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'''Bźatga''' (/ˈbʒatgɐ/) is an Indo-European language spoken by the tribes of the ''Enśi Bźata'' "The Bźatan Islands", a small archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean. According to the people of these islands, the language came with their ancestors from a land called ''Prêńa'' along with a knowledge of metalworking and the sacred horse.
'''Bźatga''' (/ˈbʒatgɐ/) is an Indo-European language spoken by the people of ''Veśŕa'', or the ''Ensva Veśru'', an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean which includes ''Ǎĺêsa'' and its neighbouring islands in the Atlantic Ocean. According to the people of these islands, the language came with their ancestors from a land called ''Prêńa'' along with a knowledge of metalworking and the sacred horse.


==Phonology and Orthography==
==Phonology and Orthography==
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<br />
<br />


In addition to these base forms, called '''primary''' or '''unmarked''' letters, diacritics are used to create '''secondary''' and '''tertiary''' forms, which are collectively called the '''marked''' letters. In the case of vowels, secondary forms represent pretonic and therefore unstressed variants and are marked with a breve, e.g. ''răvełsemi'' "I have seen". Secondary forms of consonants are '''iotised''' variants of the primary sounds and are marked with an acute accent, e.g. ''craśu'' "drier". Most tertiary forms of both vowels and consonants are marked with the caret (''ê, ô, ŝ'' and ''ẑ''), but ''ł'' is the tertiary form of ''l''.
In addition to these base forms, called '''primary''' or '''unmarked''' letters, diacritics are used to create '''secondary''' and '''tertiary''' forms, which are collectively called the '''marked''' letters. In the case of vowels, secondary forms represent pretonic and therefore unstressed variants and are marked with a breve, e.g. ''răvełsemi'' "I have seen". Secondary forms of consonants are '''iotised''' variants of the primary sounds and are marked with an acute accent, e.g. ''craśu'' "drier". Tertiary forms represent different processes for different letter and are represented in different ways.


The table below shows the various forms of the letters:
The table below shows the various forms of the letters:
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|  
|  
| align="center"| ''ê''
| align="center"| ''ê''
| align="center"|  
| align="center"| (''î'')
| align="center"| ''ô''
| align="center"| ''ô''
| align="center"|  
| align="center"| (''û'')
|  
|  
|  
|  
| align="center"| ''ț''
| align="center"| ''ḑ''
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|  
|  
|
|
| align="center"| ''ŝ''
| align="center"| ''ẑ''
|  
|  
| align="center"| ''ł''
| align="center"| ''ł''
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|}
|}


Additionally the letters ''î'' and ''û'' occur in diphthongs deriving from ''vi, *ji'' and ''*vu''; e.g. ''doû, doî'' "black" from **''dovu, **dovi''. The resulting diphthongs are identical in pronunciation to their unmarked counterparts and the convention is purely orthographic.  
The letters ''î'' and ''û'' usuaully occur in diphthongs deriving from ''vi, *ji'' and ''*vu''; e.g. ''noû, noî'' "holy" from **''novu, **novi''. The resulting diphthongs are identical in pronunciation to their unmarked counterparts and the convention is purely orthographic.  


Taken together the following letters may occur in Bźatga orthography:
Taken together the following letters may occur in Bźatga orthography:


''a ă b c ć d e ĕ ê g ǵ i ĭ î j l ĺ ł m n ń o ŏ ô p r ŕ s ś ŝ t u ŭ û v z ź ẑ''
''a ă b c ć d ḑ e ĕ ê g ǵ i ĭ î j l ĺ ł m n ń o ŏ ô p r ŕ s ś ț t u ŭ û v z ź ''


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
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*''d'' and ''t'' become ''ć'' and ''ǵ'' respectively, e.g. ''môde'' "soft", cpv. ''môǵu'' "softer".  
*''d'' and ''t'' become ''ć'' and ''ǵ'' respectively, e.g. ''môde'' "soft", cpv. ''môǵu'' "softer".  
*''p, b'' and ''m'' are simply followed by the letter ''j'', e.g. ''caba'' "crooked", cpv. ''cabju'' "more crooked".
*''p, b'' and ''m'' are simply followed by the letter ''j'', e.g. ''caba'' "crooked", cpv. ''cabju'' "more crooked".
*''v'' becomes ''j'', e.g. ''dova'' "black", cpv. ''doju'' "blacker".
*''v'' becomes ''j'', e.g. ''dovo'' "black", cpv. ''doju'' "blacker".


====Palatalisation====
====Palatalisation====
Palatalisation is an allophonic process whereby certain consonants are affected by a following ''i''. This mainly affects the sonorants ''l'', ''n'' and ''r'', which are altered to their secondary form, and the letters ''d'' and ''t'' which become ''ẑ'' and ''ŝ'' respectively. For example, ''dana'' "gift", pl. ''dańi'', ''pata'' "pool", pl. ''paŝi''.
Palatalisation is an allophonic process whereby certain consonants are affected by a following ''i''. This mainly affects the sonorants ''l'', ''n'' and ''r'', which are altered to their secondary form, and the letters ''d'' and ''t'' which become ''ḑ'' and ''ț'' respectively. For example, ''dana'' "gift", pl. ''dańi'', ''pata'' "pool", pl. ''pați''.


A summary of Iotised and Palatalised consonants is given below:
A summary of Iotised and Palatalised consonants is given below:
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|
|
|
|
| align="center"| ''ŝ''
| align="center"| ''ț''
| align="center"| ''ẑ''   
| align="center"| ''ḑ''   
|  
|  
|  
|  
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====Alternation of ''j/i'' and ''v/u''====
====Alternation of ''j/i'' and ''v/u''====
As stated above, there are six dipthongs in Bźatga: ''ai, ei, oi'' and ''au, eu, ou''. These are only permitted to occur before a consonant or at the end of a word. When any of these comes to occur before a vowel, the second element becomes ''j'' or ''v'' respectively, e.g. ''saide'' "(he) seeks" but ''saja'' "seek!". The same is true in reverse, so ''dova'' "black" becomes ''doudra'' "blackness".  
As stated above, there are six dipthongs in Bźatga: ''ai, ei, oi'' and ''au, eu, ou''. These are only permitted to occur before a consonant or at the end of a word. When any of these comes to occur before a vowel, the second element becomes ''j'' or ''v'' respectively, e.g. ''saide'' "(he) seeks" but ''saja'' "seek!". The same is true in reverse, so ''dovo'' "black" becomes ''doudra'' "blackness".  


Because of this alternation, only ''a, e'' and ''o'' can usually occur before ''j'' and ''v''. In a few rare cases the combination ''iv'' occurs, which becomes ''jû'' before a consonant, e.g. ''ĺiva'' "colour" becomes ''ĺûleda'' "colourful, coloured".  
Because of this alternation, only ''a, e'' and ''o'' can usually occur before ''j'' and ''v''. In a few rare cases the combination ''iv'' occurs, which becomes ''jû'' before a consonant, e.g. ''ĺiva'' "colour" becomes ''ĺûleda'' "colourful, coloured".  


Whenever the combinations ''**ji'' and ''*vu'' would occur as a result of inflexion or derivation, the consonant is lost and the remaining ''i'' or ''u'' forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel. The same occurs to the combination ''*ovi'', which becomes ''oî''. The second element of a diphthong formed in this way is marked by a caret, not to show a difference in pronunciation from the unmarked form, but to show the absence of the consonant. This process can clearly be seen in the declension of the adjective ''dova'' "black": ''dova'' (NAsg), ''doû'' (GDsg, < *''dovu''), ''doî'' (Pl, < *''dovi''). Note also the change of ''*iji'' > ''î'' and ''*ivu, *iju'' > ''jû'' (e.g. ''bźija'' "power, status", GDsg. ''bźû'', pl. ''bźî'').
Whenever the combinations ''**ji'' and ''*vu'' would occur as a result of inflexion or derivation, the consonant is lost and the remaining ''i'' or ''u'' forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel. The same occurs to the combination ''*ovi'', which becomes ''oî''. The second element of a diphthong formed in this way is marked by a caret, not to show a difference in pronunciation from the unmarked form, but to show the absence of the consonant. This process can clearly be seen in the declension of the adjective ''nova'' "holy": ''nova'' (NAsg), ''noû'' (GDsg, < *''novu''), ''noî'' (Pl, < *''novi''). Note also the change of ''*iji'' > ''î'' and ''*ivu, *iju'' > ''jû'' (e.g. ''bźija'' "power, status", GDsg. ''bźû'', pl. ''bźî'').


====Alternation of ''l/ł''====
====Alternation of ''l/ł''====
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| ''D d''
| ''D d''
| /d/
| /d/
|
|-
| ''Ḑ ḑ''
| /d͡z/
|
|
|-
|-
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|
|
|-
|-
| ''Ŝ ŝ''
| ''T t''
| /t͡s/
| /t/
|
|
|-
|-
| ''T t''
| ''Ț ț''
| /t/
| /t͡s/
|
|
|-
|-
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| ''Ź ź''
| ''Ź ź''
| /ʒ/
| /ʒ/
|
|-
| ''Ẑ ẑ''
| /d͡z/
|
|
|}
|}
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Notes:
Notes:
* stem-final consonants may undergo palatalisation in the plural, e.g. ''vade'' "oracle", pl. ''vaẑi''.  
* stem-final consonants may undergo palatalisation in the plural, e.g. ''vade'' "oracle", pl. ''vaḑi''.  
* stem-final ''v'' or ''j'' may also disappear before ''-i'' and ''-u'' according to rules set out above, e.g. ''căbrova'' "tribesman", pl. ''căbroî''.
* stem-final ''v'' or ''j'' may also disappear before ''-i'' and ''-u'' according to rules set out above, e.g. ''căbrova'' "tribesman", pl. ''căbroî''.
* stem-final ''v'' disappears before ''-v'' of the GDPl. and 3rd NAPl., e.g. ''ĺova'' "coal" (NASg.) → ''ĺova'' (GDPl.), ''ńivo'' "action, deed" (NASg.) → ''ńiva''.
* stem-final ''v'' disappears before ''-v'' of the GDPl. and 3rd NAPl., e.g. ''ĺova'' "coal" (NASg.) → ''ĺova'' (GDPl.), ''ńivo'' "action, deed" (NASg.) → ''ńiva''.
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A vestigial vocative case exists when addressing people or things directly. In most cases, the singular form of the vocative is identical to the NASg. (e.g. ''Bracźi'' "Bracźi!"), but for masculine personal names of the 1st declension, the vocative ending ''-e'' is used, e.g. ''Craumare'' "Craumara!". In the plural, all nouns are identical to the NAPl., e.g. ''braģa'' "brothers!", ''Carta, Rouńi, Căbroî!'' "Friends, Romans, Countrymen!".  
A vestigial vocative case exists when addressing people or things directly. In most cases, the singular form of the vocative is identical to the NASg. (e.g. ''Bracźi'' "Bracźi!"), but for masculine personal names of the 1st declension, the vocative ending ''-e'' is used, e.g. ''Craumare'' "Craumara!". In the plural, all nouns are identical to the NAPl., e.g. ''braģa'' "brothers!", ''Carta, Rouńi, Căbroî!'' "Friends, Romans, Countrymen!".  


A specifically polite or respectful form of the vocative, ending in ''-u'', is used only when showing extreme deference and is particularly associated with words denoting people of high authority, e.g. ''bźaŝnu'' "(your) majesty)", ''teźnu'' "(my) lord".
A specifically polite or respectful form of the vocative, ending in ''-u'', is used only when showing extreme deference and is particularly associated with words denoting people of high authority, e.g. ''bźațnu'' "(your) majesty)", ''teźnu'' "(my) lord".


===Articles===
===Articles===
Bźatga has a definite article, ''-zda'', which is suffixed to the inflected form of the noun. The article itself must agree in case and number with the noun: NASg. ''-zda'', GDSg. ''-zdu'', NAPl. ''-ẑi'', GDPl. ''-zdou''.  
Bźatga has a definite article, ''-zda'', which is suffixed to the inflected form of the noun. The article itself must agree in case and number with the noun: NASg. ''-zda'', GDSg. ''-zdu'', NAPl. ''-ḑi'', GDPl. ''-zdou''.  


Examples:
Examples:
* ''vêrazda'' "the man"
* ''vêrazda'' "the man"
* ''meńiẑi'' "the women"
* ''meńiḑi'' "the women"
* ''pa aunazdu'' "to the river"
* ''pa aunazdu'' "to the river"


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===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Adjectives follow the noun they qualify and agree with that noun in number and case. Adjectives belong to one of two declensions much like those of nouns, according to the sound at the end of the word. There are no definite forms of adjectives.
Adjectives follow the noun they qualify and agree with that noun in number and case. Adjectives belong to one of three declensions much like those of nouns, according to the sound at the end of the word. There are no definite forms of adjectives.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2;" | Decl.
! rowspan="2;" | Decl.
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Singular  
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Singular  
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|-
|-
! align="center" | 2
! align="center" | 2
| align="center"| ''made''
| colspan="2;" align="center"| ''made''
| align="center"| ''made''
| align="center"| ''maḑi''
| align="center"| ''maẑi''
| align="center"| ''madva''
| align="center"| ''madva''
| align="center"| "good"
| align="center"| "good"
|-
|-
! align="center;" | 3
| colspan="2;" | ''ćato''
|''ćatve''
| ''ćatva''
| "first"
|}
|}


====Comparison====
====Comparison====
The '''comparative''' adjective is formed by adding ''–ju'' to the stem, which undergoes iotisation where possible, e.g. ''maŕu'' "greater" < ''mara'', ''seńu'' "older" < ''sena'', ''doju'' "blacker" < ''dova''. Comparative adjectives are not inflected for case or number.
The '''comparative''' adjective is formed by adding ''–ju'' to the stem, which undergoes iotisation where possible, e.g. ''maŕu'' "greater" < ''mara'', ''seńu'' "older" < ''sena'', ''doju'' "blacker" < ''dovo''. Comparative adjectives are not inflected for case or number.


The comparative may be followed by ''vra'' "than" and an GD singular or plural noun, e.g. ''maŕu vra teje'' "bigger than a house", ''vałģu vra ģeviẑi'' "more powerful than the gods".
The comparative may be followed by ''vra'' "than" and an GD singular or plural noun, e.g. ''maŕu vra teje'' "bigger than a house", ''vałģu vra ģeviḑi'' "more powerful than the gods".


The '''superlative''' adjective is formed by adding the suffix ''-jva'' to the stem, causing iotisation, e.g. ''seńva'' "oldest". The superlative noun is declined like other 1st declension adjectives to agree in case and number with its noun (note that the GDpl. is identical to the NAsg: ''gentazda viģva'' "the most beautiful girl", ''pa gentvazdou viģva'' "to the most beautiful girls"). Superlatives may also take the article to form a substantive, e.g. ''doivazda'' "the blackest (one)".  
The '''superlative''' adjective is formed by adding the suffix ''-jva'' to the stem, causing iotisation, e.g. ''seńva'' "oldest". The superlative noun is declined like other 1st declension adjectives to agree in case and number with its noun (note that the GDpl. is identical to the NAsg: ''gentazda viģva'' "the most beautiful girl", ''pa gentvazdou viģva'' "to the most beautiful girls"). Superlatives may also take the article to form a substantive, e.g. ''doivazda'' "the blackest (one)".  
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===Numerals===
===Numerals===
====Cardinal====
====Cardinal====
The cardinal numbers occur before '''singular''' forms of nouns. Only ''ôna'' "one" is inflected for case.  
The cardinal numbers occur before '''singular''' forms of nouns. Only ''vona'' "one" is inflected for case.  


The lower numerals are:
The lower numerals are:
* 1-10:  ''ôna, da, ći, peudre, pepe, seś, seća, oću, nava, dega''
* 1-10:  ''vona, da, ći, peudre, pepe, zveś, seća, oću, nava, dega''
* 11-19:  ''ônzega, dazga, ćizga, peǵzega, pepzega, seźega, sećzega, oćzega, nauzega''
* 11-19:  ''vonzega, dazga, ćizga, peǵzega, pepzega, zveźega, sećzega, oćzega, nauzega''


The decades from 20 to 100 are: ''vegŝi, ćigot, peǵgot, pepcot, seśgot, sećcot, oćcot, naucot, cata''.
The decades from 20 to 100 are: ''vegți, ćigot, pedrogot, pepgot, zveśgot, sećcot, oćcot, naucot, cata''.


These are nouns which stand in the NASg. before a NASg. noun. ''Vegŝi'' is indeclinable and ''cata'' is a 1st declension noun; the others are all 3rd declension.  
These are nouns which stand in the NASg. before a NASg. noun. ''Vegți'' is indeclinable and ''cata'' is a 1st declension noun; the others are all 4th declension.  


Numbers like "26" or "69" are formed with the unit followed by the decade in the OSg., e.g. ''seś vegŝi'' "26", ''nava seśgota'' "69". Nouns may be placed between the two numerals in the NASg., e.g. ''seś vera vegŝi'' "26 men", ''nava teja seśgota'' "69 houses".
Numbers like "26" or "69" are formed with the unit followed by the decade in the GDSg., e.g. ''zveś vegți'' "26", ''nava zveśgote'' "69". Nouns may be placed between the two numerals in the NASg., e.g. ''zveś vêra vegți'' "26 men", ''nava tei zveśgote'' "69 houses".


====Ordinal====
====Ordinal====
Ordinal numbers are adjectives of the 1st declension, which behave like any other. They ordinals from 1-10 are: ''ćata, aĺa, ćića, peuǵa, pepda, seśda, sećveda, oćveda, naveda, degveda''.
Ordinal numbers are adjectives of the 1st declension, which behave like any other. They ordinals from 1-10 are: ''ćata, aĺa, ćića, peuǵa, pepda, zveśda, sećveda, oćveda, naveda, degveda''.


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
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! align="center" | 2
! align="center" | 2
| align="center"| ''tu''
| align="center"| ''tu''
| align="center"| ''ŝi''
| align="center"| ''ți''
| align="center"| ''ta''
| align="center"| ''ta''
| align="center"| ''zvi''
| align="center"| ''zvi''
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| align="center"| ''soda''
| align="center"| ''soda''
| align="center"| ''sodu''
| align="center"| ''sodu''
| align="center"| ''soẑi''
| align="center"| ''soḑi''
| align="center"| ''sodva''
| align="center"| ''sodva''
|-
|-
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| align="center"| ''sida''
| align="center"| ''sida''
| align="center"| ''sidu''
| align="center"| ''sidu''
| align="center"| ''siẑi''
| align="center"| ''siḑi''
| align="center"| ''sidva''
| align="center"| ''sidva''
|-
|-
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* ''oĺazda'' "all"
* ''oĺazda'' "all"


All these decline like first declension nouns. The first two may be used adjectivally, preceding a noun with which they agree in case and number, e.g. ''pa pabu vêru'' "to every man". The adjectival form of ''oĺazda'' is ''oĺa'' "all, every, whole" which must precede a definite noun (unless abstract), e.g. ''oĺi ebiẑi'' "all the horses".
All these decline like first declension nouns. The first two may be used adjectivally, preceding a noun with which they agree in case and number, e.g. ''pa pabu vêru'' "to every man". The adjectival form of ''oĺazda'' is ''oĺa'' "all, every, whole" which must precede a definite noun (unless abstract), e.g. ''oĺi ebiḑi'' "all the horses".


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
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* Present participle: ''ĕbôda'' (1st declension)
* Present participle: ''ĕbôda'' (1st declension)
* Participle of necessity: ''bidoja''
* Participle of necessity: ''bidoja''
====Other Irregular Verbs====
The following verbs exhibit some irregularity in their forms:
* ''aća'' "to go" has the verbal stem ''au-''
* ''vêso'' (3rd declension) "to know" has the present stem ''vid-'' and the past stem ''vêzr-''.
====Modal Verbs====
Modality is usually expressed with an auxiliary verb preceded by a verbal noun in the NAsg. Modal verbs are simply lexical verbs which conjugate regularly. The object of the main verb is expressed in the genitive, either with a GD noun or a genitive pronoun.
The following are the main modal verbs:
* '''''gala''''' "to be able" is used to express physical ability to do something, e.g. ''ma vela gałdetu'' "you can see me"
* '''''ĺija''''' "to owe" is used to express duty or expectation, e.g. ''atreû aća ĺîdemi'' "I ought to go home"
* '''''vêso''''' "to know" is used to mean "know how to", e.g. ''seba Bźatgu videje'' "they know how to speak Bźatga"
* '''''adaja''''' "to allow" is used in the passive to mean "may" in the sense of having permission, e.g. ''barvuzdu eza adaidoreśi'' "you may eat the bread"
* '''''laja''''' "to dare" is used in the same sense as English "dare", e.g. ''conezdu dĕźrova nălaideźńi'' "we dare not wake the dog"
* '''''mjada''''' "to want, wish" is used to express desire, e.g. '' pa eja văleju Maĺgu aća mjadse'' "Maĺgu wanted to go to bed"
The following modals work in a different way:
* '''''avila''''' "will, wish" may be used to mean "want to" or "willing to". It is used with a genitive noun or a pronoun in a copula sentence along with a verbal noun, e.g. ''cana ma avila es'' "I want to sing" (lit. "singing is my will"), ''eśteza avila Źatne es'' "Źatne wants to sit down".
* '''''ḑira''''' "necessary" is used to express "need to" or "must". It is used in a copula sentence with a verbal noun, with the 'subject' expressed with ''pa'' "to" and the dative of a noun or pronoun, e.g. ''pa ju vela ḑira es'' "he needs to see" (lit. "seeing is necessary to him"), ''advańa ḑira es pa Vêźenu'' "Vêźena must understand".


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
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''Noć nesaude dec na ma vrălôgata cende.'' <br />
''Noć nesaude dec na ma vrălôgata cende.'' <br />
''Nădvezde azla ma acu.'' <br />
''Nădvezde azla ma acu.'' <br />
''Mena năcaudemi, vlaẑi nădeudemi, koÎ năseidemi.'' <br />
''Mena năcaudemi, vlaḑi nădeudemi, koÎ năseidemi.'' <br />
''Miẑi năviścdemi dec văgana năbôźdemi.'' <br />
''Miḑi năviścdemi dec văgana năbôźdemi.'' <br />
''Beudemi dec maurdemi oca ma mjazu.'' <br />
''Beudemi dec maurdemi oca ma mjazu.'' <br />
''Cavazda in tejaluzdu esemi. Vrălôģuzda vor cordazdou esemi.'' <br />
''Cavazda in tejaluzdu esemi. Vrălôģuzda vor cordazdou esemi.'' <br />
''Śćedazda ărģejģe vlaẑiẑi ẑi dońva esemi.'' <br />
''Śćedazda ărģejģe vlaḑiḑi ḑi dońva esemi.'' <br />
''Ma beuda dec bźate ădnoudemi pa Vrălôgluzdu ẑi Noćezdu, ja znoće dec oĺva noćazdou raga.''
''Ma beuda dec bźate ădnoudemi pa Vrălôgluzdu ḑi Noćezdu, ja znoće dec oĺva noćazdou raga.''


Night gathers, and now my watch begins. <br />
Night gathers, and now my watch begins. <br />
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''Ta aula răvreidore <br/>
''Ta aula răvreidore <br/>
''Saule vor ajazda saule e neuzda <br />
''Saule vor ajazda saule e neuzda <br />
''Ara barva ẑala da pa zna <br />
''Ara barva ḑala da pa zna <br />
''Dec ara côĺi ĕćlugatu <br/>
''Dec ara côĺi ĕćlugatu <br/>
''Saule côĺi a ara nauẑi ĕćlugdeźńi <br />
''Saule côĺi a ara nauḑi ĕćlugdeźńi <br />
''Dec źńi năvezatu pa caśredu <br />
''Dec źńi năvezatu pa caśredu <br />
''Ećra źńi văredatu a valu. <br />
''Ećra źńi văredatu a valu. <br />
Line 1,073: Line 1,099:
|many              = ela
|many              = ela
|some              = neuga
|some              = neuga
|few              = aẑida
|few              = aḑida
|other            = aĺa
|other            = aĺa
|one              = vona
|one              = vona
Psammead
797

edits

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/169276...195739"

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