Vornian
| Vornian | |
|---|---|
| Bhadhagha | |
| Pronunciation | [[Help:IPA|bʱɐdʱɐgʱɐ]] |
| Created by | IlL, Praimhín |
| Setting | Verse:Tricin |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | qee |
Bhadhagha (native name Bhadhagha /bʱɐdʱɐgʱɐ/, or bhò Bhadhagha; bhadhagha is from Camalic, meaning 'beach' or 'coast') is a close relative of Eevo spoken on Bhadhagha Island off the west of Western Etalocin. It's inspired by Scottish Gaelic, Irish and Sanskrit.
Todo
- Lanna srasandhacht de h-aofrann cheallò = I'm a specialist in cello playing
- 's laobh = is there? (interrogative)
- camhna, sos, car = woman, man, person
- dèic (VN), deàmha (present tense, nonpronominal subject) = eat
- construct state
Phonology
Based on "literally read Irish".
Consonants
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | plain | m m | n n | n̂ ɲ | |||
| geminate | nn nː | ||||||
| aspirated | mh mʱ | nh nʱ | n̂h ɲʱ | ||||
| Stop | tenuis | p p | t t | ĉ c | c k | ||
| aspirated | ph pʰ | th tʰ | ĉh cʰ | ch kʰ | |||
| prenasalized | bp ᵐp | dt ⁿt | ĝĉ ᶮc | gc ᵑk | |||
| voiced | b b | d d | ĝ ɟ | g g | |||
| breathy voiced | bh bʱ | dh dʱ | ĝh ɟʱ | gh gʱ | |||
| voiced prenasalized | mb ᵐb | nd ⁿd | n̂ĝ ᶮɟ | ng ᵑg | |||
| Fricative | plain | f f | s s | h h | |||
| aspirated | fh fʰ [v] | sh sʰ [z] | |||||
| prenasalized | mhf mʱf | nhs nʱs | |||||
| Liquid | plain | l l | r r̠ | ||||
| geminate | ll lː | rr r̠ː | |||||
| breathy voiced | lh lʱ | rh r̠ʱ | |||||
Mutations
Lenition: Initials "lenite" as in Irish orthography, but null initials get an h-. All possible initials lenite: i.e. initial n, l, r, sp, st, sc are also "lenited" to nh, lh, rh, sph, sth, sch /nʰ, lʰ, rʰ, spʰ, stʰ, skʰ/.
Eclipsis: Initials "eclipse" as in Irish orthography, but s (if not in one of sp-, st-, sc-) also eclipses to nhs-.
fh, sh are often pronounced [v, z] word-medially.
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| short | long | short | long | short | long | |
| Close | i /i/ | ì /iː/ | u /u/ | ù /uː/ | ||
| Mid | e /e/ | è /eː/ | o /o/ | ò /oː/ | ||
| Open | a /ɐ/ | à /aː/ | ||||
Diphthongs are all read as written.
a in an unstressed syllable becomes e if the previous vowel ends in an /i/.
Prosody
Stress
Intonation
Phonotactics
Morphophonology
Morphology
Pronouns
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | nà | àmh |
| 2 (familiar) | hiar | sèid |
| 2 (polite) | Sthàna | |
| 3 (masculine) | u | àr |
| 3 (feminine) | i | |
| 3 (inanimate) | ci | |
Independent pronouns can be used as topics and direct objects.
As topic:
- Nà tiann arainn oitheadh?
- 1SG why on-1SG suffer.VN
- Why must I suffer?
Prepositions
Prepositions are inflected, as in the ancestral Thensarian. The pronoun Sthàna is not fused with the preposition, however.
The sequences le + an and de + an contract to len /lɛn/ and den /dɛn/.
The 1sg and 2sg forms of prepositions are stressed on the last syllable; all other forms have initial stress.
| me | you (sg.) | him | her | it | us | you (pl.) | them | relative | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ar 'on' | arainn | arais | or | ari | arè | arad | arac | arar | aram |
| de-L, d'- 'in, at' | dèinn | dèis | diù | dì | dè | diad | diac | diar | diam |
| ful 'around' | fulainn | fulais | fulu | fuili | fulè | fulad | fulac | fular | fulam |
| geil 'from' | geilinn | geilis | gela | geili | geilè | geilid | geilic | geilir | geilim |
| go 'with' | guainn | gòis | gù | guì | gè | guad | guac | guar | guam |
| le 'to' | linn | leis | leo | lèi | lè | liod | lioc | lior | liom |
| nae 'with (instrumental)' | naìnn | naìs | nae | naì | nè | naed | naec | naer | naem |
| ri 'of' | rìnn | rìs | riù | rì | rè | rìod | rìoc | rìor | rìom |
Nouns
The plural of nouns is always -a/-e if the noun ends in a C, or -n if the noun ends in a V.
- scain 'a friend', scaine 'friends'
- faonda 'a cave', faondan 'caves'
There are some irregular plurals:
- sos 'a man', sois 'men'
Bhadhagha lost grammatical gender.
The definite article is an-L for singular nouns and na-N for plural nouns. One may drop the definite article in the singular (leaving behind just the lenition), and also in the plural (leaving behind the eclipsis) if the initial C of the noun is "eclipsable" (i.e. is one of ∅, p, t, c, b, d, g, f, s). If the noun cannot eclipse, the na is always used: na scaine 'the friends'.
Colloquial Bhadhagha may also drop the plural suffix for definite plural nouns: na scain or mhfaonda for na scaine or (na) mhfaondan is often heard.
Personal names and place names do not always obey mutation rules.
The Thensarian relativizer rin turned into a genitive marker: (an) schain ri Aodhàn (Aodhàn's friend). It can be omitted in casual Bhadhagha: schain Aodhàn.
Adjectives
Adjectives inflect similarly to nouns.
Attributive adjectives agree in mutation with the noun if the noun is definite. For example: "a black cat" is eafhad flumh and "the black cat" is (an) h-eafhad fhlumh.
Copula
Bhadhagha has a copula laidh which inflects as follows:
Present tense: lanna, lair, lù, laì, lac, lamh, laid, lar, laobh -- and laidh for nonpronominal subjects
Past tense: g'lanna, g'lair, g'lù, g'laì, g'lac, g'lamh, g'laid, g'lar, g'laobh -- and g'laidh for nonpronominal subjects
Future tense: lathanna, lathair, ...
Examples: Lanna dùbhòinn (I'm a teacher), Lù ìon (It's blue)
As in Welsh, the copula is also used with progressive verbs:
- Dhùbhòinn lù d'èinteach. (The teacher is sleeping.)
- Lamh de nachtach fhòdhan. (We're hunting the game.)
Verbs
The Bhadhagha verbal system is very different from that of Old Bhadhagha. A modern Bhadhagha verb has only three principal parts: the present analytic, the future analytic, and the verbal noun.
Bhadhagha analogized the analytic forms of verbs to all persons, and fused the personal pronoun with the verb:
molaigh ná -> molanna "I thank"
molaigh fiar -> molair "thou thankest"
molaigh hú -> molù "he thanks"
molaigh hí -> molaì "she thanks"
molaigh cé -> molac "it thanks"
molaigh -> molaigh or mola "... thanks" (with nonpronominal subjects)
molaigh gámh -> molamh "we thank" (both exc. and inc.!)
molaigh séid -> molaid "ye thank"
molaigh hár -> molar "they thank"
molaigh mé -> molam "... who/that thank(s)"
Impersonal: molaobh "one thanks"
The past tense is marked by a séimhiú on the verb as in Irish, except that the suffixes are the same as in the present tense. This comes from a construction that translates to "it was the case that ...". Even non-lenitable consonants get aspirated in casual Bhadhagha, though in the written language a particle is used when the first consonant isn't lenitable.
The future tense is derived from the Old Bhadhagha future tense:
moltanna, moltair, moltù, moltaì, moltac, moltamh, moltaid, moltar, moltam, moltaobh
The verbal noun is extremely irregular in Bhadhagha. One somewhat common way of deriving verbal nouns is with a prefix (ao+N) but other verbal nouns may use the suffixes -ach, -t, -ta/-te, or -st. Verbs loaned from Camalic simply use the stem as the verbal noun. Some verbal nouns are suppletive.
Perfect tenses use the construction tainn ('after', often pronounced tann) followed by the verbal noun.
Verbs are negated with cha or chan. In the past tense, cha do-L is used.
The imperative uses the bare present tense stem; imperative sentences are in the form verb + object.
Syntax
Bhadhagha is a head-initial, topic-comment language with V2 order. It is wh-in-situ.
Faulty accusative
The "faulty accusative" (as in Modern Standard Arabic) particle is am, which is used for both definite and indefinite nouns. It is inserted before a noun after a head verb when there's a phrase between the head verb and the noun.
For example:
- Shos h-aonca tua am u? (The head is h-aonca; am is used because there is tua between h-aonca and u.)
- DEF.man PST-feed-NPRO who AM he
- Who fed the man?
Compare (with no am):
- Shos laidh tua tann aoncach ___ u? (The head is aoncach)
- DEF.man COP who after feed-VN he
- Who has fed the man?
- Shos h-aoncù ___ tua? (The head is h-aoncù)
- DEF.man PST-feed-he who
- Whom did the man feed?
Topic-prominence
The man thanks the teacher = Shos molù dhùbhòinn (lit. the man, he thanks the teacher), or Dhùbhòinn mola shos am u (lit. the teacher, the man thanks him)
The teacher thanks the man = Dhùbhòinn molù shos (lit. the teacher, he thanks the man), or Shos mola dhùbhòinn am u (lit. the man, the teacher thanks him)
Not all sentences have topics.
Relative clauses
Relative clauses work similarly. The resumptive pronoun mi is used to refer back to the head of the relative clause.
Dhùbhòinn ri mhola shos am mi - The teacher who the man thanked (lit: the teacher REL the man thanked RES)
Dhùbhòinn ri mholam shos - The teacher who thanked the man (lit: the teacher REL RES thanked the man)
Shois ri h-aoncam àr - The men who fed them (lit: the men REL RES fed them)
Shois ri h-aoncar mi - The men who they fed (lit: the men REL they fed RES)
The structure of a non-restrictive relative clause is: HEAD (topicalized) + COMMENT, just like an independent clause with a topic, except that the resumptive pronoun is used.
- Aongàlòin h-aoncam nà, lù tainn rìoladh.
- The composer, who fed me, has left.
Complement clauses
The complementizer is mha; complement clauses, by default, are VSO and have no topic.
- Linn càid mha dheàmha shaobh ri Praimhìn am shmodh.
- I know that Praimhìn's dog ate the bone.
It is not impossible to topicalize in a complement clause however:
- Ducnanna mha Shèinimh lac nòs ag Rhostairimh lac nuighil.
- I think Chick Corean is easy whereas Roshterian is hard.
One can also use le + subject to introduce a complement clause:
- Thobha Aladh liù am chrìgh.
- Aladh said he had gone.
Vocabulary
Bhadhagha vocabulary includes many Camalic loans. An example of a Camalic word in Bhadhagha is eafhad (cat).
Example texts
The North Wind and the Sun
[to be edited]
Bhòlcoll ag h-Onn