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'''Bźatga''' (/ˈbʒatgɐ/) is an Indo-European language spoken by the tribes of the ''Enśi Bźata'' "The Bźatan Islands", a small archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean. According to the people of these islands, the language came with their ancestors from a land called ''Prêńa'' along with a knowledge of metalworking and the sacred horse.
'''Bźatga''' (/ˈbʒatgɐ/) is an Indo-European language spoken by the people of ''Veśŕa'', or the ''Ensva Veśru'', an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean which includes ''Ǎĺêsa'' and its neighbouring islands. According to the people of these islands, the language came with their ancestors from a land called ''Prêńa'' along with a knowledge of metalworking and the sacred horse.
 
==History==
The development of Bźatga is divided into four periods:
* '''Proto-Bźatga''' [''*Briɣantigoh''] (1st–8th centuries) begins with the split from Common Brittonic in the late 1st century AD to the earliest written records in the early 8th century. Though the language is unattested, its development can be adduced. The most important developments during this period  were the loss of nasals before other consonants + compensatory lengthening (e.g. Brit. ''*pempe'' > PBz ''*pɛːpe''), the development of new rising diphthongs (e.g. Brit. ''*cɛːton'' > PBz. ''*ciada'') and the falling together of the 1st and 2nd declensions, along with the loss of marked gender (e.g. Brit. ''*wiros, banonā'' > PBz. ''vira, banona'').
* '''Old Bźatga''' [''Bríatéga''] (8th–12th centuries) is the period defined by the arrival of writing to Veśŕa to the onset of syncope in the 12th century, which led to iotisation being phonemicised. The key developments of this period are the loss of distinctive vowel quality, leading to the present vowel system, and the development of iotisation. The period is also marked by the earliest loanwords from Old Irish, Ecclesiastical Latin (mostly via Old Irish) and Old Norse.
* '''Middle Bźatga''' [''Br’atga'' or ''Bŕatga''] (12th–16th centuries) begins with the development of syncope in the 12th century and ends with the renewal of contact with the outside world in the 16th. As well as syncope, it is characterised by the reduction of the inflectional system and the growth of more syntactic methods of expression, for example prepositions replaced case endings and pronouns replaced verbal endings. These changes were not fully reflected in the formal written language, leading to a divergence in written and spoken Bźatga. The late MBz. period also saw the development of palatalisation before ''i''.
* '''Modern Bźatga''' [''Bźatga''] (16th century to present) begins with a period of renewed contact with the outside world, which brought new loanwords (particularly of Greek and Latin origin) and resulted in a vernacular written language ousting the archaic formal language.  


==Phonology and Orthography==
==Phonology and Orthography==
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<br />
<br />


In addition to these base forms, called '''primary''' or '''unmarked''' letters, diacritics are used to create '''secondary''' and '''tertiary''' forms, which are collectively called the '''marked''' letters. In the case of vowels, secondary forms represent pretonic and therefore unstressed variants and are marked with a breve, e.g. ''răvełsemi'' "I have seen". Secondary forms of consonants are '''iotised''' variants of the primary sounds and are marked with an acute accent, e.g. ''craśu'' "drier". Most tertiary forms of both vowels and consonants are marked with the caret (''ê, ô, ŝ'' and ''ẑ''), but ''ł'' is the tertiary form of ''l''.
In addition to these base forms, called '''primary''' or '''unmarked''' letters, diacritics are used to create '''secondary''' and '''tertiary''' forms, which are collectively called the '''marked''' letters. In the case of vowels, secondary forms represent pretonic and therefore unstressed variants and are marked with a breve, e.g. ''răvełsemi'' "I have seen". Secondary forms of consonants are '''iotised''' variants of the primary sounds and are marked with an acute accent, e.g. ''craśu'' "drier". Tertiary forms represent different processes for different letter and are represented in different ways.


The table below shows the various forms of the letters:
The table below shows the various forms of the letters:
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|  
|  
| align="center"| ''ê''
| align="center"| ''ê''
| align="center"|  
| align="center"| (''î'')
| align="center"| ''ô''
| align="center"| ''ô''
| align="center"|  
| align="center"| (''û'')
|  
|  
|  
|  
| align="center"| ''ț''
| align="center"| ''ḑ''
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|  
|  
|
|
| align="center"| ''ŝ''
| align="center"| ''ẑ''
|  
|  
| align="center"| ''ł''
| align="center"| ''ł''
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|}
|}


Additionally the letters ''î'' and ''û'' occur in diphthongs deriving from ''vi, *ji'' and ''*vu''; e.g. ''doû, doî'' "black" from **''dovu, **dovi''. The resulting diphthongs are identical in pronunciation to their unmarked counterparts and the convention is purely orthographic.  
The letters ''î'' and ''û'' usuaully occur in diphthongs deriving from ''vi, *ji'' and ''*vu''; e.g. ''noû, noî'' "holy" from **''novu, **novi''. The resulting diphthongs are identical in pronunciation to their unmarked counterparts and the convention is purely orthographic.  


Taken together the following letters may occur in Bźatga orthography:
Taken together the following letters may occur in Bźatga orthography:


''a ă b c ć d e ĕ ê g ǵ i ĭ î j l ĺ ł m n ń o ŏ ô p r ŕ s ś ŝ t u ŭ û v z ź ẑ''
''a ă b c ć d ḑ e ĕ ê g ǵ i ĭ î j l ĺ ł m n ń o ŏ ô p r ŕ s ś ț t u ŭ û v z ź ''


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
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Note: /ɐ/ is an allophone of /a/ found in unstressed final or pretonic position.  
Note: /ɐ/ is an allophone of /a/ found in unstressed final or pretonic position.  


In addition there are the following six diphthongs: /aj/, /ɛj/, /ɔj/, /aw/, /ɛw/, /ɔw/.  
In addition there are the following six diphthongs: /aj/, /ɛj/, /ɔj/, /aw/, /ɛw/, /ɔw/.
 
====Nasal Vowels====
When nasal consonants (''m, n, ń'') stand before a consonant or in word-final position, they merge with the preceding vowel or diphthong and cause it to nasalise;  ''m'' and ''n'' both disappear, leaving the preceding vowel/diphthong slightly lengthened, while ''ń'' becomes [ȷ̃], e.g. ''aun'' "river" [ãũˑ], ''genta'' "girl" [gɛ̃ˑtɐ], ''camvon'' "whelp" [kãˑβɔ̃ˑ], ''dońva'' "people" (GDPl.) [dɔ̃ȷ̃βɐ].
 
====Syllabic ''r, n'' and ''l''====
In medieval and early modern Bźatga the consonants ''r, n, l'' and their secondary forms ''ŕ, ń, ĺ'' could be syllabic /r̩, n̩, l̩/ (i.e. stand between two consononts or between a consonant and pausa in place of a vowel). Over time, the relatively infrequent instances of ''n, l'' were levelled out leaving only syllabic ''r'' surviving, with forms such as MBz. ''eznga'' "bird-like", ''dazldeja'' "meeting-house" being replaced by ModBz. ''eznaga, dazladeja'' but with ''zvegrna'' "father-in-law", ''cadrnga'' "strong one" continuing. Nevertheless, syllabic ''n, l'' are occasionally met with in archaic writing. By today, syllabic ''r'' is largely restricted to higher or more formal registers in both speech and writing while in the vernacular it is replaced by ''a'', e.g. ''zvegana, cadanga''.


===Stress===
===Stress===
Stress placement is regularly on the first syllable of a word. The only exception to this is in words with an unstressed prefix, the vowel of which is marked with a breve, e.g. ''căbrova'' "tribesman" /kɐˈbrɔvɐ/.
Stress placement is regularly on the first syllable of a word.  
 
The following verbal prefixes are unstressed:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| width="100px;" | ''ăb-'' <br> ''ăd-'' <br> ''ăr-'' <br> ''ăz-'' <br> ''că(v)-'' || width="100px;" | ''dă-'' <br> ''ḑǐ-'' <br> ''ĕś-'' <br> ''ǐ-'' <br> ''jătr-'' || width="100px;" | ''jĕd-'' <br> ''ră-'' <br> ''vă-'' <br> ''văr-'' <br> ''vrĕt''
|}


===Phonetic Processes===
===Phonetic Processes===
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*''d'' and ''t'' become ''ć'' and ''ǵ'' respectively, e.g. ''môde'' "soft", cpv. ''môǵu'' "softer".  
*''d'' and ''t'' become ''ć'' and ''ǵ'' respectively, e.g. ''môde'' "soft", cpv. ''môǵu'' "softer".  
*''p, b'' and ''m'' are simply followed by the letter ''j'', e.g. ''caba'' "crooked", cpv. ''cabju'' "more crooked".
*''p, b'' and ''m'' are simply followed by the letter ''j'', e.g. ''caba'' "crooked", cpv. ''cabju'' "more crooked".
*''v'' becomes ''j'', e.g. ''dova'' "black", cpv. ''doju'' "blacker".
*''v'' becomes ''j'', e.g. ''cova'' "dear", cpv. ''coju'' "more raw".
 
In consonant clusters, iotised ''ń, ĺ, ŕ, ś, ź'' carry the process to a preceding ''ń, ĺ, ŕ, ś'' or'' ź'', e.g. ''z + ń > źń, n + ĺ > ńĺ, s + ź > śź''.


====Palatalisation====
====Palatalisation====
Palatalisation is an allophonic process whereby certain consonants are affected by a following ''i''. This mainly affects the sonorants ''l'', ''n'' and ''r'', which are altered to their secondary form, and the letters ''d'' and ''t'' which become ''ẑ'' and ''ŝ'' respectively. For example, ''dana'' "gift", pl. ''dańi'', ''pata'' "pool", pl. ''paŝi''.
Palatalisation is an allophonic process whereby certain consonants are affected by a following ''i''. This mainly affects the sonorants ''l'', ''n'' and ''r'', which are altered to their secondary form, and the letters ''d'' and ''t'' which become ''ḑ'' and ''ț'' respectively. For example, ''dana'' "gift", pl. ''dańi'', ''pata'' "pool", pl. ''pați''.


A summary of Iotised and Palatalised consonants is given below:
A summary of Iotised and Palatalised consonants is given below:
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|
|
|
|
| align="center"| ''ŝ''
| align="center"| ''ț''
| align="center"| ''ẑ''   
| align="center"| ''ḑ''   
|  
|  
|  
|  
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====Alternation of ''j/i'' and ''v/u''====
====Alternation of ''j/i'' and ''v/u''====
As stated above, there are six dipthongs in Bźatga: ''ai, ei, oi'' and ''au, eu, ou''. These are only permitted to occur before a consonant or at the end of a word. When any of these comes to occur before a vowel, the second element becomes ''j'' or ''v'' respectively, e.g. ''saide'' "(he) seeks" but ''saja'' "seek!". The same is true in reverse, so ''dova'' "black" becomes ''doudra'' "blackness".
As stated above, there are six dipthongs in Bźatga: ''ai, ei, oi'' and ''au, eu, ou''. These are only permitted to occur before a consonant or at the end of a word. When any of these comes to occur before a vowel, the second element becomes ''j'' or ''v'' respectively, e.g. ''saide'' "(he) seeks" but ''saja'' "seek!". The same is true in reverse, so ''ova'' "raw" becomes ''oudra'' "rawness".  
 
Because of this alternation, only ''a, e'' and ''o'' can usually occur before ''j'' and ''v''. In a few rare cases the combination ''iv'' occurs, which becomes ''jû'' before a consonant, e.g. ''ĺiva'' "colour" becomes ''ĺûleda'' "colourful, coloured".  


Whenever the combinations ''**ji'' and ''*vu'' would occur as a result of inflexion or derivation, the consonant is lost and the remaining ''i'' or ''u'' forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel. The same occurs to the combination ''*ovi'', which becomes ''oî''. The second element of a diphthong formed in this way is marked by a caret, not to show a difference in pronunciation from the unmarked form, but to show the absence of the consonant. This process can clearly be seen in the declension of the adjective ''dova'' "black": ''dova'' (NAsg), ''doû'' (GDsg, < *''dovu''), ''doî'' (Pl, < *''dovi''). Note also the change of ''*iji'' > ''î'' and ''*ivu, *iju'' > ''jû'' (e.g. ''bźija'' "power, status", GDsg. ''bźû'', pl. ''bźî'').
Whenever the combinations ''**ji, ii, ij'' and ''**vu, uu, uv'' would occur as a result of inflexion or derivation they are replaced with the marked vowels ''î'' or ''û'', remaining as a single vowel or forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel. Note that these vowels and diphthongs are pronounced identically to their unmarked counterparts, the caret only serving as an orthographic convention to show the coalescence. The same occurs to the combination ''*ovi'', which becomes ''oî''. This process can clearly be seen in the declension of the adjective ''nova'' "holy" (NAsg), ''noû'' (GDsg, < *''novu''), ''noî'' (Pl, < *''novi''), ''duo'' "black" (sg.), ''dûe'' (NApl. < ''*duve''), ''dûa'' (GDpl. < ''*duva''), ''źia'' "king" (NAsg.), ''źie'' (GDsg.), ''źî'' (NApl.), ''źia'' (GDpl.).


====Alternation of ''l/ł''====
====Alternation of ''l/ł''====
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| ''D d''
| ''D d''
| /d/
| /d/
|
|-
| ''Ḑ ḑ''
| /d͡z/
|
|
|-
|-
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| ''Ģ ģ''
| ''Ģ ģ''
| /d͡ʒ/
| /d͡ʒ/
|
| ''DŔ, dŕ''
|-
|-
| ''I i''
| ''I i''
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|
|
|-
|-
| ''Ŝ ŝ''
| ''T t''
| /t͡s/
| /t/
|
|
|-
|-
| ''T t''
| ''Ț ț''
| /t/
| /t͡s/
|
|
|-
|-
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| ''Ź ź''
| ''Ź ź''
| /ʒ/
| /ʒ/
|
|-
| ''Ẑ ẑ''
| /d͡z/
|
|
|}
|}
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Nouns belong to one of four declensions based on the NASg. Indefinite:
Nouns belong to one of four declensions based on the NASg. Indefinite:
* 1st and 2nd declension end in a vowel (''-a'' or ''-e'')
* 3rd declension end in a consonant
* 4th declension have a stem in -n but a NASg in a vowel, usually ''-u''.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
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|-
|-
! align="center" | 2
! align="center" | 2
| align="center"| ''sule''
| colspan=2; align="center"| ''sule''
| align="center"| ''sule''
| align="center"| ''suĺi''
| align="center"| ''suĺi''
| align="center"| ''sułva''
| align="center"| ''sułva''
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|-
|-
! align="center" | 3
! align="center" | 3
| align="center"| ''troud''  
| colspan=2; align="center"| ''prêdo''
| align="center"| ''prêdve''
| align="center"| ''prêdva''
| align="center" | "shape"
|-
! rowspan="5;" align="center" | 4
| align="center"| ''trouda''  
| align="center"| ''troude''
| align="center"| ''troude''
| colspan="2;" align="center"| ''trouda''
| align="center"| ''trouḑi''
| align="center" | ''trouda''
| align="center" | "foot"
| align="center" | "foot"
|-
|-
! align="center" | 4
| align="center"| ''ĺeda''
| align="center"| ''au''  
| align="center"| ''ĺeģe''
| align="center"| ''ĺeģi''
| align="center" | ''ĺeģa''
| align="center" | "valley"
|-
| align="center"| ''cu''
| align="center"| ''cone''
| align="center"| ''cońi''
| align="center" | ''cona''
| align="center" | "dog"
|-
| align="center"| ''ava''
| align="center"| ''aune''
| align="center"| ''aune''
| colspan="2;" align="center"| ''auna''
| align="center"| ''auńi''
| align="center" | "river"
| align="center"| ''auna''
| align="center" | "name"
|-
| align="center"| ''aḑir''
| align="center"| ''adre''
| align="center"| ''adŕi''
| align="center"| ''adra''
| align="center" | "father"
|}
|}


Notes:
Notes:
* stem-final consonants may undergo palatalisation in the plural, e.g. ''vade'' "oracle", pl. ''vaẑi''.  
* stem-final consonants may undergo palatalisation in the plural, e.g. ''vade'' "oracle", pl. ''vaḑi''.  
* stem-final ''v'' or ''j'' may also disappear before ''-i'' and ''-u'' according to rules set out above, e.g. ''căbrova'' "tribesman", pl. ''căbroî''.
* stem-final ''v'' or ''j'' may also disappear before ''-i'' and ''-u'' according to rules set out above, e.g. ''căbrova'' "tribesman", pl. ''căbroî''.
* a number of 3rd declension nouns have a NASg. ending in a vowel, e.g. ''tei'' "house", ''mau'' "place", ''neu'' "sky". 
* stem-final ''v'' disappears before ''-v'' of the GDPl. and 3rd NAPl., e.g. ''ĺova'' "coal" (NASg.) → ''ĺova'' (GDPl.), ''ńivo'' "action, deed" (NASg.) → ''ńiva''.
* a group of 4th declension nouns has an NASg. in -C''u'' (where C represents any consonant) but a stem in -C''on-'', e.g. ''camvu'' "whelp, lad", pl. ''camvone''.


The following nouns are irregular:
4th declension nouns are divided into five sub-classes depending on the stem:
 
* ''trouda'' demonstrates the normal paradigm for the majority of 4th declension nouns, where the endings are added to an immutable stem;
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
* ''ĺeda'' shows iotisation in NAsg and plural, along with ''leda'' "width", ''neva'' "heaven";
! rowspan="2;" | Decl.
* nouns with a NAsg. in ''-u'' like ''cu'' take ''-on-'' in the remaining categories and nouns with ''-û'' ''aû'' "river" take ''-n-'' (''auna, aune''). Place-names often belong to this class.  
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Singular
* ''ava'' belongs to a rare class with a full stem in ''-(a)n-''. Besides ''ava'' "name", ''gova'' "smith" (''goun-''), ''mjava'' "memory, thought" (''mjaun-'') the remaining members are all old verbal nouns in NAsg ''-ma'', GDsg. & pl. ''-mn-'' such as ''brama'' "fart", ''grama'' "shout", ''cama'' "step", ''lama'' "jump", ''luma'' "drop", ''śtoma'' "bend", ''tama'' "bite".
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 150px;" align="center" | Plural
* ''aḑir'' represents a limited class of nouns, all relating to kinship terms, which have a NAsg. in -C''ir'' but the remaining paradigm in -C''r-''. This class includes ''maḑir'' "mother", ''braḑir'' "brother", ''auțir'' "uncle" and the rare, archaic ''dôćir'' "daughter".
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 150px;" |
** related, but irregular, is ''zviur'' "sister" (NAsg.), ''zviare'' (GDsg.), ''zviŕi'' (NApl.), ''zviara'' (GDpl.).  
|-
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Gen.-Dat.
|-
! align="center" style="width: 50px" | 3
| align="center"| ''źi''
| align="center"| ''źije''
| align="center"| ''źija''
| align="center"| "king"
|-
! align="center"| 3
| align="center"| ''bô''  
| align="center"| ''bove''
| align="center"| ''bova''
| align="center" | "cow"
|-
! align="center" | 3
| align="center"| ''aģi''  
| align="center"| ''aģe''
| align="center"| ''aģa''
| align="center" | "father"
|-
|}
 
Like ''aģi'' are ''maģi'' "mother" and ''braģi'' "brother".


====The Vocative====
====The Vocative====
A vestigial vocative case exists when addressing people or things directly. In most cases, the singular form of the vocative is identical to the NASg. (e.g. ''Bracźi'' "Bracźi!"), but for masculine personal names of the 1st declension, the vocative ending ''-e'' is used, e.g. ''Craumare'' "Craumara!". In the plural, all nouns are identical to the NAPl., e.g. ''braģa'' "brothers!".
A vestigial vocative case exists when addressing people or things directly. In most cases, the vocative is identical to the NASg. or NApl. But note the following:
 
* In the 1st declension, masculine personal names and titles take ''-e'' (Vsg.) and ''-u'' (Vpl.), e.g. ''Craumare'' "Craumara!", ''teźnu'' "(my) lords", ''Rounu, Căbroû'' "Romans, Countrymen!".  
A specifically polite or respectful form of the vocative, ending in ''-u'', is used only when showing extreme deference and is particularly associated with words denoting people of high authority, e.g. ''bźaŝnu'' "(your) majesty)", ''teźnu'' "(my) lord".
* In the 4th declension, the Vpl. ends in ''-e'', e.g. ''bradre'' "brothers!", ''carte'' "friends!"


===Articles===
===Articles===
Bźatga has a definite article, ''-zda'', which is suffixed to the inflected form of the noun. The article itself must agree in case and number with the noun: NASg. ''-zda'', GDSg. ''-zdu'', NAPl. ''-ẑi'', GDPl. ''-zdou''.  
Bźatga has a definite article, ''-zda'', which is suffixed to the inflected form of the noun. The article itself must agree in case and number with the noun: NASg. ''-zda'', GDSg. ''-zdu'', NAPl. ''-zḑi'', GDPl. ''-zdova''.  


Examples:
Examples:
* ''vêrazda'' "the man"
* ''vêrazda'' "the man"
* ''meńiẑi'' "the women"
* ''meńizḑi'' "the women"
* ''pa aunazdu'' "to the river"
* ''pa aunezdu'' "to the river"
 
In cases where the noun ends in ''-z'', the NASg. article is written '''zda'', e.g. ''drouz'da'' "the priest".


Use of the article is generally avoided wherever the sense of definiteness is stated or inferred from context. However, it may be added to ranks, relationship names or personal names to indicate deference and respect, e.g. ''maģizda'' "the mother", ''Dounźijazdu'' "the Dounźi".
Use of the article is generally avoided wherever the sense of definiteness is stated or inferred from context. However, it may be added to ranks, relationship names or personal names to indicate deference and respect, e.g. ''maḑirzda'' "the mother", ''Dunźiazda'' "the Dunźia".


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Adjectives follow the noun they qualify and agree with that noun in number and case. Adjectives belong to one of two declensions much like those of nouns, according to the sound at the end of the word. There are no definite forms of adjectives.
Adjectives follow the noun they qualify and agree with that noun in number and case. Adjectives belong to one of three declensions much like those of nouns, according to the sound at the end of the word. There are no definite forms of adjectives.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2;" | Decl.
! rowspan="2;" | Decl.
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Singular  
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Singular  
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|-
|-
! align="center" | 2
! align="center" | 2
| align="center"| ''made''
| colspan="2;" align="center"| ''made''
| align="center"| ''made''
| align="center"| ''maḑi''
| align="center"| ''maẑi''
| align="center"| ''madva''
| align="center"| ''madva''
| align="center"| "good"
| align="center"| "good"
|-
|-
! align="center;" | 3
| colspan="2;" | ''ćato''
|''ćatve''
| ''ćatva''
| "first"
|}
|}


====Comparison====
====Comparison====
The '''comparative''' adjective is formed by adding ''–ju'' to the stem, which undergoes iotisation where possible, e.g. ''maŕu'' "greater" < ''mara'', ''seńu'' "older" < ''sena'', ''doju'' "blacker" < ''dova''. Comparative adjectives are not inflected for case or number.
The '''comparative''' adjective is formed by adding ''–ju'' to the stem, which undergoes iotisation where possible, e.g. ''maŕu'' "greater" < ''mara'', ''seńu'' "older" < ''sena'', ''duju'' "blacker" < ''duo''. Comparative adjectives are not inflected for case or number.


The comparative may be followed by ''vra'' "than" and an GD singular or plural noun, e.g. ''maŕu vra teje'' "bigger than a house", ''vałģu vra ģeviẑi'' "more powerful than the gods".
The comparative may be followed by ''vra'' "than" and an GD singular or plural noun, e.g. ''maŕu vra teje'' "bigger than a house", ''vałģu vra ģeviḑi'' "more powerful than the gods".


The '''superlative''' adjective is formed by adding the suffix ''-jva'' to the stem, causing iotisation, e.g. ''seńva'' "oldest". The superlative noun is declined like other 1st declension adjectives to agree in case and number with its noun (note that the GDpl. is identical to the NAsg: ''gentazda viģva'' "the most beautiful girl", ''pa gentvazdou viģva'' "to the most beautiful girls"). Superlatives may also take the article to form a substantive, e.g. ''doivazda'' "the blackest (one)".  
The '''superlative''' adjective is formed by adding the suffix ''-jva'' to the stem, causing iotisation, e.g. ''seńva'' "oldest". The superlative noun is declined like other 1st declension adjectives to agree in case and number with its noun (note that the GDpl. is identical to the NAsg: ''gentazda viģva'' "the most beautiful girl", ''pa gentvazdova viģva'' "to the most beautiful girls"). Superlatives may also take the article to form a substantive, e.g. ''duivazda'' "the blackest (one)".  


The following adjectives are compared irregularly:   
The following adjectives are compared irregularly:   
* ''dava'' "good", ''vela'' "better", ''veĺva'' "best"
* ''daja'' "good", ''vela'' "better", ''veĺva'' "best"
* ''drôga'' "bad", ''vaća'' "worse", ''vaćva'' "worst"
* ''drôga'' "bad", ''vaća'' "worse", ''vaćva'' "worst"
* ''agsa'' "near", ''nesa'' "nearer", ''neśva'' "nearest"
* ''acza'' "near", ''nesa'' "nearer", ''neśva'' "nearest"


An '''equative''' structure can be formed with the particle ''co'' + adjective + ''saule'' + GDsg. noun, e.g. ''co peura saule bove'' "as strong as an ox".
An '''equative''' structure can be formed with the particle ''ca'' + adjective + ''saule'' + GDsg. noun, e.g. ''ca peura saule bove'' "as strong as an ox".


===Adverbs===
===Adverbs===
Qualitative adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the Oblique article ''-zdu'' to the Oblique form of the adjective, e.g. ''maruzdu'' "largely, greatly", ''arvuzdu'' "quietly". Comparative and superlative adverbs may also be formed in this way, e.g. ''nesuzdu'' "nearer", ''maŕuzdu'' "more greatly".
Qualitative adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the GD article ''-zdu'' to the GD form of the adjective, e.g. ''maruzdu'' "largely, greatly", ''arvuzdu'' "quietly". Comparative and superlative adverbs may also be formed in this way, e.g. ''nesuzdu'' "nearer", ''maŕuzdu'' "more greatly".
 
The following words ''zleja'' (place), ''zvoća'' (time), ''


Adverbs of time include: ''zdeva'' "today", ''abreja'' "tomorrow", ''de'' "yesterday", ''na'' "now", ''menkezdu'' "often", ''eńasu'' "ever".
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Time !! Place !! Manner, Measure
|-
| ''zdeva'' "today" <br> ''azrei'' "tomorrow" <br> ''ģa'' "yesterday" <br> ''znoća'' "tonight" <br> ''no'' "now" <br> ''zveća'' "then" <br> ''eńasu'' "ever" <br> ''zvliźńi'' "this year" <br> ''ervliźńa'' "last year" <br> ''edvoća'' "again" <br> ''menkezdu'' "often" <br> ''veći'' "sometimes"
|-
| ''zleja'' "here, there" <br> ''sota'' "yonder" <br> ''adreû'' "home(wards)" <br> ''azladu'' "out" <br>
|}


===Numerals===
===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!  !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
|-
! 1
|| ''vona'' || ''ćata''
|-
! 2
| ''da'' || ''aĺa''
|-
! 3
| ''ći'' || ''ćića''
|-
! 4
| ''peudre'' || ''peuģa''
|-
! 5
| ''pjape'' || ''pjapda''
|-
! 6
| ''zveś'' || ''zveśta''
|-
! 7
| ''seća'' || ''sećveda''
|-
! 8
| ''oću'' || ''oćveda''
|-
! 9
| ''nava'' || ''naveda''
|-
! 10
| ''dega'' || ''degveda''
|-
! 11
| ''vonzega'' || ''vonzegveda''
|-
! 12
| ''dazga'' || ''dazgveda''
|-
! 13
| ''ćizga'' || ''ćizgveda''
|-
! 14
| ''pedzega'' || ''pedzegveda''
|-
! 15
| ''pjapzega'' || ''pjapzegveda''
|-
! 16
| ''zveśzega'' || ''zveśzegveda''
|-
! 17
| ''sećzega'' || ''sećzegveda''
|-
! 18
| ''oćzega'' || ''oćzegveda''
|-
! 19
| ''nauzega'' || ''nauzegveda''
|-
! 20
| ''vêgți'' || ''vêgtveda''
|-
! 21
| ||
|-
! 30
| ''ćigta'' ||
|-
! 40
| ''pedgota'' ||
|-
! 50
| ''pjapta'' ||
|-
! 60
| ''zveścota'' ||
|-
! 70
| ''sećvogta'' ||
|-
! 80
| ''oćgota'' ||
|-
! 90
| ''naugota'' ||
|-
! 100
| ''cata'' || ''catveda''
|}
====Cardinal====
====Cardinal====
The cardinal numbers occur before '''singular''' forms of nouns. Only ''ôna'' "one" is inflected for case.  
The cardinal numbers occur before '''singular''' forms of nouns. Only ''vona'' "one" is inflected for case.  


The lower numerals are:
The lower numerals are:
* 1-10:  ''ôna, da, ći, peudre, pepe, seś, seća, oću, nava, dega''
* 1-10:  ''vona, da, ći, peudre, pepe, zveś, seća, oću, nava, dega''
* 11-19:  ''ônzega, dazga, ćizga, peǵzega, pepzega, seźega, sećzega, oćzega, nauzega''
* 11-19:  ''vonzega, dazga, ćizga, peǵzega, pepzega, zveźega, sećzega, oćzega, nauzega''


The decades from 20 to 100 are: ''vegŝi, ćigot, peǵgot, pepcot, seśgot, sećcot, oćcot, naucot, cata''.
The decades from 20 to 100 are: ''vegți, ćigot, pedrogot, pepgot, zveśgot, sećcot, oćcot, naucot, cata''.


These are nouns which stand in the NASg. before a NASg. noun. ''Vegŝi'' is indeclinable and ''cata'' is a 1st declension noun; the others are all 3rd declension.  
These are nouns which stand in the NASg. before a NASg. noun. ''Vegți'' is indeclinable and ''cata'' is a 1st declension noun; the others are all 4th declension.  


Numbers like "26" or "69" are formed with the unit followed by the decade in the OSg., e.g. ''seś vegŝi'' "26", ''nava seśgota'' "69". Nouns may be placed between the two numerals in the NASg., e.g. ''seś vera vegŝi'' "26 men", ''nava teja seśgota'' "69 houses".
Numbers like "26" or "69" are formed with the unit followed by the decade in the GDSg., e.g. ''zveś vegți'' "26", ''nava zveśgote'' "69". Nouns may be placed between the two numerals in the NASg., e.g. ''zveś vêra vegți'' "26 men", ''nava tei zveśgote'' "69 houses".


====Ordinal====
====Ordinal====
Ordinal numbers are adjectives of the 1st declension, which behave like any other. They ordinals from 1-10 are: ''ćata, aĺa, ćića, peuǵa, pepda, seśda, sećveda, oćveda, naveda, degveda''.
Ordinal numbers are adjectives of the 1st declension, which behave like any other. They ordinals from 1-10 are: ''ćata, aĺa, ćića, peuǵa, pepda, zveśda, sećveda, oćveda, naveda, degveda''.


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
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! align="center" | 2
! align="center" | 2
| align="center"| ''tu''
| align="center"| ''tu''
| align="center"| ''ŝi''
| align="center"| ''ți''
| align="center"| ''ta''
| align="center"| ''ta''
| align="center"| ''zvi''
| align="center"| ''zvi''
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The Genitive pronouns are used as possessive adjectives, preceding the noun as in English, e.g. ''jara aģi'' "their father", ''ta teje'' "your house".
The Genitive pronouns are used as possessive adjectives, preceding the noun as in English, e.g. ''jara aģi'' "their father", ''ta teje'' "your house".
=====Reflexive/Emphatic=====
The following indeclinable pronouns may be used as reflexive or emphatic forms. As reflexive pronouns they take the place of the object of a verb, e.g. ''Źanveuta edve vełse e dourazda'' "Źanveuta saw herself in the mirror". As emphatics they are the subject, agreeing with the subject of the verb, e.g. ''medve e sebse'' "I myself said it".
Note that the 1sg and 3sg have two forms each: ''medve'' and ''edve'' are the traditional forms, still in common usage, while ''mizve'' and ''ezve'' are vernacular forms.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
! style="width: 50px;"| Pers.
! style="width: 120px;" | Singular
! style="width: 120px;"| Plural
|-
! 1
| ''medve, mizve''
| ''źńizve''
|-
! 2
| ''tuzve''
| ''zvizve''
|-
! 3
| ''edve, ezve''
| ''jezve''
|}


====Demonstrative====
====Demonstrative====
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| align="center"| ''soda''
| align="center"| ''soda''
| align="center"| ''sodu''
| align="center"| ''sodu''
| align="center"| ''soẑi''
| align="center"| ''soḑi''
| align="center"| ''sodva''
| align="center"| ''sodva''
|-
|-
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| align="center"| ''sida''
| align="center"| ''sida''
| align="center"| ''sidu''
| align="center"| ''sidu''
| align="center"| ''siẑi''
| align="center"| ''siḑi''
| align="center"| ''sidva''
| align="center"| ''sidva''
|-
|-
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* ''oĺazda'' "all"
* ''oĺazda'' "all"


All these decline like first declension nouns. The first two may be used adjectivally, preceding a noun with which they agree in case and number, e.g. ''pa pabu vêru'' "to every man". The adjectival form of ''oĺazda'' is ''oĺa'' "all, every, whole" which must precede a definite noun (unless abstract), e.g. ''oĺi ebiẑi'' "all the horses".
All these decline like first declension nouns. The first two may be used adjectivally, preceding a noun with which they agree in case and number, e.g. ''pa pabu vêru'' "to every man". The adjectival form of ''oĺazda'' is ''oĺa'' "all, every, whole" which must precede a definite noun (unless abstract), e.g. ''oĺi ebiḑi'' "all the horses".


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
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* Present participle: ''ĕbôda'' (1st declension)
* Present participle: ''ĕbôda'' (1st declension)
* Participle of necessity: ''bidoja''
* Participle of necessity: ''bidoja''
====Other Irregular Verbs====
The following verbs exhibit some irregularity in their forms:
* ''aća'' "to go" has the verbal stem ''au-''
* ''vêso'' (3rd declension) "to know" has the present stem ''vid-'' and the past stem ''vêzr-''.
====Modal Verbs====
Modality is usually expressed with an auxiliary verb preceded by a verbal noun in the NAsg. Modal verbs are simply lexical verbs which conjugate regularly. The object of the main verb is expressed in the genitive, either with a GD noun or a genitive pronoun.
The following are the main modal verbs:
* '''''gala''''' "to be able" is used to express physical ability to do something, e.g. ''ma vela gałdetu'' "you can see me"
* '''''ĺija''''' "to owe" is used to express duty or expectation, e.g. ''atreû aća ĺîdemi'' "I ought to go home"
* '''''vêso''''' "to know" is used to mean "know how to", e.g. ''seba Bźatgu videje'' "they know how to speak Bźatga"
* '''''adaja''''' "to allow" is used in the passive to mean "may" in the sense of having permission, e.g. ''barvuzdu eza adaidoreśi'' "you may eat the bread"
* '''''laja''''' "to dare" is used in the same sense as English "dare", e.g. ''conezdu dĕźrova nălaideźńi'' "we dare not wake the dog"
* '''''mjada''''' "to want, wish" is used to express desire, e.g. '' pa eja văleju Maĺgu aća mjadse'' "Maĺgu wanted to go to bed"
The following modals work in a different way:
* '''''avila''''' "will, wish" may be used to mean "want to" or "willing to". It is used with a genitive noun or a pronoun in a copula sentence along with a verbal noun, e.g. ''cana ma avila es'' "I want to sing" (lit. "singing is my will"), ''eśteza avila Źatne es'' "Źatne wants to sit down".
* '''''ḑira''''' "necessary" is used to express "need to" or "must". It is used in a copula sentence with a verbal noun, with the 'subject' expressed with ''pa'' "to" and the dative of a noun or pronoun, e.g. ''pa ju vela ḑira es'' "he needs to see" (lit. "seeing is necessary to him"), ''advańa ḑira es pa Vêźenu'' "Vêźena must understand".


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
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===Conjunctions===
===Conjunctions===
* ''dec'' "and"
** ''dec ... dec...'' "both... and..."
* ''seude'' "also"
* ''nove'' "or"
** ''nove... nove...'' "either... or..."
* ''nadec'' "nor"
** ''nadec... nadec'' "neither... nor..."
* ''ećra'' "but, except"
* ''a'' "if"
* ''pada'' "when"
* ''tar'' "whilst"
* ''cita'' "before"
* ''pa'' "until"
* ''ce'' "though"
==Syntax==
==Syntax==
The basic word order is SOV.
The basic word order is SOV.
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The verb ''aća'' "go" (stem ''au-'') is compounded with adjectives to form verbs meaning "become, make, turn" and with nouns meaning "be, act as" (e.g. ''vidaude'' "it whitens, it turns white", ''vidaća'' "whitening", ''źijausemi'' "I acted as king, I ruled").
The verb ''aća'' "go" (stem ''au-'') is compounded with adjectives to form verbs meaning "become, make, turn" and with nouns meaning "be, act as" (e.g. ''vidaude'' "it whitens, it turns white", ''vidaća'' "whitening", ''źijausemi'' "I acted as king, I ruled").
The following are verbal prefixes:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100px;" | Noun, Adj !! Verb !! width="200px;" | Use !! width="200px;" | E.g.
|-
| ''ab-'' || ''ăb-'' || (n) "around" <br> (v) reciprocal, reflexive ||
|-
| ''ad-'' ||''ăd-'' || (adj) "very", intensive <br> (v) "re-, again" ||
|-
| ''aĺ-'' || || "other" || ''aĺvrova'' "foreigner"
|-
| ''a(n)-'' || || (adj) "un-" <br> (n) pejorative ||
|-
| ''ar-'' || ''ăr-'' || (n) "fore, by" <br> (v) "fore, before"* ||
|-
| ''az-'' || ''ăz-'' || (adj) intensive <br> "to"* ||
|-
| || ''căt-'' || "with, after"* || ''cătvôda'' "perceive, experience"
|-
| ''ca(v)-'' || ''că(v)-'' || "co-, together, equally" || ''cabrova'' "tribesman"
|-
| ''cit-'' || || "earlier, first" ||
|-
| ''da-'' || ''dă-'' || "to" ||
|-
| colspan="2;" | ''dad-'' || (n) intensive <br> (v) "un-, dis-, de-" ||
|-
| ''ḑi-'' || ''ḑǐ-'' || (n) "without, -less" <br> (v) from ||
|-
| ''do-'' || || "bad" ||
|-
| ''eś-'' || ''ĕś-'' || (n) "without, -less" <br> (v) "out" ||
|-
| ''ǐ-'' || "in" ||
|-
| ''jătr-'' || "between" ||
|-
| ''jĕd-'' || "in" ||
|-
|''ră-'' || "for" ||
|-
| ''trău-'' || "across" ||
|-
| ''va-'' || ''vă-'' || "under, sub-" ||
|-
| ''var'' || ''văr-'' || "over, on, super-" ||
|-
| ''vrĕt'' || "against" ||
|}


==Texts==
==Texts==
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All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
===Ring Verse===
''Ći maģi er Źîzḑi Śeurĺi vona nevazda'' <br>
''Seća er Teźńi Corĺi e jara nouźi ĺôgńi'' <br>
''Nawa er Dońi Maurdoî, tokdaḑi da maura'' <br>
''Vona er Teźnazda Teva vor eja soźa duo'' <br>
''E Țiŕa Mordor, Śaḑi ărvosde e zleja'' <br>
''Vona maģa da vaĺa vor jara oĺa'' <br>
''Vona maģa da jara caja '' <br>
''Vona maģa da veza jara oĺa'' <br>
''Dec e teuzlazda jara naśa'' <br>
''E Tiŕa Mordor, Śaḑi ărvosde e zleja'' <br>
Three Rings for the Elven-kings under the sky <br>
Seven for the Dwarf-lords in their halls of stone <br>
Nine for Mortal Men doomed to die <br>
One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne <br>
In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie <br>
One Ring to rule them all <br>
One Ring to find them <br>
One Ring to bring them all <br>
And in the darkness bind them <br>
In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie <br>


===The Night's Watch Pledge===
===The Night's Watch Pledge===
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''Noć nesaude dec na ma vrălôgata cende.'' <br />
''Noć nesaude dec na ma vrălôgata cende.'' <br />
''Nădvezde azla ma acu.'' <br />
''Nădvezde azla ma acu.'' <br />
''Mena năcaudemi, vlaẑi nădeudemi, koÎ năseidemi.'' <br />
''Mena năcaudemi, vlaḑi nădeudemi, koÎ năseidemi.'' <br />
''Miẑi năviścdemi dec văgana năbôźdemi.'' <br />
''Miḑi năviścdemi dec văgana năbôźdemi.'' <br />
''Beudemi dec maurdemi oca ma mjazu.'' <br />
''Beudemi dec maurdemi oca ma mjazu.'' <br />
''Cavazda in tejaluzdu esemi. Vrălôģuzda vor cordazdou esemi.'' <br />
''Cavazda in tejaluzdu esemi. Vrălôģuzda vor cordazdou esemi.'' <br />
''Śćedazda ărģejģe vlaẑiẑi ẑi dońva esemi.'' <br />
''Śćedazda ărģejģe vlaḑiḑi ḑi dońva esemi.'' <br />
''Ma beuda dec bźate ădnoudemi pa Vrălôgluzdu ẑi Noćezdu, ja znoće dec oĺva noćazdou raga.''
''Ma beuda dec bźate ădnoudemi pa Vrălôgluzdu ḑi Noćezdu, ja znoće dec oĺva noćazdou raga.''


Night gathers, and now my watch begins. <br />
Night gathers, and now my watch begins. <br />
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===The Lord's Prayer===
===The Lord's Prayer===
''Ara aģi eśa e neuzda <br/>
''Ara aḑir eśa e neuzda <br/>
''Ta ava rănovaudore <br />
''Ta ava rănovaudore <br />
''Ta źisa rătaude <br />
''Ta źiso rădaude <br />
''Ta aula răvreidore <br/>
''Ta aula răvreidore <br/>
''Saule vor ajazda saule e neuzda <br />
''Saule vor auĺuzda saule e neuzda <br />
''Ara barva ẑala da pa zna <br />
''Ara barva ḑila rădadetu pa zna <br />
''Dec ara côĺi ĕćlugatu <br/>
''Dec ara côĺi rećlugdetu <br/>
''Saule côĺi a ara nauẑi ĕćlugdeźńi <br />
''Saule côĺi a ara nauteḑi ĕćlugdeźńi <br />
''Dec źńi năvezatu pa caśredu <br />
''Dec źńi rănvezatu pa caśredu <br />
''Ećra źńi văredatu a valu. <br />
''Ećra źńi răvredatu vret valu. <br />
''Amen.
''Amen.


Our father, who is in heaven <br/>
Our father, who is in heaven <br/>
Hallowed by thy name <br />
Hallowed be thy name <br />
Thy kingdom come <br />
Thy kingdom come <br />
Thy will be done <br />
Thy will be done <br />
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Give us this day our daily bread <br />
Give us this day our daily bread <br />
And forgive us our trespasses <br />
And forgive us our trespasses <br />
As we forive those who trespass against us <br />
As we forgive those who trespass against us <br />
Lead us not into temptation <br />
Lead us not into temptation <br />
But deliver us from evil <br />
But deliver us from evil <br />
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|many              = ela
|many              = ela
|some              = neuga
|some              = neuga
|few              = aẑida
|few              = aḑida
|other            = aĺa
|other            = aĺa
|one              = vona
|one              = vona
Psammead
803

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