphology
Nouns
Nouns had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.
a-stems
Masculine or neuter.
| *wilhaz m. "wolf" | *jūką n. "yoke" | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *wilhaz | *wilhō | *wilhai | *jūką | *jūkai | *jūkō |
| Vocative | *wilh | |||||
| Accusative | *wilhą | *wilhōnz | ||||
| Genitive | *wilhō | *wilhōu | *wilhǭ | *jūkō | *jūkōu | *jūkǭ |
| Dative | *wilhōi | *wilhamō | *wilhamaz | *jūkōi | *jūkamō | *jūkamaz |
| Instrumental | *wilhai | *wilhamō | *wilhōiz | *jūkai | *jūkamō | *jūkōiz |
| Locative | *wilhai | *wilhōu | *wilhaisu | *jūkai | *jūkōu | *jūkaisu |
ō-stems
Feminine.
| *þaudō f. "people" | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *þaudō | *þaudōi | *þaudōz |
| Vocative | |||
| Accusative | *þaudǭ | *þaudōnz | |
| Genitive | *þaudōz | *þaudōu | *þaudǭ |
| Dative | *þaudōi | *þaudōmō | *þaudōmaz |
| Instrumental | *þaudǭ | *þaudōmō | *þaudōmīz |
| Locative | *þaudōi | *þaudōu | *þaudōzu |
Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ō-stem nouns known as ī/jō-stems. These nouns took the ending *-ī in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ō-stem endings preceded by *-(i)j- (according to Siever's Law).
ē-stems
Feminine.
| *demē f. "earth" | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *demē | *demēi | *demēz |
| Vocative | |||
| Accusative | *demǭ | *demēnz | |
| Genitive | *demēz | *demēu | *demǭ |
| Dative | *demēi | *demēmō | *demēmaz |
| Instrumental | *demǭ | *demēmō | *demēmīz |
| Locative | *demēi | *demēu | *demēzu |
i-stems
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *ankliz f. "coal" | *mari n. "sea" | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *ankliz | *anklī | *anklīz | *mari | *marī | *marī |
| Vocative | *anklī | |||||
| Accusative | *anklį | *anklinz | ||||
| Genitive | *anklīz | *anklijau | *anklijǭ | *marīz | *marjau | *marjǭ |
| Dative | *anklī | *anklimō | *anklimaz | *marī | *marimō | *marimaz |
| Instrumental | *anklimi | *anklimō | *anklimīz | *marimi | *marimō | *marimīz |
| Locative | *anklēi | *anklijau | *anklizu | *marēi | *marjau | *marizu |
Note: The genitive/locative dual and genutive plural are subject to Siever's law.
u-stems
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *sūnuz f. "son" | *metu n. "honey" | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *sūnuz | *sūnū | *sūnawiz | *metu | *metū | *metū |
| Vocative | *sūnau | |||||
| Accusative | *sūnų | *sūnunz | ||||
| Genitive | *sūnauz | *sūnawau | *sūnawǭ | *metauz | *metawau | *metawǭ |
| Dative | *sūnawī | *sūnumō | *sūnumaz | *metawī | *metumō | *metumaz |
| Instrumental | *sūnumi | *sūnumō | *sūnumīz | *metumi | *metumō | *metumīz |
| Locative | *sūnawī | *sūnawau | *sūnuzu | *metawī | *metawau | *metuzu |
n-stems
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *ahmô m. "stone" | *immô n. "name" | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *ahmô | *ahminī | *ahminiz | *immô | *imminī | *imminō |
| Vocative | ||||||
| Accusative | *ahminį | *ahmininz | ||||
| Genitive | *ahminiz | *ahminau | *ahminǭ | *imminiz | *imminau | *imminǭ |
| Dative | *ahminī | *ahmimmō | *ahmimmaz | *imminī | *immimmō | *immimmaz |
| Instrumental | *ahmimmi | *ahmimmō | *ahmimmīz | *immimmi | *immimmō | *immimmīz |
| Locative | *ahminī | *ahminau | *ahminzu | *imminī | *imminau | *imminzu |
Note:
- In heavy j-suffixed n-stems, expected **-ijin- was contracted to *-īn-. Similarly, in light j-suffixed n-stems, expected **-jin- was contracted to *-in-.
r-stems
Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *prōþê m. "brother" | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *prōþê | *prōþrī | *prōþriz |
| Vocative | *prōþer | ||
| Accusative | *prōþrį | *prōþrinz | |
| Genitive | *prōþriz | *prōþrau | *prōþrǭ |
| Dative | *prōþrī | *prōþrimō | *prōþrimaz |
| Instrumental | *prōþrimi | *prōþrimō | *prōþrimīz |
| Locative | *prōþrī | *prōþrau | *prōþrizu |
z-stems
Neuter.
| *nepaz n. "cloud" | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *nepaz | *nipizī | *nipizō |
| Vocative | |||
| Accusative | |||
| Genitive | *nipiziz | *nipizau | *nipizǭ |
| Dative | *nipizī | *nipimmō | *nipimmaz |
| Instrumental | *nipimmi | *nipimmō | *nipimmīz |
| Locative | *nipizi | *nipizau | *nipissu |
Consonant stems
Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *ahmô m. "stone" | *immô n. "name" | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *ahmô | *ahminī | *ahminiz | *immô | *imminī | *imminō |
| Vocative | ||||||
| Accusative | *ahminį | *ahmininz | ||||
| Genitive | *ahminiz | *ahminau | *ahminǭ | *imminiz | *imminau | *imminǭ |
| Dative | *ahminī | *ahmimmō | *ahmimmaz | *imminī | *immimmō | *immimmaz |
| Instrumental | *ahmimmi | *ahmimmō | *ahmimmīz | *immimmi | *immimmō | *immimmīz |
| Locative | *ahminī | *ahminau | *ahminzu | *imminī | *imminau | *imminzu |
Note: The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *-s (after unvoiced consonants) or *-z (after voiced consonants), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.
Adjectives
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin enim) that was reanalyzed as an n-stem ending.
a/ō-stem adjectives
| *twenaz "good" | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Strong | ||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative/ Vocative |
*twenaz | *twenai | *twenō | *twenōi | *tweną, -at | *twenō |
| Accusative | *twenan | *twenanz | *twenǭ | *twenōnz | ||
| Genitive | *twenas | *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą | *twenōz, *twenazjōz | *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą | *twenas, *twenazjas | *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą |
| Dative | *twenammai | *twenabiz | *twenōz | *twenōbiz | *twenammai | *twenabiz |
| Instrumental | *twenô | *twenabaz | *twenô | *twenōbaz | *twenô | *twenabaz |
| Weak | ||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative/ Vocative |
*twenǭ | *twenaniz | *twenǭ | *twenōniz | *twenǭ | *twenanō |
| Accusative | *twenanį | *twenaninz | *twenōnį | *twenōniz | ||
| Genitive | *twenaniz | *twenanǭ | *twenōniz | *twenōnǭ | *twenaniz | *twenanǭ |
| Dative | *twenanī | *twenambiz | *twenōnī | *twenōmbiz | *twenanī | *twenambiz |
| Instrumental | *twenani | *twenambaz | *twenōni | *twenōmbaz | *twenani | *twenambaz |
ja/jō-stem adjectives
These were a sub-type of a/ō-stem adjectives with a *-j- or *-ij- (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **-ija- became *-ī- and **-ja- became *-i-.
i-stem adjectives
These were declined identically to ja/jō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *-iz and *-į/it respectively instead of the expected **-(i)jaz and **-(i)ją/(i)jat. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *-in as an alternative to expected *-(i)jan.
The weak forms were identical to those of ja/jō-stems.
Consonant-stem adjectives
These were declined identically to a/ō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *-s/z and *— respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **-az and **-ą/at.
The weak forms were identical to those of a/ō-stems.
Pronouns
First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns
| First person | Second person | Reflexive | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
| Nominative | *ēzų | *wet; *wit | *mez; *miz | *þū; *þu | *jūt; *jut | *jūz; *juz | — |
| Accusative | *mēn; *mi | *nō | *nōz | *þēn; *þi | *wō | *wōz | *sēn; *si |
| Genitive | *miniz; *mī | *nōu | *nōzǭ | *þiwiz; *þī | *wōu | *wōzǭ | *siwiz; *sī |
| Dative | *minī; *mī | *nōmō | *nōmaz | *þiwī; *þī | *wōmō | *wōmaz | *siwī; *sī |
| Instrumental | *minimi | *nōmō | *nōmīz | *þiwimi | *wōmō | *wōmīz | *siwimi |
| Locative | *minī | *nōu | *nōzu | *þiwī | *wōu | *wōzu | *siwī |
| Possessive adj. | *menaz | *nōwaz | *nōzjaz | *þewaz | *wōwaz | *wōzjaz | *sewaz |
Notes:
- When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
- Possessive adjectives were always strong.
Other pronouns
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
| Nominative | *þaz | *þō | *þai | *þō | *þōi | *þōz | *þą | *þai | *þō |
| Accusative | *þan | *þōnz | *þǭ | *þōnz | |||||
| Genitive | *þas | *þāu | *þaizǭ | *þazjōz | *þōu | *þōzǭ | *þas | *þāu | *þaizǭ |
| Dative | *þammai | *þaimō | *þaimaz | *þazjōi | *þōmō | *þōmaz | *þammai | *þaimō | *þaimaz |
| Instrumental | *þammi | *þaimō | *þaimīz | *þǭ | *þōmō | *þōmīz | *þammi | *þaimō | *þaimīz |
| Locative | *þammi | *þāu | *þaizu | *þōi | *þōu | *þōzu | *þammi | *þāu | *þaizu |
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
| Nominative | *siz | *sī | *sīz | *sī | *sijōi | *sijōz | *si | *sī | *sī |
| Accusative | *sin | *sinz | *sijǭ | *sijōnz | |||||
| Genitive | *ses | *sijau | *sezǭ | *sizjōz | *sijōu | *sijōzǭ | *ses | *sijau | *sezǭ |
| Dative | *simmai | *sīmō | *sīmaz | *sizjōi | *sijōmō | *sijōmaz | *simmai | *sīmō | *sīmaz |
| Instrumental | *simmi | *sīmō | *sīmīz | *sijǭ | *sijōmō | *sijōmīz | *simmi | *sīmō | *sīmīz |
| Locative | *simmi | *sijau | *sīzu | *sijōi | *sijōu | *sijōzu | *simmi | *sijau | *sīzu |
Reflexive/Intensive pronoun
| Strong | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *safsaz | *safsai | *safsō | *safsōi | *safsą, *safsat | *safsō |
| Accusative | *safsan | *safsanz | *safsǭ | *safsōnz | ||
| Genitive | *safsas, *safsazjas | *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą | *safsōz, *safsazjōz | *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą | *safsas, *safsazjas | *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą |
| Dative | *safsammai | *safsabiz | *safsōi | *safsōbiz | *safsammai | *safsabiz |
| Instrumental | *safsō | *safsabaz | *safsô | *safsōbaz | *safsō | *safsabaz |
| Weak | ||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *safsǭ | *safsaniz | *safsǭ | *safsōniz | *safsǭ | *safsanō |
| Accusative | *safsanį | *safsaninz | *safsōnį | *safsōniz | ||
| Genitive | *safsaniz | *safsanǭ | *safsōniz | *safsōnǭ | *safsaniz | *safsanǭ |
| Dative | *safsanī | *safsambiz | *safsōnī | *safsōmbiz | *safsanī | *safsambiz |
| Instrumental | *safsani | *safsambaz | *safsōni | *safsōmbaz | *safsani | *safsambaz |
Neutral demonstrative
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *saz | *sai | *sō | *sōi | *sat | *sō |
| Accusative | *san | *sanz | *sǭ | *sōnz | ||
| Genitive | *sas, *sazjas | *sōsą, *sazjōsą | *sōz, *sazjōz | *sōsą, *sazjōsą | *sas, *sazjas | *sōsą, *sazjōsą |
| Dative | *sammai | *sabiz | *sōi | *sōbiz | *sammai | *sabiz |
| Instrumental | *sō | *sabaz | *sô | *sōbaz | *sō | *sabaz |
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *þaz | *þai | *þō | *þōi | *þat | *þō |
| Accusative | *þan | *þanz | *þǭ | *þōnz | ||
| Genitive | *þas, *þazjas | *þōsą, *þazjōsą | *þōz, *þazjōz | *þōsą, *þazjōsą | *þas, *þazjas | *þōsą, *þazjōsą |
| Dative | *þammai | *þabiz | *þōi | *þōbiz | *þammai | *þabiz |
| Instrumental | *þō | *þabaz | *þô | *þōbaz | *þō | *þabaz |
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *izaz | *izai | *izō | *izōi | *izat | *izō |
| Accusative | *izan | *izanz | *izǭ | *izōnz | ||
| Genitive | *izas, *izazjas | *izōsą, *izazjōsą | *izōz, *izazjōz | *izōsą, *izazjōsą | *izas, *izazjas | *izōsą, *izazjōsą |
| Dative | *izammai | *izabiz | *izōi | *izōbiz | *izammai | *izabiz |
| Instrumental | *izō | *izabaz | *izô | *izōbaz | *izō | *izabaz |
Near demonstrative
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *istaz | *istai | *istō | *istōi | *istat | *istō |
| Accusative | *istan | *istanz | *istǭ | *istōnz | ||
| Genitive | *istas, *istazjas | *istōsą, *istazjōsą | *istōz, *istazjōz | *istōsą, *istazjōsą | *istas, *istazjas | *istōsą, *istazjōsą |
| Dative | *istammai | *istabiz | *istōi | *istōbiz | *istammai | *istabiz |
| Instrumental | *istō | *istabaz | *istô | *istōbaz | *istō | *istabaz |
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *gehaz | *gehai | *gehō | *gehōi | *gehat | *gehō |
| Accusative | *gehan | *gehanz | *gehǭ | *gehōnz | ||
| Genitive | *gegas, *gegazjas | *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą | *gegōz, *gegazjōz | *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą | *gegas, *gegazjas | *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą |
| Dative | *gegammai | *gegabiz | *gegōi | *gegōbiz | *gegammai | *gegabiz |
| Instrumental | *gegō | *gegabaz | *gegô | *gegōbaz | *gegō | *gegabaz |
Far demonstrative
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *allaz | *allai | *allō | *allōi | *allat | *allō |
| Accusative | *allan | *allanz | *allǭ | *allōnz | ||
| Genitive | *allas, *allazjas | *allōsą, *allazjōsą | *allōz, *allazjōz | *allōsą, *allazjōsą | *allas, *allazjas | *allōsą, *allazjōsą |
| Dative | *allammai | *allabiz | *allōi | *allōbiz | *allammai | *allabiz |
| Instrumental | *allō | *allabaz | *allô | *allōbaz | *allō | *allabaz |
Interrogative pronouns
- *hwai "what, who"
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *hwai | *hwēz | *hwōi | *hwēz | *hwat | *hwō |
| Accusative | *hwan | *hwanz | *hwǭ | *hwōnz | ||
| Genitive | *hwas, *hwazjas | *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą | *hwōz, *hwazjōz | *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą | *hwas, *hwazjas | *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą |
| Dative | *hwammai | *hwabiz | *hwōi | *hwōbiz | *hwammai | *hwabiz |
| Instrumental | *hwō, *hwī | *hwabaz | *hwô, *hwī | *hwōbaz | *hwō, *hwī | *hwabaz |
- *hwaþeraz "which, what (of two)"
Other pronouns
Adverbs
Derived manner adverbs
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are *-ē and *-ō.
Numerals
| # | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial | Multiplier |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | *ainaz | |||
| 2 | *twō | |||
| 3 | *þrīz | |||
| 4 | *hedūriz | |||
| 5 | *finh | |||
| 6 | *swes | |||
| 7 | *sibin | |||
| 8 | *ahtō | |||
| 9 | *niwin | |||
| 10 | *tisin | |||
| 11 | ||||
| 12 | ||||
| 13 | *þritigį | *þritihimǭ | ||
| 14 | *hwettwōrtigį | *hwettwōrtihimǭ | ||
| 15 | *hwinhtigį | *hwinhtihimǭ | ||
| 16 | *sehstigį | *sehstihimǭ | ||
| 17 | *siftintigį | *siftintihimǭ | ||
| 18 | *ahtōtigį | *ahtōtihimǭ | ||
| 19 | *nawintigį | *nawintijimǭ | ||
| 20 | *wīginþī | *wīginsǭ | ||
| 30 | *þrīginþō | *þrīginsǭ | ||
| 40 | *hwetrōginþō | *hwetrōginsǭ | ||
| 50 | *hwinhwōginþō | *hwinhwōginsǭ | ||
| 60 | *sehsōginþō | *sehsōginsǭ | ||
| 70 | *seftumōginþō | *seftumōginsǭ | ||
| 80 | *ahtōginþō | *ahtōginsǭ | ||
| 90 | *naunōginþō | *naunōginsǭ | ||
| 100 | *hinþą | *hinsǭ | ||
| 1000 | *smīgillī | *smīgillidǭ |
, *framaz |- ! 2 | *twō | *alþeraz |- ! 3 | *þrēz | *þriþjǭ |- ! 4 | *hwettwōr | *hwadurþǭ |- ! 5 | *hwinhw | *hwinhtǭ |- ! 6 | *sehs | *sehstǭ |- ! 7 | *siftį | *siftumǭ |- ! 8 | *ahtō | *ahtōwǭ |- ! 9 | *nawį | *naunǭ |- ! 10 | *tihį | *tehumǭ |- ! 11 | *ainatigį | *ainatehumǭ |- ! 12 | *twatigį | *twatehumǭ |- ! 13 | *þritigį | *þritehumǭ |- ! 14 | *hwettwōrtigį | *hwettwōrtehumǭ |- ! 15 | *hwinhtigį | *hwinhtehumǭ |- ! 16 | *sehstigį | *sehstehumǭ |- ! 17 | *siftintigį | *siftintehumǭ |- ! 18 | *ahtōtigį | *ahtōtehumǭ |- ! 19 | *nawintigį | *nawintehumǭ |- ! 20 | *twīginþī | *twīginsimǭ |- ! 30 | *þrīginþō | *þrīginsimǭ |- ! 40 | *hwetrōginþō | *hwetrōginsimǭ |- ! 50 | *hwinhwōginþō | *hwinhwōginsimǭ |- ! 60 | *sehsōginþō | *sehsōginsimǭ |- ! 70 | *seftumōginþō | *seftumōginsimǭ |- ! 80 | *ahtōginþō | *ahtōginsimǭ |- ! 90 | *naunōginþō | *naunōginsimǭ |- ! 100 | *hinþą | *hinsimǭ |- ! 1000 | *smīgillī | *smīgillisimǭ |- |} Notes:
- *ainaz "one" was declined as an a/ō-stem adjective.
- *twō "two" was declined as below:
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *twō, *twai | *twōi | *twō |
| Accusative | *twanz | *twōnz | *twō |
| Genitive | *twōsą | ||
| Dative | *twōbiz | ||
| Instrumental | *twōbaz | ||
- *þrēz "three" was declined as below:
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *þrēz | *þrijō | |
| Accusative | *þrinz | ||
| Genitive | *þrijǭ, *þrēsą | ||
| Dative | *þribiz, *þrēbiz | ||
| Instrumental | *þribaz, *þrēbaz | ||
- Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
- *hinþą "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
- *smīgillī "thousand" was declined as an ī/jō-stem feminine noun.
- Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending *-ǭ) except for 1st and 2nd.
- The following adverbial numbers are reconstructed:
- *ainas, *sims "once"
- *twis "twice"
- *þris "thrice"
- *hwadurs "four times"
- The following multiplicative numbers are reconstructed:
- *simflaz, *simflegz, *singlaz "single"
- *twiflaz, *twiflegz "double"
- *þriflaz, *þriflegz "triple"
- *hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz "quadruple"
- The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
- *sem/sim- "uni-, mono-, one, once"
- *twi- "bi-, di-, two, twice"
- *þri- "tri-, three, thrice"
- *hwadur- "quadri-, tetra-, four"
- *sēmi- "semi-, half"
- The following collective numerals are reconstructed:
- *ambō (declined as *twō) "both"
- *twiznaz "pair"
- *þriznaz "set of three"
- *hwadurznaz "set of four"
Verbs
Strong verbs
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
| 1S | 2S | 3S | 1P | 2P | 3P |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *-ai | *-istai | *- | *-amaz | *-istiz | *-ēri |
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *-i-. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
- Class 1: This class had a present stem vowel of *-i-. It had two subclasses:
- a. The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *-ai- — e.g. *witēō "I see" > *waitai "I saw", *wissaz "seen"
- b. The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *-ī- — e.g. *winhō "I conquer" > *wīhai "I conquered", *wihtaz "conquered"
- Class 2: This class had a present stem vowel of *-u- which changed to *-au- in the past stem — e.g. *bukjō "I flee" > *baukai "I fled", *bukadaz "fled"
- Class 3: This class had a present stem vowel *-a-, *-e-, or *-i- that became *-ē- in the past stem — e.g. *dahjō "I do" > *dēhai "I did", *dahtaz "done"
- Class 4: This class had a present stem vowel *-a- that became *-ō- in the past stem — e.g. *skabō "I scratch" > *skōbai "I scratched", *skabadaz "scratched"
- Class 5: The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. *fipō "I drink" > *fipai "I drank", *fipadaz "drunk"
- Class 6: The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *-s- — e.g. *þragō "I drag" > *þrahsai "I dragged", *þrahtaz "dragged"
- Class 7: The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by -e-. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *-e/i- to *-a-) — e.g. *hanō "I sing" > *hehanai "I sang"
- Irregular: The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. *stêō "I stand" > *steþai "I stood"
Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:
- A j-suffix. Such verbs are said to be j-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
- An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
- A vowel suffix (usually *-ō- or *-ē-). Such verbs are called ō-presents or ē-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb *stêsi which had the suffix *-ê-.
The past participle of all verbs was formed with the suffix *-þaz which, depending on the environment, could become *-taz, *-daz, or *-saz. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually *-a- (or *-i- in the case of j-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.
The infinitive was formed with the suffix *-mį added to the present stem (including any irregularities). j-presents used a connector vowel of *-i- (light) or *-ī- (heavy). Otherwise, if the present stem did not end in a vowel, the connector vowel *-a- was used.
Example (class 3): *akamį "to do, act"
| Infinitive | *akamį | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *akinþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *ahtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *akjō | *akjōr | *akjǭ | *akjār | *ēkai | *ēkizǭ | |
| 2S | *akiz | *akizar | *akjāz | *akjāzar | *ēkistai | *ēkizēs | *ak |
| 3S | *akid | *akidar | *akjā | *akjādar | *ēk | *ēkizē | *akidō |
| 1P | *akjamaz | *akiminai | *akjāmaz | *akjāminai | *ēkamaz | *ēkizēmaz | |
| 2P | *akidiz | *akjādiz | *ēkistiz | *ēkizēþiz | *akid | ||
| 3P | *akjand | *akjān | *ēkēri | *ēkizēn | *akjandō | ||
Example (class 3, light j-present): *dahimį "to do, make"
| Infinitive | *dahimį | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *daginþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *dahtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *dahjō | *dahjōr | *dahjǭ | *dahjār | *dēhai | *dēgizǭ | |
| 2S | *dahiz | *dahizar | *dahjāz | *dagjāzar | *dēgistai | *dēgizēs | *dah |
| 3S | *dahid | *dahidar | *dahjā | *dagjādar | *dēh | *dēgizē | *dahidō |
| 1P | *dahjamaz | *dagiminai | *dagjāmaz | *dagjāminai | *dēhamaz | *dēgizēmaz | |
| 2P | *dahidiz | *dagjādiz | *dēgistiz | *dēgizēþiz | *dahid | ||
| 3P | *dahjand | *dahjān | *dēgēri | *dagizēn | *dagjandō | ||
Example: *þragamį (class 6) "to drag"
| Infinitive | *þragamį | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *þraginþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *þrahtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *þragō | *þragōr | *þragǭ | *þragār | *þrahsai | *þrahsizǭ | |
| 2S | *þragiz | *þragizar | *þragāz | *þragāzar | *þrahsistai | *þrahsizēs | *þrag |
| 3S | *þragid | *þragidar | *þragā | *þragādar | *þrahs | *þrahsizē | *þragidō |
| 1P | *þragamaz | *þragiminai | *þragāmaz | *þragāminai | *þrahsamaz | *þrahsizēmaz | |
| 2P | *þragidiz | *þragādiz | *þrahsistiz | *þrahsizēþiz | *þragid | ||
| 3P | *þragand | *þragān | *þrahsēri | *þrahsizēn | *þragandō | ||
Example: *hanamį (class 7) "to sing"
| Infinitive | *hanamį | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *haninþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *hanþaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *hanō | *hanōr | *hanǭ | *hanār | *hehanai | *heganizǭ | |
| 2S | *haniz | *hanizar | *hanāz | *hanāzar | *heganistai | *heganizēs | *han |
| 3S | *hanid | *hanidar | *hanā | *hanādar | *hehan | *heganizē | *hanidō |
| 1P | *hanamaz | *haniminai | *hanāmaz | *hanāminai | *heganamaz | *heganizēmaz | |
| 2P | *hanidiz | *hanādiz | *heganistiz | *heganizēþiz | *hanid | ||
| 3P | *hanand | *hanān | *heganēri | *heganizēn | *hanandō | ||
Example (class 7, heavy j-present): *bargīmį "to stuff"
| Infinitive | *bargīmį | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *bargīnþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *barhtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *barhijō | *barhijōr | *barhijǭ | *barhijār | *bebarhai | *bebargizǭ | |
| 2S | *barhīz | *bargīzar | *barhijāz | *bargijāzar | *bebargistai | *bebargizēs | *barh |
| 3S | *barhīd | *bargīdar | *barhijā | *bargijādar | *bebarh | *bebargizē | *barhīdō |
| 1P | *bargijamaz | *bargīminai | *bargijāmaz | *bargijāminai | *bebarhamaz | *bebargizēmaz | |
| 2P | *bargīdiz | *bargijādiz | *bebargistiz | *bebargizēþiz | *bargīþ | ||
| 3P | *barhijand | *barhijān | *bebargēri | *bebargizēn | *bargijandō | ||
Example: *stêmį (irregular, present suffix -ê-) "to stand"
| Infinitive | *stêmį | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *stênþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *staþaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *stêō | *stêōr | *stêǭ | *stêār | *steþai | *stidizǭ | |
| 2S | *stês | *stêsar | *stêāz | *stêāzar | *stidistai | *stidizēs | *stê |
| 3S | *stêþ | *stêþar | *stêā | *stêādar | *steþ | *stidizē | *stêdō |
| 1P | *stêmaz | *stêminai | *stêāmaz | *stêāminai | *steþamaz | *stidizēmaz | |
| 2P | *stêþiz | *stêādiz | *stidistiz | *stidizēþiz | *stêd | ||
| 3P | *stênþ | *stêān | *stedēri | *stidizēn | *stêndō | ||
Weak verbs
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
| 1S | 2S | 3S | 1P | 2P | 3P |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *-bǭ | *-bōs | *-bō | *-bōmaz | *-bōþiz | *-bōn |
The *-b- was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the verb's class. The same connector vowel was also used to form the infinitive.
The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
Class 1
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to j-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
The past indicative had a connector vowel *-(i)ja-, while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *-i/ī-. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.
Class 2
Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:
- The present stem ended in *-ō-, which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *-ō- to *-ô-. In the present subjunctive, expected **-ōǭ contracted to *-ǫ̂, while expected **-ōā- became *-ōē-.
- The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *-ō-, as in the present stem.
Class 3
There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *-ē-, which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *-ō- of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle dropped the *-ē- suffix and instead had the connector vowel *-a-.
The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *-ē- and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *-i-.
Class 4
Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-j-stem strong verbs.
The past indicative had a connector vowel *-a-, and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *-i-. The past participle had no connector vowel.
Preterite-present verbs
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
For example:
- *menamį "to remember", *memanai "I remember", *menabǭ "I remembered", *minþaz "remembered"
- *ōtamį "to hate", *ōtai "I hate", *ōtabǭ "I hated", *ōsaz "hated"
- *(ga)knōmį "to know, be familiar (with)", *(ga)knōai "I know, am familiar (with)", *(ga)knōbǭ "I knew, was familiar (with)", *(ga)knōþaz "known"
- *(ga)swedamį "to be used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedai "I am used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedabǭ "I was used/accustomed to", *(ga)swessaz "accustomed"
- *emamį "to have, own", *ēmai "I have, own", *emabǭ "I had, owned", *imþaz "had, owned"
- *simį "to be allowed", *sisai "I am allowed", *sibǭ "I was allowed", *siþaz "allowed"
- *hrimį "to be determined", *hrisai "I am determined", *hribǭ "I was determined", *hriþaz "determined"
- *(ga)flēmį "to suffice, be enough", *(ga)flēai "I suffice, am enough", *(ga)flēþaz "sufficed, enough"
- *þelamį "to owe, have to", *þeþalai "I owe, have to", *þelabǭ "I owe, had to", *þelþaz "owed, had to"
- *afamį "to be necessary/suitable", *ēfai "I am necessary/suitable", *afabǭ "I was necessary/suitable", *aftaz "necessary/suitable"
The verb "to be"
The verb "to be" had two stems *(i)s- and *beu/bus-. They were in fact two verbs, *immį "to be" and *biumį "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
| Infinitive | *immį | *biumį | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *beunþs | ||||||||
| Past participle | *beudaz | ||||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
| *immį | *biumį 1 | *biumį 2 | *immį | *biumį | *biumį | *immį | *biumį | ||
| 1S | *izą | *bewō | *buzą | *sijǭ | *buzǭ | *bebewai | *issǭ | *bebeuzǭ | |
| 2S | *iz | *beuz | *buz | *sijēz | *buzāz | *bebeustai | *issēz | *bebeuzēz | *beu |
| 3S | *ist | *beud | *bust | *sijē | *buzā | *bebeu | *issē | *bebeuzē | *beudō |
| 1P | *samaz | *beumaz | *buzamaz | *sīmaz | *buzāmaz | *bebeumaz | *issēmaz | *bebeuzēmaz | |
| 2P | *istiz | *beudiz | *bustiz | *sīþiz | *buzāþiz | *bebiustiz | *issēþiz | *bebeuzēþiz | *beud |
| 3P | *sind | *beund | *buzind | *sīn | *buzān | *bebewēri | *issēn | *bebeuzēn | *beundō |
Syntax
Constituent order
Noun phrase
Verb phrase
Sentence phrase
Dependent clauses
Vocabulary
Time - *þimfaz
| English | Proto-Tungric |
|---|---|
| spring | *wesar (*wesn-; n., r/n-stem) |
| summer | *aisōþs (f., cons.-stem) |
| fall | *missiz (f., i-stem) |
| winter | *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; f., cons.-stem) |
| English | Proto-Tungric |
|---|---|
| day | *teuz (m., u-stem1) |
| dawn | *ausōz (f., z-stem) |
| morning | *mōdūraz (m., a-stem) |
| evening | *wesperaz (m., a-stem) |
| night | *nahts (f., cons.-stem) |
Notes:
1 Expected **-ea- was coalesced to *-ē₂- (e.g. nominative plural was *tē₂wiz rather than *teawiz).
| English | Proto-Tungric |
|---|---|
| hour | |
| day | *teuz (m., u-stem, irregular) |
| week | *sirį̄ (f., īn-stem) |
| month | *mēns (*mēns-, m., cons.-stem) |
| season | *þimfaz (n., z-stem) |
| year | *aþnaz (m., a-stem); *jōraz (m., a-stem) |
| English | Proto-Tungric |
|---|---|
| now | *nu, *nū |
| then | *þan |
| recently, a short time ago | |
| earlier | *anþ |
| soon, shortly | *mahs |
| later | |
| always | *simfer |
| often | *saif |
| sometimes | |
| rarely | |
| never | *ne aiwą |
| ever | *aiwą |
| still, yet | *int |
| already | *anþ |
| yesterday | *gizi; *gester- |
| tomorrow | *hrōz |
Colours - *helaziz
| English | Proto-Tungric |
|---|---|
| white | *albaz |
| grey | *hasnaz |
| black | *ōþraz |
| red | *raudaz, *rausaz |
| brown | *patjaz, *duswaz |
| yellow | *gelwaz, *blāwaz |
| green | *wīsidaz |
| blue | *hilizijaz |
Example texts
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri.
Translation: All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
PPT: Opnēs ɣomones louðeroi co(m)-plānoi-kʷe com deknotāti jowesi-kʷe co(m)-tlātai sent. Sois addōnātāi sent ratjō co(m)skijentijā-kʷe, et alterois anamām βrātrālim prōðomen tetolēri.
Classical Latin cognates: Omnēs hominēs līberī *complānīque cum dignitāte iūreque collātī sunt. *Sīs *addōnātae sunt ratiō cōnscientiaque, et alterīs animam *frātrālem *prōdimen tetulēre.