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'''Bźatga''' (/ˈbʒatgɐ/) is an Indo-European language spoken by the tribes of the ''Enśi Bźata'' "The Bźatan Islands", a small archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean. According to the people of these islands, the language came with their ancestors from a land called ''Creńa'' along with a knowledge of metalworking and the sacred horse.
'''Bźatga''' (/ˈbʒatgɐ/) is an Indo-European language spoken by the people of ''Veśŕa'', or the ''Ensva Veśru'', an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean which includes ''Ǎĺêsa'' and its neighbouring islands. According to the people of these islands, the language came with their ancestors from a land called ''Prêńa'' along with a knowledge of metalworking and the sacred horse.
 
==History==
The development of Bźatga is divided into four periods:
* '''Proto-Bźatga''' [''*Briɣantigoh''] (1st–8th centuries) begins with the split from Common Brittonic in the late 1st century AD to the earliest written records in the early 8th century. Though the language is unattested, its development can be adduced. The most important developments during this period  were the loss of nasals before other consonants + compensatory lengthening (e.g. Brit. ''*pempe'' > PBz ''*pɛːpe''), the development of new rising diphthongs (e.g. Brit. ''*cɛːton'' > PBz. ''*ciada'') and the falling together of the 1st and 2nd declensions, along with the loss of marked gender (e.g. Brit. ''*wiros, banonā'' > PBz. ''vira, banona'').
* '''Old Bźatga''' [''Bríatéga''] (8th–12th centuries) is the period defined by the arrival of writing to Veśŕa to the onset of syncope in the 12th century, which led to iotisation being phonemicised. The key developments of this period are the loss of distinctive vowel quality, leading to the present vowel system, and the development of iotisation. The period is also marked by the earliest loanwords from Old Irish, Ecclesiastical Latin (mostly via Old Irish) and Old Norse.
* '''Middle Bźatga''' [''Br’atga'' or ''Bŕatga''] (12th–16th centuries) begins with the development of syncope in the 12th century and ends with the renewal of contact with the outside world in the 16th. As well as syncope, it is characterised by the reduction of the inflectional system and the growth of more syntactic methods of expression, for example prepositions replaced case endings and pronouns replaced verbal endings. These changes were not fully reflected in the formal written language, leading to a divergence in written and spoken Bźatga. The late MBz. period also saw the development of palatalisation before ''i''.
* '''Modern Bźatga''' [''Bźatga''] (16th century to present) begins with a period of renewed contact with the outside world, which brought new loanwords (particularly of Greek and Latin origin) and resulted in a vernacular written language ousting the archaic formal language.  


==Phonology and Orthography==
==Phonology and Orthography==
===Orthography===
===Orthography===
Bźatga is written with the following 18 letters of the Latin alphabet:<br />
Bźatga is written with the following 19 letters of the Latin alphabet:<br />


''a b c d e g i j l m n o r s t u v z''
''a b c d e g i j l m n o p r s t u v z''
<br />
<br />


In addition to these base forms, called '''primary''' or '''unmarked''' letters, diacritics are used to create '''secondary''' and '''tertiary''' forms, which are collectively called the '''marked''' letters. In the case of vowels, secondary forms represent pretonic and therefore unstressed variants and are marked with a breve, e.g. ''răvełsemi'' "I have seen". Secondary forms of consonants are '''iotised''' variants of the primary sounds and are marked with an acute accent, e.g. ''craśu'' "drier". Most tertiary forms of both vowels and consonants are marked with the caret (''ê, ô, ŝ'' and ''ẑ''), but ''ł'' is the tertiary form of ''l''.
In addition to these base forms, called '''primary''' or '''unmarked''' letters, diacritics are used to create '''secondary''' and '''tertiary''' forms, which are collectively called the '''marked''' letters. In the case of vowels, secondary forms represent pretonic and therefore unstressed variants and are marked with a breve, e.g. ''răvełsemi'' "I have seen". Secondary forms of consonants are '''iotised''' variants of the primary sounds and are marked with an acute accent, e.g. ''craśu'' "drier". Tertiary forms represent different processes for different letter and are represented in different ways.


The table below shows the various forms of the letters:
The table below shows the various forms of the letters:
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!   
!   
! " colspan="5;"| Vowels  
! " colspan="5;"| Vowels  
! " colspan="5;"| Stops
! " colspan="6;"| Stops
! " colspan="3;"| Fricatives
! " colspan="3;"| Fricatives
! " colspan="5;"| Sonorants
! " colspan="5;"| Sonorants
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| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''o''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''o''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''u''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''u''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''p''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''b''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''b''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''t''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''t''
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| align="center"| ''ŭ''  
| align="center"| ''ŭ''  
| ''
| ''
| align="center"|
| align="center"|  
| align="center"|  
| align="center"|  
| align="center"|  
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|  
|  
| align="center"| ''ê''
| align="center"| ''ê''
| align="center"|  
| align="center"| (''î'')
| align="center"| ''ô''
| align="center"| ''ô''
| align="center"|  
| align="center"| (''û'')
|  
|  
|  
| align="center"| ''ț''
| align="center"| ''ḑ''
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|  
|  
|
|
| align="center"| ''ŝ''
| align="center"| ''ẑ''
|  
|  
| align="center"| ''ł''
| align="center"| ''ł''
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|}
|}


Additionally, two purely orthographic conventions are used:
The letters ''î'' and ''û'' usuaully occur in diphthongs deriving from ''vi, *ji'' and ''*vu''; e.g. ''noû, noî'' "holy" from **''novu, **novi''. The resulting diphthongs are identical in pronunciation to their unmarked counterparts and the convention is purely orthographic.  
* The letters ''î'' and ''û'' occur in diphthongs deriving from ''vi, *ji'' and ''*vu''; e.g. ''doû, doî'' "black" from **''dovu, **dovi''
* The hook is used with any vowel or diphthong to show the absence of a following nasal, in Class 4 Nominals; e.g. ''camvų'' "foster son", pl. ''camvone''.


Taken together the following letters may occur in Bźatga orthography:
Taken together the following letters may occur in Bźatga orthography:


''a ă ą b c ć d e ĕ ê ę g ǵ i ĭ î į j l ĺ ł m n ń o ŏ ô ǫ r ŕ s ś ŝ t u ŭ û ų v z ź ẑ
''a ă b c ć d ḑ e ĕ ê g ǵ i ĭ î j l ĺ ł m n ń o ŏ ô p r ŕ s ś ț t u ŭ û v z ź ''


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
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|-
|-
! style="" |Plosive
! style="" |Plosive
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; b
| p &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; b
| t &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; d
| t &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; d
|  
|  
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Note: /ɐ/ is an allophone of /a/ found in unstressed final or pretonic position.  
Note: /ɐ/ is an allophone of /a/ found in unstressed final or pretonic position.  


In addition there are the following six diphthongs: /aj/, /ɛj/, /ɔj/, /aw/, /ɛw/, /ɔw/.  
In addition there are the following six diphthongs: /aj/, /ɛj/, /ɔj/, /aw/, /ɛw/, /ɔw/.
 
====Nasal Vowels====
When nasal consonants (''m, n, ń'') stand before a consonant or in word-final position, they merge with the preceding vowel or diphthong and cause it to nasalise;  ''m'' and ''n'' both disappear, leaving the preceding vowel/diphthong slightly lengthened, while ''ń'' becomes [ȷ̃], e.g. ''aun'' "river" [ãũˑ], ''genta'' "girl" [gɛ̃ˑtɐ], ''camvon'' "whelp" [kãˑβɔ̃ˑ], ''dońva'' "people" (GDPl.) [dɔ̃ȷ̃βɐ].
 
====Syllabic ''r, n'' and ''l''====
In medieval and early modern Bźatga the consonants ''r, n, l'' and their secondary forms ''ŕ, ń, ĺ'' could be syllabic /r̩, n̩, l̩/ (i.e. stand between two consononts or between a consonant and pausa in place of a vowel). Over time, the relatively infrequent instances of ''n, l'' were levelled out leaving only syllabic ''r'' surviving, with forms such as MBz. ''eznga'' "bird-like", ''dazldeja'' "meeting-house" being replaced by ModBz. ''eznaga, dazladeja'' but with ''zvegrna'' "father-in-law", ''cadrnga'' "strong one" continuing. Nevertheless, syllabic ''n, l'' are occasionally met with in archaic writing. By today, syllabic ''r'' is largely restricted to higher or more formal registers in both speech and writing while in the vernacular it is replaced by ''a'', e.g. ''zvegana, cadanga''.


===Stress===
===Stress===
Stress placement is regularly on the first syllable of a word. The only exception to this is in words with an unstressed prefix, the vowel of which is marked with a breve, e.g. ''căbrova'' "tribesman" /kɐˈbrɔvɐ/.
Stress placement is regularly on the first syllable of a word.  
 
The following verbal prefixes are unstressed:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| width="100px;" | ''ăb-'' <br> ''ăd-'' <br> ''ăr-'' <br> ''ăz-'' <br> ''că(v)-'' || width="100px;" | ''dă-'' <br> ''ḑǐ-'' <br> ''ĕś-'' <br> ''ǐ-'' <br> ''jătr-'' || width="100px;" | ''jĕd-'' <br> ''ră-'' <br> ''vă-'' <br> ''văr-'' <br> ''vrĕt''
|}


===Phonetic Processes===
===Phonetic Processes===
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*most consonants change to their secondary form, e.g. ''ĺasa'' "clear, blue", cpv. ''ĺaśu'' "bluer".
*most consonants change to their secondary form, e.g. ''ĺasa'' "clear, blue", cpv. ''ĺaśu'' "bluer".
*''d'' and ''t'' become ''ć'' and ''ǵ'' respectively, e.g. ''môde'' "soft", cpv. ''môǵu'' "softer".  
*''d'' and ''t'' become ''ć'' and ''ǵ'' respectively, e.g. ''môde'' "soft", cpv. ''môǵu'' "softer".  
*''b'' and ''m'' are simply followed by the letter ''j'', e.g. ''caba'' "crooked", cpv. ''cabju'' "more crooked".
*''p, b'' and ''m'' are simply followed by the letter ''j'', e.g. ''caba'' "crooked", cpv. ''cabju'' "more crooked".
*''v'' becomes ''j'', e.g. ''dova'' "black", cpv. ''doju'' "blacker".
*''v'' becomes ''j'', e.g. ''cova'' "dear", cpv. ''coju'' "more raw".
 
In consonant clusters, iotised ''ń, ĺ, ŕ, ś, ź'' carry the process to a preceding ''ń, ĺ, ŕ, ś'' or'' ź'', e.g. ''z + ń > źń, n + ĺ > ńĺ, s + ź > śź''.


====Palatalisation====
====Palatalisation====
Palatalisation is an allophonic process whereby certain consonants are affected by a following ''i''. This mainly affects the sonorants ''l'', ''n'' and ''r'', which are altered to their secondary form, and the letters ''d'' and ''t'' which become ''ẑ'' and ''ŝ'' respectively. For example, ''dana'' "gift", pl. ''dańi'', ''cata'' "pool", pl. ''caŝi''.
Palatalisation is an allophonic process whereby certain consonants are affected by a following ''i''. This mainly affects the sonorants ''l'', ''n'' and ''r'', which are altered to their secondary form, and the letters ''d'' and ''t'' which become ''ḑ'' and ''ț'' respectively. For example, ''dana'' "gift", pl. ''dańi'', ''pata'' "pool", pl. ''pați''.


A summary of Iotised and Palatalised consonants is given below:
A summary of Iotised and Palatalised consonants is given below:
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{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
!   
!   
! " colspan="5;"| Stops
! " colspan="6;"| Stops
! " colspan="3;"| Fricatives
! " colspan="3;"| Fricatives
! " colspan="5;"| Sonorants
! " colspan="5;"| Sonorants
|-
|-
! style="width: 100px; "| Primary
! style="width: 100px; "| Primary
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''p''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''b''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''b''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''t''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''t''
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| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''j''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''j''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''l''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''l''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center" | ''m''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''m''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''n''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''n''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''r''
| style="width: 35px; " align="center"| ''r''
|-
|-
! style="width: 100px; "| Iotised
! style="width: 100px; "| Iotised
| align="center"| ''pj''
| align="center"| ''bj''
| align="center"| ''bj''
| align="center"| ''ć''
| align="center"| ''ć''
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! style="width: 100px; "| Palatalised
! style="width: 100px; "| Palatalised
|
|
| align="center"| ''ŝ''
|
| align="center"| ''ẑ''   
| align="center"| ''ț''
| align="center"| ''ḑ''   
|  
|  
|  
|  
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====Alternation of ''j/i'' and ''v/u''====
====Alternation of ''j/i'' and ''v/u''====
As stated above, there are six dipthongs in Bźatga: ''ai, ei, oi'' and ''au, eu, ou''. These are only permitted to occur before a consonant or at the end of a word. When any of these comes to occur before a vowel, the second element becomes ''j'' or ''v'' respectively, e.g. ''saide'' "(he) seeks" but ''saja'' "seek!". The same is true in reverse, so ''dova'' "black" becomes ''doudra'' "blackness".  
As stated above, there are six dipthongs in Bźatga: ''ai, ei, oi'' and ''au, eu, ou''. These are only permitted to occur before a consonant or at the end of a word. When any of these comes to occur before a vowel, the second element becomes ''j'' or ''v'' respectively, e.g. ''saide'' "(he) seeks" but ''saja'' "seek!". The same is true in reverse, so ''ova'' "raw" becomes ''oudra'' "rawness".  


Because of this alternation, only ''a, e'' and ''o'' can usually occur before ''j'' and ''v''. In a few rare cases the combination ''iv'' occurs, which becomes ''jû'' before a consonant, e.g. ''ĺiva'' "colour" becomes ''ĺûleda'' "colourful, coloured".
Whenever the combinations ''**ji, ii, ij'' and ''**vu, uu, uv'' would occur as a result of inflexion or derivation they are replaced with the marked vowels ''î'' or ''û'', remaining as a single vowel or forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel. Note that these vowels and diphthongs are pronounced identically to their unmarked counterparts, the caret only serving as an orthographic convention to show the coalescence. The same occurs to the combination ''*ovi'', which becomes ''oî''. This process can clearly be seen in the declension of the adjective ''nova'' "holy" (NAsg), ''noû'' (GDsg, < *''novu''), ''noî'' (Pl, < *''novi''), ''duo'' "black" (sg.), ''dûe'' (NApl. < ''*duve''), ''dûa'' (GDpl. < ''*duva''), ''źia'' "king" (NAsg.), ''źie'' (GDsg.), ''źî'' (NApl.), ''źia'' (GDpl.).
 
Whenever the combinations ''**ji'' and ''*vu'' would occur as a result of inflexion or derivation, the consonant is lost and the remaining ''i'' or ''u'' forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel. The same occurs to the combination ''*ovi'', which becomes ''oî''. The second element of a diphthong formed in this way is marked by a caret, not to show a difference in pronunciation from the unmarked form, but to show the absence of the consonant. This process can clearly be seen in the declension of the adjective ''dova'' "black": ''dova'' (NAsg), ''doû'' (Osg, < *''dovu''), ''doî'' (Pl, < *''dovi''). Note also the change of ''*iji'' > ''î'' and ''*ivu, *iju'' > ''jû'' (e.g. ''bźija'' "power, status", Osg. ''bźû'', pl. ''bźî'').


====Alternation of ''l/ł''====
====Alternation of ''l/ł''====
The letter ''l'' may only stand in pre-vocalic position, whether word initially or medially. When the sound comes to stand before a consonant it alternates to ''ł'', e.g. ''velą'' "seeing" but ''vełdoja'' "visible".
The letter ''l'' may only stand in pre-vocalic position, whether word initially or medially. When the sound comes to stand before a consonant it alternates to ''ł'', e.g. ''vela'' "seeing" but ''vełdoja'' "visible".


===Sound To Spelling Correspondence===
===Sound To Spelling Correspondence===
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|-  
|-  
| /ɐ/
| /ɐ/
| ''Ă ă, Ą ą''
| ''Ă ă''
|-
|-
| ''B b''
| ''B b''
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| ''D d''
| ''D d''
| /d/
| /d/
|
|-
| ''Ḑ ḑ''
| /d͡z/
|
|
|-
|-
| ''E e''
| ''E e''
| /ɛ/
| /ɛ/
| ''Ĕ ĕ, Ę ę''
| ''Ĕ ĕ''
|-  
|-  
| ''Ê ê''
| ''Ê ê''
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| ''Ģ ģ''
| ''Ģ ģ''
| /d͡ʒ/
| /d͡ʒ/
|
| ''DŔ, dŕ''
|-
|-
| ''I i''
| ''I i''
| /i/
| /i/
| ''Ĭ ĭ, Î î, Į į''
| ''Ĭ ĭ, Î î''
|-
|-
| ''J j''
| ''J j''
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| ''O o''
| ''O o''
| /ɔ/
| /ɔ/
| ''Ŏ ŏ, Ǫ ǫ''
| ''Ŏ ŏ''
|-
|-
| ''Ô ô''
| ''Ô ô''
| /o/
| /o/
|
|-
| ''P p''
| /p/
|
|
|-
|-
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|
|
|-
|-
| ''Ŝ ŝ''
| ''T t''
| /t͡s/
| /t/
|
|
|-
|-
| ''T t''
| ''Ț ț''
| /t/
| /t͡s/
|
|
|-
|-
| ''U u''
| ''U u''
| /u/
| /u/
| ''Ŭ ŭ, Û û, Ų ų''
| ''Ŭ ŭ, Û û''
|-
|-
| ''V v''
| ''V v''
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| ''Ź ź''
| ''Ź ź''
| /ʒ/
| /ʒ/
|
|-
| ''Ẑ ẑ''
| /d͡z/
|
|
|}
|}


'''*'''''a'' and ''ą'' represent /ɐ/ in final unstressed syllables, ''ă'' represents the same sound in pretonic syllables
'''*'''''a'' represents /ɐ/ in final unstressed syllables, ''ă'' represents the same sound in pretonic syllables


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
Nouns have no grammatical gender but are marked for case and number. There are two cases in the singular: the '''Nominative-Accusative''' (NA) which is used for the subject and direct object of verbs; and the '''Oblique''' (O) which is used following prepositions and in some other constructions. Case is not marked in the plural.  
Nouns have no grammatical gender but are marked for case and number. There are two cases: the '''Nominative-Accusative''' (NA) which is used for the subject and direct object of verbs; and the '''Genitive-Dative''' (GD) which is used following prepositions and in some other constructions. Each case is marked in the singular and plural.


Nouns belong to one of four declensions based on the NASg. Indef:
Nouns belong to one of four declensions based on the NASg. Indefinite:
* 1st and 2nd declension end in a vowel (''-a'' or ''-e'')
* 3rd declension end in a consonant
* 4th declension have a stem in -n but a NASg in a vowel marked with a hook (e.g. ''aų'').


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2;" | Decl.
! rowspan="2;" | Decl.
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Singular  
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Singular  
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 150px;"  align="center" | Plural
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Plural
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 150px;" |
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 150px;" |
|-
|-
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Oblique
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Gen.-Dat.
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Gen.-Dat.
|-
|-
! align="center" style="width: 50px;"| 1
! align="center" style="width: 50px;"| 1
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| align="center"| ''dońu''
| align="center"| ''dońu''
| align="center"| ''dońi''
| align="center"| ''dońi''
| align="center"| ''dońva''
| align="center" | "person"
| align="center" | "person"
|-
|-
! align="center" | 2
! align="center" | 2
| align="center"| ''sule''
| colspan=2; align="center"| ''sule''
| align="center"| ''sule''
| align="center"| ''suĺi''
| align="center"| ''suĺi''
| align="center"| ''sułva''
| align="center" | "sun"
| align="center" | "sun"
|-
|-
! align="center" | 3
! align="center" | 3
| align="center"| ''troud''  
| colspan=2; align="center"| ''prêdo''
| align="center"| ''prêdve''
| align="center"| ''prêdva''
| align="center" | "shape"
|-
! rowspan="5;" align="center" | 4
| align="center"| ''trouda''  
| align="center"| ''troude''
| align="center"| ''troude''
| align="center"| ''trouda''
| align="center"| ''trouḑi''
| align="center" | ''trouda''
| align="center" | "foot"
| align="center" | "foot"
|-
|-
! align="center" | 4
| align="center"| ''ĺeda''
| align="center"| ''aų''  
| align="center"| ''ĺeģe''
| align="center"| ''ĺeģi''
| align="center" | ''ĺeģa''
| align="center" | "valley"
|-
| align="center"| ''cu''
| align="center"| ''cone''
| align="center"| ''cońi''
| align="center" | ''cona''
| align="center" | "dog"
|-
| align="center"| ''ava''
| align="center"| ''aune''
| align="center"| ''aune''
| align="center"| ''auńi''
| align="center"| ''auna''
| align="center"| ''auna''
| align="center" | "river"
| align="center" | "name"
|-
| align="center"| ''aḑir''
| align="center"| ''adre''
| align="center"| ''adŕi''
| align="center"| ''adra''
| align="center" | "father"
|}
|}


Notes:
Notes:
* stem-final consonants may undergo palatalisation in the plural, e.g. ''vade'' "oracle", pl. ''vaẑi''.  
* stem-final consonants may undergo palatalisation in the plural, e.g. ''vade'' "oracle", pl. ''vaḑi''.  
* stem-final ''v'' or ''j'' may also disappear before ''-i'' and ''-u'' according to rules set out above, e.g. ''căbrova'' "tribesman", pl. ''căbroî''.
* stem-final ''v'' or ''j'' may also disappear before ''-i'' and ''-u'' according to rules set out above, e.g. ''căbrova'' "tribesman", pl. ''căbroî''.
* a number of 3rd declension nouns have a NASg. in ''-a'', these are ''teja'' "house", ''cźa'' "body", ''mava'' "place", ''leda'' "side, half", ''ĺada'' "river bank, valley", ''ĺuna'' "knee", ''mira'' "piece of food", ''neva'' "heaven", ''siza'' "hillock, mound", ''zleva'' "platform, plateau", ''ŝira'' "land".
* stem-final ''v'' disappears before ''-v'' of the GDPl. and 3rd NAPl., e.g. ''ĺova'' "coal" (NASg.) → ''ĺova'' (GDPl.), ''ńivo'' "action, deed" (NASg.) → ''ńiva''.
* a group of 4th declension nouns has an NASg. in -C''ų'' (where C represents any consonant) but a stem in -C''on-'', e.g. ''camvų'' "whelp, lad", pl. ''camvone''.
 
The following nouns are irregular:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
4th declension nouns are divided into five sub-classes depending on the stem:
! rowspan="2;" | Decl.
* ''trouda'' demonstrates the normal paradigm for the majority of 4th declension nouns, where the endings are added to an immutable stem;
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Singular
* ''ĺeda'' shows iotisation in NAsg and plural, along with ''leda'' "width", ''neva'' "heaven";
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 150px;" align="center" | Plural
* nouns with a NAsg. in ''-u'' like ''cu'' take ''-on-'' in the remaining categories and nouns with ''-û'' ''aû'' "river" take ''-n-'' (''auna, aune''). Place-names often belong to this class.  
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 150px;" |
* ''ava'' belongs to a rare class with a full stem in ''-(a)n-''. Besides ''ava'' "name", ''gova'' "smith" (''goun-''), ''mjava'' "memory, thought" (''mjaun-'') the remaining members are all old verbal nouns in NAsg ''-ma'', GDsg. & pl. ''-mn-'' such as ''brama'' "fart", ''grama'' "shout", ''cama'' "step", ''lama'' "jump", ''luma'' "drop", ''śtoma'' "bend", ''tama'' "bite".
|-
* ''aḑir'' represents a limited class of nouns, all relating to kinship terms, which have a NAsg. in -C''ir'' but the remaining paradigm in -C''r-''. This class includes ''maḑir'' "mother", ''braḑir'' "brother", ''auțir'' "uncle" and the rare, archaic ''dôćir'' "daughter".
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
** related, but irregular, is ''zviur'' "sister" (NAsg.), ''zviare'' (GDsg.), ''zviŕi'' (NApl.), ''zviara'' (GDpl.).
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Oblique
|-
! align="center" style="width: 50px" | 3
| align="center"| ''źi''
| align="center"| ''źija''
| align="center"| ''źije''
| align="center"| "king"
|-
! align="center"| 3
| align="center"| ''bô''  
| align="center"| ''bova''
| align="center"| ''bove''
| align="center" | "cow"
|-
! align="center" | 3
| align="center"| ''aģi''  
| align="center"| ''aģa''
| align="center"| ''aģe''
| align="center" | "father"
|-
|}


Like ''aģi'' are ''maģi'' "mother" and ''braģi'' "brother".
====The Vocative====
A vestigial vocative case exists when addressing people or things directly. In most cases, the vocative is identical to the NASg. or NApl. But note the following:
* In the 1st declension, masculine personal names and titles take ''-e'' (Vsg.) and ''-u'' (Vpl.), e.g. ''Craumare'' "Craumara!", ''teźnu'' "(my) lords", ''Rounu, Căbroû'' "Romans, Countrymen!".  
* In the 4th declension, the Vpl. ends in ''-e'', e.g. ''bradre'' "brothers!", ''carte'' "friends!"


===Articles===
===Articles===
Bźatga has a definite article, ''-zda'', which is suffixed to the inflected form of the noun. The article itself must agree in case and number with the noun: NASg. ''-zda'', OSg. ''-zdu'' and Pl. ''-ẑi''.
Bźatga has a definite article, ''-zda'', which is suffixed to the inflected form of the noun. The article itself must agree in case and number with the noun: NASg. ''-zda'', GDSg. ''-zdu'', NAPl. ''-zḑi'', GDPl. ''-zdova''.  


Examples:
Examples:
* ''verazda'' "the man"
* ''vêrazda'' "the man"
* ''meńiẑi'' "the women"
* ''meńizḑi'' "the women"
* ''ca aunazdu'' "to the river"
* ''pa aunezdu'' "to the river"


In cases where the noun ends in ''-z'', the NASg. article is written '''zda'', e.g. ''drouz'da'' "the priest".
Use of the article is generally avoided wherever the sense of definiteness is stated or inferred from context. However, it may be added to ranks, relationship names or personal names to indicate deference and respect, e.g. ''maḑirzda'' "the mother", ''Dunźiazda'' "the Dunźia".
 
Use of the article is generally avoided wherever the sense of definiteness is stated or inferred from context. However, it may be added to ranks, relationship names or personal names to indicate deference and respect, e.g. ''maģizda'' "the mother", ''Dounźijazdu'' "the Dounźi".


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Adjectives follow the noun they qualify and agree with that noun in number and case. Adjectives belong to one of two declensions much like those of nouns, according to the sound at the end of the word. There are no definite forms of adjectives.
Adjectives follow the noun they qualify and agree with that noun in number and case. Adjectives belong to one of three declensions much like those of nouns, according to the sound at the end of the word. There are no definite forms of adjectives.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2;" | Decl.
! rowspan="2;" | Decl.
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Singular  
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Singular  
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 150px;"  align="center" | Plural
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Plural
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 150px;" |
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 150px;" |
|-
|-
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Oblique
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Gen.-Dat.
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Gen.-Dat.
|-
|-
! align="center" style="width: 50px;"| 1
! align="center" style="width: 50px;"| 1
Line 542: Line 574:
| align="center"| ''maru''
| align="center"| ''maru''
| align="center"| ''maŕi''
| align="center"| ''maŕi''
| align="center"| ''marva''
| align="center"| "great"
| align="center"| "great"
|-
|-
! align="center" | 2
! align="center" | 2
| align="center"| ''made''
| colspan="2;" align="center"| ''made''
| align="center"| ''made''
| align="center"| ''maḑi''
| align="center"| ''maẑi''
| align="center"| ''madva''
| align="center"| "good"
| align="center"| "good"
|-
|-
! align="center;" | 3
| colspan="2;" | ''ćato''
|''ćatve''
| ''ćatva''
| "first"
|}
|}


====Comparison====
====Comparison====
The '''comparative''' adjective is formed by adding ''–ju'' to the stem, which undergoes iotisation where possible, e.g. ''maŕu'' "greater" < ''mara'', ''seńu'' "older" < ''sena'', ''doju'' "blacker" < ''dova''. Comparative adjectives are not inflected for case or number.
The '''comparative''' adjective is formed by adding ''–ju'' to the stem, which undergoes iotisation where possible, e.g. ''maŕu'' "greater" < ''mara'', ''seńu'' "older" < ''sena'', ''duju'' "blacker" < ''duo''. Comparative adjectives are not inflected for case or number.


The comparative may be followed by ''vra'' "than" and an OSg or Plural noun, e.g. ''maŕu vra teje'' "bigger than a house", ''vaĺu vra ģeviẑi'' "more powerful than the gods".
The comparative may be followed by ''vra'' "than" and an GD singular or plural noun, e.g. ''maŕu vra teje'' "bigger than a house", ''vałģu vra ģeviḑi'' "more powerful than the gods".


The '''superlative''' adjective is made with the suffix ''-va'', which also causes iotisation to the preceding consonant, e.g. ''maŕva'' "greatest", ''seńva'' "oldest", ''doiva'' "blackest". Superlatives function like normal adjectives and agree with their noun in number and case.
The '''superlative''' adjective is formed by adding the suffix ''-jva'' to the stem, causing iotisation, e.g. ''seńva'' "oldest". The superlative noun is declined like other 1st declension adjectives to agree in case and number with its noun (note that the GDpl. is identical to the NAsg: ''gentazda viģva'' "the most beautiful girl", ''pa gentvazdova viģva'' "to the most beautiful girls"). Superlatives may also take the article to form a substantive, e.g. ''duivazda'' "the blackest (one)".  


The following adjectives are compared irregularly:   
The following adjectives are compared irregularly:   
* ''dava'' "good", ''vela'' "better", ''veĺva'' "best"
* ''daja'' "good", ''vela'' "better", ''veĺva'' "best"
* ''drôga'' "bad", ''vaća'' "worse", ''vaćva'' "worst"
* ''drôga'' "bad", ''vaća'' "worse", ''vaćva'' "worst"
* ''agsa'' "near", ''nesa'' "nearer", ''neśva'' "nearest"
* ''acza'' "near", ''nesa'' "nearer", ''neśva'' "nearest"


An '''equative''' structure can be formed with the particle ''co'' + adjective + ''saule'' + OSg noun, e.g. ''co cegra saule bove'' "as strong as an ox".
An '''equative''' structure can be formed with the particle ''ca'' + adjective + ''saule'' + GDsg. noun, e.g. ''ca peura saule bove'' "as strong as an ox".


===Adverbs===
===Adverbs===
Qualitative adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the Oblique article ''-zdu'' to the Oblique form of the adjective, e.g. ''maruzdu'' "largely, greatly", ''arvuzdu'' "quietly". Comparative and superlative adverbs may also be formed in this way, e.g. ''nesuzdu'' "nearer", ''maŕuzdu'' "more greatly".
Qualitative adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the GD article ''-zdu'' to the GD form of the adjective, e.g. ''maruzdu'' "largely, greatly", ''arvuzdu'' "quietly". Comparative and superlative adverbs may also be formed in this way, e.g. ''nesuzdu'' "nearer", ''maŕuzdu'' "more greatly".
 
The following words ''zleja'' (place), ''zvoća'' (time), ''


Adverbs of time include: ''zdeva'' "today", ''abreja'' "morning", ''de'' "yesterday", ''na'' "now", ''menkezdu'' "often", ''eńasu'' "ever".
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Time !! Place !! Manner, Measure
|-
| ''zdeva'' "today" <br> ''azrei'' "tomorrow" <br> ''ģa'' "yesterday" <br> ''znoća'' "tonight" <br> ''no'' "now" <br> ''zveća'' "then" <br> ''eńasu'' "ever" <br> ''zvliźńi'' "this year" <br> ''ervliźńa'' "last year" <br> ''edvoća'' "again" <br> ''menkezdu'' "often" <br> ''veći'' "sometimes"
|-
| ''zleja'' "here, there" <br> ''sota'' "yonder" <br> ''adreû'' "home(wards)" <br> ''azladu'' "out" <br>
|}


===Numerals===
===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!  !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
|-
! 1
|| ''vona'' || ''ćata''
|-
! 2
| ''da'' || ''aĺa''
|-
! 3
| ''ći'' || ''ćića''
|-
! 4
| ''peudre'' || ''peuģa''
|-
! 5
| ''pjape'' || ''pjapda''
|-
! 6
| ''zveś'' || ''zveśta''
|-
! 7
| ''seća'' || ''sećveda''
|-
! 8
| ''oću'' || ''oćveda''
|-
! 9
| ''nava'' || ''naveda''
|-
! 10
| ''dega'' || ''degveda''
|-
! 11
| ''vonzega'' || ''vonzegveda''
|-
! 12
| ''dazga'' || ''dazgveda''
|-
! 13
| ''ćizga'' || ''ćizgveda''
|-
! 14
| ''pedzega'' || ''pedzegveda''
|-
! 15
| ''pjapzega'' || ''pjapzegveda''
|-
! 16
| ''zveśzega'' || ''zveśzegveda''
|-
! 17
| ''sećzega'' || ''sećzegveda''
|-
! 18
| ''oćzega'' || ''oćzegveda''
|-
! 19
| ''nauzega'' || ''nauzegveda''
|-
! 20
| ''vêgți'' || ''vêgtveda''
|-
! 21
| ||
|-
! 30
| ''ćigta'' ||
|-
! 40
| ''pedgota'' ||
|-
! 50
| ''pjapta'' ||
|-
! 60
| ''zveścota'' ||
|-
! 70
| ''sećvogta'' ||
|-
! 80
| ''oćgota'' ||
|-
! 90
| ''naugota'' ||
|-
! 100
| ''cata'' || ''catveda''
|}
====Cardinal====
====Cardinal====
The cardinal numbers occur before '''singular''' forms of nouns. Only ''ôna'' "one" is inflected for case.  
The cardinal numbers occur before '''singular''' forms of nouns. Only ''vona'' "one" is inflected for case.  


The lower numerals are:
The lower numerals are:
* 1-10:  ''ôna, da, ći, ceudre, ćace, seś, seća, oću, nava, dega''
* 1-10:  ''vona, da, ći, peudre, pepe, zveś, seća, oću, nava, dega''
* 11-19:  ''ônzega, dazga, ćizga, ceǵzega, ćiaczega, seźega, sećzega, oćzega, nauzega''
* 11-19:  ''vonzega, dazga, ćizga, peǵzega, pepzega, zveźega, sećzega, oćzega, nauzega''


The decades from 20 to 100 are: ''vegŝi, ćigot, ceǵgot, ćacot, seśgot, sećcot, oćcot, naucot, cata''.
The decades from 20 to 100 are: ''vegți, ćigot, pedrogot, pepgot, zveśgot, sećcot, oćcot, naucot, cata''.


These are nouns which stand in the NASg. before a NASg. noun. ''Vegŝi'' is indeclinable and ''cata'' is a 1st declension noun; the others are all 3rd declension.  
These are nouns which stand in the NASg. before a NASg. noun. ''Vegți'' is indeclinable and ''cata'' is a 1st declension noun; the others are all 4th declension.  


Numbers like "26" or "69" are formed with the unit followed by the decade in the OSg., e.g. ''seś vegŝi'' "26", ''nava seśgota'' "69". Nouns may be placed between the two numerals in the NASg., e.g. ''seś vera vegŝi'' "26 men", ''nava teja seśgota'' "69 houses".
Numbers like "26" or "69" are formed with the unit followed by the decade in the GDSg., e.g. ''zveś vegți'' "26", ''nava zveśgote'' "69". Nouns may be placed between the two numerals in the NASg., e.g. ''zveś vêra vegți'' "26 men", ''nava tei zveśgote'' "69 houses".


====Ordinal====
====Ordinal====
Ordinal numbers are adjectives of the 1st declension, which behave like any other. They ordinals from 1-10 are: ''ćata, aĺa, ćića, ceuǵa, ćacda, seśda, sećveda, oćveda, naveda, degveda''.
Ordinal numbers are adjectives of the 1st declension, which behave like any other. They ordinals from 1-10 are: ''ćata, aĺa, ćića, peuǵa, pepda, zveśda, sećveda, oćveda, naveda, degveda''.


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
====Personal====
====Personal====
Personal pronouns distinguish three persons in the singular and plural. Unlike some other languages, Bźatga does not distinguish gender in the third person singular, so ''e'' means "he, she, it". Both singular and plural have Nominative-Accusative and Oblique forms as well as a genitive used as a possessive adjective.  
Personal pronouns distinguish three persons in the singular and plural. Unlike some other languages, Bźatga does not distinguish gender in the third person singular, so ''e'' means "he, she, it". Both singular and plural have a Nominative-Accusative and separate Dative and Genitive forms.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
Line 598: Line 738:
|-
|-
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Oblique
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Dative
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Gentitive
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Genitive
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Oblique
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Dative
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Genitive
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Genitive
|-
|-
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! align="center" | 2
! align="center" | 2
| align="center"| ''tu''
| align="center"| ''tu''
| align="center"| ''ŝi''
| align="center"| ''ți''
| align="center"| ''ta''
| align="center"| ''ta''
| align="center"| ''zvi''
| align="center"| ''zvi''
Line 629: Line 769:
|}
|}


The NA pronouns are used as subject and direct object of the verb. As subject, they are really suffixes which attach to the verb directly. The 3rd person ''e'' is not added to verbs, which generally end in a vowel, so for example, ''carde'' implicitly means "he/she/it loves" unless another subject is stated. As direct object, the pronouns precede the verb directly, e.g. ''e cardemi'' "I love him", ''Maĺgų tu vełse'' "Maĺgų saw you".
The NA pronouns are used as subject and direct object of the verb. As subject, they are really suffixes which attach to the verb directly. The 3rd person ''e'' is not added to verbs, which generally end in a vowel, so for example, ''carde'' implicitly means "he/she/it loves" unless another subject is stated. As direct object, the pronouns precede the verb directly, e.g. ''e cardemi'' "I love him", ''Maĺgu tu vełse'' "Maĺgu saw you".


The Oblique forms are used following prepositions, e.g. ''cate ju'' "with him/her/it", ''a zna'' "from us".
The Dative forms are used following prepositions, e.g. ''cate ju'' "with him/her/it", ''a zna'' "from us".


The Genitive pronouns are used as possessive adjectives, preceding the noun as in English, e.g. ''jara aģi'' "their father", ''ta teje'' "your house".
The Genitive pronouns are used as possessive adjectives, preceding the noun as in English, e.g. ''jara aģi'' "their father", ''ta teje'' "your house".
=====Reflexive/Emphatic=====
The following indeclinable pronouns may be used as reflexive or emphatic forms. As reflexive pronouns they take the place of the object of a verb, e.g. ''Źanveuta edve vełse e dourazda'' "Źanveuta saw herself in the mirror". As emphatics they are the subject, agreeing with the subject of the verb, e.g. ''medve e sebse'' "I myself said it".
Note that the 1sg and 3sg have two forms each: ''medve'' and ''edve'' are the traditional forms, still in common usage, while ''mizve'' and ''ezve'' are vernacular forms.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"
! style="width: 50px;"| Pers.
! style="width: 120px;" | Singular
! style="width: 120px;"| Plural
|-
! 1
| ''medve, mizve''
| ''źńizve''
|-
! 2
| ''tuzve''
| ''zvizve''
|-
! 3
| ''edve, ezve''
| ''jezve''
|}


====Demonstrative====
====Demonstrative====
Line 641: Line 804:
! rowspan="2;" |  
! rowspan="2;" |  
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Singular  
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Singular  
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 120px;"  align="center" | Plural
! colspan="2;" align="center" | Plural
|-
|-
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Oblique
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Gen.-Dat.
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Nom.-Acc.
! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Gen.-Dat.
|-
|-
! align="center" style="width: 100px;"| "this" a)
! align="center" style="width: 100px;"| "this" a)
| align="center"| ''soda''
| align="center"| ''soda''
| align="center"| ''sodu''
| align="center"| ''sodu''
| align="center"| ''soẑi''
| align="center"| ''soḑi''
| align="center"| ''sodva''
|-
|-
! align="center" | "this" b)
! align="center" | "this" b)
| align="center"| ''sida''
| align="center"| ''sida''
| align="center"| ''sidu''
| align="center"| ''sidu''
| align="center"| ''siẑi''
| align="center"| ''siḑi''
| align="center"| ''sidva''
|-
|-
! align="center" | "that" a)
! align="center" | "that" a)
Line 660: Line 827:
| align="center"| ''sou''
| align="center"| ''sou''
| align="center"| ''soi''
| align="center"| ''soi''
| align="center"| ''sova''
|-
|-
! align="center" | "that" b)
! align="center" | "that" b)
Line 665: Line 833:
| align="center"| ''seu''
| align="center"| ''seu''
| align="center"| ''sei''
| align="center"| ''sei''
| align="center"| ''seva''
|}
|}


The demonstratives may be used:
The demonstratives may be used:
* as pronouns proper, standing alone as the subject or object of a verb etc., e.g. ''seu aĺdemi'' "I want that"
* as pronouns proper, standing alone as the subject or object of a verb etc., e.g. ''seu aĺdemi'' "I want that"
* as adjectives preceding a definite noun, e.g. ''soda verazda'' "this man''.
* as adjectives preceding a definite noun, e.g. ''soda vêrazda'' "this man''.


====Interrogative====
====Interrogative====
The interrogative pronouns are ''će'' "who", used for humans, deities and sometimes animals, and ''cêt'' "what", used for inanimates and abstracts. These are not declined for case or number. When the pronoun is the object of the sentence, the verb must be in the passive and the subject follows in the oblique e.g. ''cêt zlaźsore Vervosu'' "what did Vervosa kill?" (lit. "what was killed by Vervosa?"), but ''će Citvena vełsa?'' "who saw Citvena?".  
The interrogative pronouns are ''pje'' "who", used for humans, deities and sometimes animals, and ''pêt'' "what", used for inanimates and abstracts. These are not declined for case or number. When the pronoun is the object of the sentence, the verb must be in the passive and the subject follows in the Gen.-Dat. e.g. ''pêt zlaźsore Vervosu'' "what did Vervosa kill?" (lit. "what was killed by Vervosa?"), but ''pje Citvena vełsa?'' "who saw Citvena?".  


The interrogative adverbs are:
The interrogative adverbs are:
* ''cane'' "when"
* ''pane'' "when"
* ''care'' "why"
* ''pare'' "why"
* ''cô'' "where"
* ''cô'' "where"
* ''cede'' "how many, how much"
* ''pede'' "how many, how much"
* ''ćeta'' "how"
* ''pjeta'' "how"


====Indefinite====
====Indefinite====
The indefinite pronouns include:
The indefinite pronouns include:
* ''cauga'' "everyone, everything"
* ''paba'' "everyone, everything"
* ''neuga'' "someone, something, anyone, anything"
* ''neba'' "someone, something, anyone, anything"
* ''oĺazda'' "all"
* ''oĺazda'' "all"


All these decline like first declension nouns. The first two may be used adjectivally, preceding a noun with which they agree in case and number, e.g. ''ca caugu veru'' "to every man". The adjectival form of ''oĺazda'' is ''oĺa'' "all, every, whole" which must precede a definite noun (unless abstract), e.g. ''oĺi eugiẑi'' "all the horses".
All these decline like first declension nouns. The first two may be used adjectivally, preceding a noun with which they agree in case and number, e.g. ''pa pabu vêru'' "to every man". The adjectival form of ''oĺazda'' is ''oĺa'' "all, every, whole" which must precede a definite noun (unless abstract), e.g. ''oĺi ebiḑi'' "all the horses".


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
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====Verbal Nouns and Adjectives====
====Verbal Nouns and Adjectives====
The verbal noun is formed by adding ''-ą'' to the stem and is declined like a 4th declension noun. It functions as an abstract noun denoting the action of the verb, e.g. ''velą'' "seeing, vision, sight". The direct object of the verbal noun follows it directly in the NA case, e.g. ''zlaźą e'' "killing him", ''velą Noį'' "seeing Noį".
The verbal noun is formed by adding ''-a'' to the stem and is declined like a 4th declension noun. It functions as an abstract noun denoting the action of the verb, e.g. ''vela'' "seeing, vision, sight". The direct object of the verbal noun follows it directly in the Genitive (for pronouns) or GD (for nouns), e.g. ''zlaźa eja'' "killing him", ''vela Noine'' "seeing Noi".


Two irregular verbal nouns exist: ''bôda'' "to be" (1st declension), which has irregular verbal stems (see [[Bźatga#.22To_Be.22|below]]), and ''aća'' "go" (1st declension), which is conjugated regularly on the stem ''au-''. Both of these verbs have numerous compounds, which are conjugated like the simple verbs, e.g. ''vagaća'' "emptying, draining (intrans.)", ''vagauseje'' "they emptied", ''vrăbidetu'' "you overcome", ''vrăbôda'' "overcoming".
Two irregular verbal nouns exist: ''bôda'' "to be" (1st declension), which has irregular verbal stems (see [[Bźatga#.22To_Be.22|below]]), and ''aća'' "go" (1st declension), which is conjugated regularly on the stem ''au-''. Both of these verbs have numerous compounds, which are conjugated like the simple verbs, e.g. ''vagaća'' "emptying, draining (intrans.)", ''vagauseje'' "they emptied", ''vrăbidetu'' "you overcome", ''vrăbôda'' "overcoming".


There are three verbal adjectives:
There are three verbal adjectives:
* The '''Present Participle''' is formed by adding the prefix ''ĕ-'' to the verbal noun when it begins with a consonant or ''ĕn-'' when it begins with a vowel, e.g. ''ĕvelą'' "seeing", ''ĕnezą'' "eating".
* The '''Present Participle''' is formed by adding the prefix ''ĕ-'' to the verbal noun when it begins with a consonant or ''ĕn-'' when it begins with a vowel, e.g. ''ĕvela'' "seeing", ''ĕneza'' "eating".
* The '''Past Passive Participle''' is formed with the suffix ''-da'' added to the verb stem, e.g. ''vełda'' "seen", ''ezda'' "eaten".
* The '''Past Passive Participle''' is formed with the suffix ''-da'' (1st declension) added to the verb stem, e.g. ''vełda'' "seen", ''ezda'' "eaten".
* The '''Participle of Necessity''', equivalent to English adjectives in "-able", "-ible" and "-worthy", is formed with the suffix ''-doja'' added to the verb stem, e.g. ''vełdoja'' "visible", ''zlaźdoja'' "killable".
* The '''Participle of Necessity''', equivalent to English adjectives in "-able", "-ible" and "-worthy", is formed with the suffix ''-doja'' (1st declension) added to the verb stem, e.g. ''vełdoja'' "visible", ''zlazdoja'' "killable".


====Summary of Verb Forms====
====Summary of Verb Forms====
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* Present participle: ''ĕbôda'' (1st declension)
* Present participle: ''ĕbôda'' (1st declension)
* Participle of necessity: ''bidoja''
* Participle of necessity: ''bidoja''
====Other Irregular Verbs====
The following verbs exhibit some irregularity in their forms:
* ''aća'' "to go" has the verbal stem ''au-''
* ''vêso'' (3rd declension) "to know" has the present stem ''vid-'' and the past stem ''vêzr-''.
====Modal Verbs====
Modality is usually expressed with an auxiliary verb preceded by a verbal noun in the NAsg. Modal verbs are simply lexical verbs which conjugate regularly. The object of the main verb is expressed in the genitive, either with a GD noun or a genitive pronoun.
The following are the main modal verbs:
* '''''gala''''' "to be able" is used to express physical ability to do something, e.g. ''ma vela gałdetu'' "you can see me"
* '''''ĺija''''' "to owe" is used to express duty or expectation, e.g. ''atreû aća ĺîdemi'' "I ought to go home"
* '''''vêso''''' "to know" is used to mean "know how to", e.g. ''seba Bźatgu videje'' "they know how to speak Bźatga"
* '''''adaja''''' "to allow" is used in the passive to mean "may" in the sense of having permission, e.g. ''barvuzdu eza adaidoreśi'' "you may eat the bread"
* '''''laja''''' "to dare" is used in the same sense as English "dare", e.g. ''conezdu dĕźrova nălaideźńi'' "we dare not wake the dog"
* '''''mjada''''' "to want, wish" is used to express desire, e.g. '' pa eja văleju Maĺgu aća mjadse'' "Maĺgu wanted to go to bed"
The following modals work in a different way:
* '''''avila''''' "will, wish" may be used to mean "want to" or "willing to". It is used with a genitive noun or a pronoun in a copula sentence along with a verbal noun, e.g. ''cana ma avila es'' "I want to sing" (lit. "singing is my will"), ''eśteza avila Źatne es'' "Źatne wants to sit down".
* '''''ḑira''''' "necessary" is used to express "need to" or "must". It is used in a copula sentence with a verbal noun, with the 'subject' expressed with ''pa'' "to" and the dative of a noun or pronoun, e.g. ''pa ju vela ḑira es'' "he needs to see" (lit. "seeing is necessary to him"), ''advańa ḑira es pa Vêźenu'' "Vêźena must understand".


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
These are the main prepositions in Bźatga. They are invariably followed by the Oblique of nouns and pronouns.
These are the main prepositions in Bźatga. Generally speaking, when the preposition denotes location it is followed by the Nom-Acc. of nouns and pronouns, but when it denotes movement it is followed by the Gen-Dat. of nouns and the Dat. of pronouns. Appropriate cases are given below. 


* ''a'' "of, from"
* ''a'' "of, from" (GD)
* ''abe'' "around, about, concerning"
* ''abe'' "around, about, concerning" (NA or GD)
* ''are'' "before, beside"
* ''are'' "before, beside" (NA and GD)
* ''cate'' "with, by" (instrumental)
* ''cate'' "with, by" (instrumental) (GD)
* ''ca'' "to"
* ''će'' "through"
* ''eća'' "out, outside"
* ''e'' "in, into, within"
* ''e'' "in, into, within"
* ''eća'' "out, outside" (NA or GD)
* ''jatra'' "between, among" (NA or GD)
* ''oca'' "near, by, at"
* ''oca'' "near, by, at"
* ''jatra'' "between"
* ''pa'' "to, until" (GD)
* ''saule'' "like"
* ''saule'' "like"
* ''seugu'' "without"
* ''sebu'' "without"
* ''tra'' "across"
* ''tra'' "across"
* ''će'' "through"
* ''vjezu'' "with" (comitative) (NA)
* ''vjezu'' "with" (comitative)
* ''vona'' "under, below, beneath" (NA or GD)
* ''vona'' "under, below, beneath"
* ''vor'' "on, over, above" (NA or GD)
* ''vor'' "on, over, above"
* ''vret'' "against" (NA)
* ''vret'' "against"


Note the distinction between ''cate'', used in phrases such as ''ezsemi cate ĺeju'' "I ate with a spoon", ''zlaźsoreje cate vjalu'' "they were killed by a wolf"; and ''vjezu'', used in phrases like ''ezsemi vjezu braģi mi'' "I ate with my brother".
Note the distinction between ''cate'', used in phrases such as ''ezsemi cate ĺeju'' "I ate with a spoon", ''zlaźsoreje cate vjalu'' "they were killed by a wolf"; and ''vjezu'', used in phrases like ''ezsemi vjezu braģi mi'' "I ate with my brother".


===Conjunctions===
===Conjunctions===
* ''dec'' "and"
** ''dec ... dec...'' "both... and..."
* ''seude'' "also"
* ''nove'' "or"
** ''nove... nove...'' "either... or..."
* ''nadec'' "nor"
** ''nadec... nadec'' "neither... nor..."
* ''ećra'' "but, except"
* ''a'' "if"
* ''pada'' "when"
* ''tar'' "whilst"
* ''cita'' "before"
* ''pa'' "until"
* ''ce'' "though"
==Syntax==
==Syntax==
The basic word order is SOV.
The basic word order is SOV.


* ''verazda menazda carde'' "the man loves the woman"
* ''verazda menazda carde'' "the man loves the woman"
* ''Maĺgų edra vełse'' "Maĺgų saw a bird"
* ''Maĺgu edra vełse'' "Maĺgu saw a bird"


Pronoun subjects are expressed as part of the verb and do not occur separately.
Pronoun subjects are expressed as part of the verb and do not occur separately.
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Indirect objects are placed at the beginning or end of the SOV structure.
Indirect objects are placed at the beginning or end of the SOV structure.


* ''ma aģi sevą vrăcanse ca mô'' "my father taught me to hunt" (hunting to me)
* ''ma aģi sevą vrăcanse pa mô'' "my father taught me to hunt" (hunting to me)
* ''ca tejezdu ańanu ausetu'' "you went to the wrong house"
* ''pa tejezdu ańanu ausetu'' "you went to the wrong house"


Adjectives follow nouns.
Adjectives follow nouns.


* ''cų mara'' "a large dog"
* ''cu mara'' "a large dog"
* ''euga vida'' "a white horse"
* ''eba vida'' "a white horse"


===Relative Sentences===
===Relative Sentences===
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* ''verazda carģa mi'' "the man who loves me"
* ''verazda carģa mi'' "the man who loves me"
* ''eugazda teugśa'' "the horse which ran away"
* ''ebazda teśśa'' "the horse which ran away"


When the antecedent is the patient of the verb (which would usually be the direct object in English), the verb must be in the passive and the agent may be omitted or indicated by ''cate'' "by". The the order is Patient + Relative Passive Verb (+ ''cate'' + Agent):
When the antecedent is the patient of the verb (which would usually be the direct object in English), the verb must be in the passive and the agent may be omitted or indicated by ''cate'' "by". The the order is Patient + Relative Passive Verb (+ ''cate'' + Agent):


* ''tejezda daisoŕa ca laruzdu mara jat'' "the house which burnt down was large"
* ''tejezda daisoŕa pa laruzdu mara jat'' "the house which burnt down was large"
* ''cųzda magdoŕa cate mi dova es'' "the dog which I feed is black" (i.e. "which is fed by me")
* ''cuzda magdoŕa cate mi dova es'' "the dog which I feed is black" (i.e. "which is fed by me")


An alternative, more colloquial, way of expressing this is to place the relative clause as a normal SOV clause in apposition to the patient noun. The remainder of the main clause then follows after the resumptive pronoun ''so/se'', which agrees with the patient noun in number and case. The order here is: Patient + Subordinate clause + ''so/se'' + Object/Predicate + Verb
An alternative, more colloquial, way of expressing this is to place the relative clause as a normal SOV clause in apposition to the patient noun. The remainder of the main clause then follows after the resumptive pronoun ''so/se'', which agrees with the patient noun in number and case. The order here is: Patient + Subordinate clause + ''so/se'' + Object/Predicate + Verb


* ''tejezda, daisore ca laruzdu, se mara jat'' "the house which burnt down was large (lit. "the house, it burnt down, that was large")
* ''tejezda, daisore pa laruzdu, se mara jat'' "the house which burnt down was large (lit. "the house, it burnt down, that was large")
* ''cųzda, e magdoremi, so dova es'' "the dog which I feed is black" (lit. "the dog, I feed it, that is black")
* ''cuzda, e magdoremi, so dova es'' "the dog which I feed is black" (lit. "the dog, I feed it, that is black")


This method of apposition is used where English uses a genitive or prepositional relative, e.g.
This method of apposition is used where English uses a genitive or prepositional relative, e.g.
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==Derivation==
==Derivation==
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
Agent nouns and instruments are formed from verbs with the suffixes ''-jde'' or ''-(a)dra'' (e.g. (e.g. ''ģiģde'' "climber" < ''ģig-'', ''ĺaźdra'' "spade" < ''ĺaź-''). Agents can be formed from verbs or nouns with ''-jų'' (e.g. ''gańų'' "killer" < ''gan-'') and this can be added to adjectives to describe a person or thing bearing that quality (e.g. ''dajų'' "good person" < ''dava''). ''-vera'' is added to nouns, verbs or occasionally adjectives meaning "person associated with" (e.g. ''vezvera'' "woodsman" < ''veza''). The ending ''-jajų'' is added to nouns to mean "seeker of" or "lover of" (e.g. ''gaĺajų'' "megalomaniac" < ''gala'').
Agent nouns and instruments are formed from verbs with the suffixes ''-jde'' or ''-(a)dra'' (e.g. (e.g. ''ģiģde'' "climber" < ''ģig-'', ''ĺaźdra'' "spade" < ''ĺaź-''). Agents can be formed from verbs or nouns with ''-ju'' (e.g. ''gańu'' "killer" < ''gan-'') and this can be added to adjectives to describe a person or thing bearing that quality (e.g. ''daju'' "good person" < ''dava''). ''-vera'' is added to nouns, verbs or occasionally adjectives meaning "person associated with" (e.g. ''vezvera'' "woodsman" < ''veza''). The ending ''-jaju'' is added to nouns to mean "seeker of" or "lover of" (e.g. ''gaĺaju'' "megalomaniac" < ''gala'' "power").


Diminutives can be formed from nouns with ''-ńa'' (e.g. ''meńa'' "little woman" < ''mena'') and from adjectives with ''-ga'' or ''-ca'' (e.g. ''douga/douca'' "little black one" < ''dova''); ''-ca'' tends to have more negative overtones.
Diminutives can be formed from nouns with ''-ńa'' (e.g. ''menńa'' "little woman" < ''mena'') and from adjectives with ''-ga'' or ''-ca'' (e.g. ''douga/douca'' "little black one" < ''dova''); ''-ca'' tends to have more negative overtones.


Abstracts are formed from nouns and occasionally adjectives with ''-aća'', creating states or actions (e.g. ''ģevaća'' "divinity" < ''ģeva''), or ''-reda'' (e.g. ''brêćreda'' "confusion, disorder"), and from nouns alone by ''-sa'' (e.g. ''źisa'' "kingdom" < ''źi''). ''-dra'', ''-ja'' and ''-dud'' form abstracts from adjectives (e.g. ''daudra'' "goodness" < ''dava'', ''vêĺa'' "honesty" < ''vêla'', ''joucdud'' "youth" < ''jouca''). ''-da'' and ''-t'' are used to form abstracts from verbs (e.g. ''carda'' "love", ''cart'' "beloved").
Abstracts are formed from nouns and occasionally adjectives with ''-aća'', creating states or actions (e.g. ''ģevaća'' "divinity" < ''ģeva''), or ''-reda'' (e.g. ''brêćreda'' "confusion, disorder"), and from nouns alone by ''-sa'' (e.g. ''źisa'' "kingdom" < ''źi''). ''-dra'', ''-ja'' and ''-dud'' form abstracts from adjectives (e.g. ''daudra'' "goodness" < ''dava'', ''vêĺa'' "honesty" < ''vêla'', ''joucdud'' "youth" < ''jouca''). ''-da'' and ''-t'' are used to form abstracts from verbs (e.g. ''carda'' "love", ''cart'' "beloved").
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The verb ''aća'' "go" (stem ''au-'') is compounded with adjectives to form verbs meaning "become, make, turn" and with nouns meaning "be, act as" (e.g. ''vidaude'' "it whitens, it turns white", ''vidaća'' "whitening", ''źijausemi'' "I acted as king, I ruled").
The verb ''aća'' "go" (stem ''au-'') is compounded with adjectives to form verbs meaning "become, make, turn" and with nouns meaning "be, act as" (e.g. ''vidaude'' "it whitens, it turns white", ''vidaća'' "whitening", ''źijausemi'' "I acted as king, I ruled").
The following are verbal prefixes:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100px;" | Noun, Adj !! Verb !! width="200px;" | Use !! width="200px;" | E.g.
|-
| ''ab-'' || ''ăb-'' || (n) "around" <br> (v) reciprocal, reflexive ||
|-
| ''ad-'' ||''ăd-'' || (adj) "very", intensive <br> (v) "re-, again" ||
|-
| ''aĺ-'' || || "other" || ''aĺvrova'' "foreigner"
|-
| ''a(n)-'' || || (adj) "un-" <br> (n) pejorative ||
|-
| ''ar-'' || ''ăr-'' || (n) "fore, by" <br> (v) "fore, before"* ||
|-
| ''az-'' || ''ăz-'' || (adj) intensive <br> "to"* ||
|-
| || ''căt-'' || "with, after"* || ''cătvôda'' "perceive, experience"
|-
| ''ca(v)-'' || ''că(v)-'' || "co-, together, equally" || ''cabrova'' "tribesman"
|-
| ''cit-'' || || "earlier, first" ||
|-
| ''da-'' || ''dă-'' || "to" ||
|-
| colspan="2;" | ''dad-'' || (n) intensive <br> (v) "un-, dis-, de-" ||
|-
| ''ḑi-'' || ''ḑǐ-'' || (n) "without, -less" <br> (v) from ||
|-
| ''do-'' || || "bad" ||
|-
| ''eś-'' || ''ĕś-'' || (n) "without, -less" <br> (v) "out" ||
|-
| ''ǐ-'' || "in" ||
|-
| ''jătr-'' || "between" ||
|-
| ''jĕd-'' || "in" ||
|-
|''ră-'' || "for" ||
|-
| ''trău-'' || "across" ||
|-
| ''va-'' || ''vă-'' || "under, sub-" ||
|-
| ''var'' || ''văr-'' || "over, on, super-" ||
|-
| ''vrĕt'' || "against" ||
|}
==Texts==
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights===
''Paba dońa gańdore saule źa dec căsazla abe breja dec jańona. Ćela mezde dec brêde, dec răĺeide ăbvezane pa eja cêĺu cate slodu a braģaću.''
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
===Ring Verse===
''Ći maģi er Źîzḑi Śeurĺi vona nevazda'' <br>
''Seća er Teźńi Corĺi e jara nouźi ĺôgńi'' <br>
''Nawa er Dońi Maurdoî, tokdaḑi da maura'' <br>
''Vona er Teźnazda Teva vor eja soźa duo'' <br>
''E Țiŕa Mordor, Śaḑi ărvosde e zleja'' <br>
''Vona maģa da vaĺa vor jara oĺa'' <br>
''Vona maģa da jara caja '' <br>
''Vona maģa da veza jara oĺa'' <br>
''Dec e teuzlazda jara naśa'' <br>
''E Tiŕa Mordor, Śaḑi ărvosde e zleja'' <br>
Three Rings for the Elven-kings under the sky <br>
Seven for the Dwarf-lords in their halls of stone <br>
Nine for Mortal Men doomed to die <br>
One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne <br>
In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie <br>
One Ring to rule them all <br>
One Ring to find them <br>
One Ring to bring them all <br>
And in the darkness bind them <br>
In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie <br>
===The Night's Watch Pledge===
''Noć nesaude dec na ma vrălôgata cende.'' <br />
''Nădvezde azla ma acu.'' <br />
''Mena năcaudemi, vlaḑi nădeudemi, koÎ năseidemi.'' <br />
''Miḑi năviścdemi dec văgana năbôźdemi.'' <br />
''Beudemi dec maurdemi oca ma mjazu.'' <br />
''Cavazda in tejaluzdu esemi. Vrălôģuzda vor cordazdou esemi.'' <br />
''Śćedazda ărģejģe vlaḑiḑi ḑi dońva esemi.'' <br />
''Ma beuda dec bźate ădnoudemi pa Vrălôgluzdu ḑi Noćezdu, ja znoće dec oĺva noćazdou raga.''
Night gathers, and now my watch begins. <br />
It shall not end until my death.<br />
I shall take no wife, hold no lands, father no children.<br />
I shall wear no crowns and win no glory.<br />
I shall live and die at my post.<br />
I am the sword in the darkness. I am the watcher on the walls.<br />
I am the shield that guards the realms of men.<br />
I pledge my life and honor to the Night's Watch, for this night and all the nights to come.<br />
===The Lord's Prayer===
''Ara aḑir eśa e neuzda <br/>
''Ta ava rănovaudore <br />
''Ta źiso rădaude <br />
''Ta aula răvreidore <br/>
''Saule vor auĺuzda saule e neuzda <br />
''Ara barva ḑila rădadetu pa zna <br />
''Dec ara côĺi rećlugdetu <br/>
''Saule côĺi a ara nauteḑi ĕćlugdeźńi <br />
''Dec źńi rănvezatu pa caśredu <br />
''Ećra źńi răvredatu vret valu. <br />
''Amen.
Our father, who is in heaven <br/>
Hallowed be thy name <br />
Thy kingdom come <br />
Thy will be done <br />
On earth as in heaven <br />
Give us this day our daily bread <br />
And forgive us our trespasses <br />
As we forgive those who trespass against us <br />
Lead us not into temptation <br />
But deliver us from evil <br />
Amen


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
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|many              = ela
|many              = ela
|some              = neuga
|some              = neuga
|few              = aẑida
|few              = aḑida
|other            = aĺa
|other            = aĺa
|one              = vona
|one              = vona
Line 1,008: Line 1,339:
|forest            = ćada
|forest            = ćada
|stick            = zvoda
|stick            = zvoda
|
|fruit            = mesa
|fruit            = mesa
|seed              = seida
|seed              = seida
Line 1,060: Line 1,390:
|know              = vidra-
|know              = vidra-
|think            = abraz-
|think            = abraz-
|smell            =  
|smell            = zrouń-
|fear              =  
|fear              = vodr-
|sleep            =  
|sleep            = sôn-
|live              =  
|live              = bev-
|die              =  
|die              = maur-
|kill              =  
|kill              = zlaz-
|fight            =  
|fight            = abvêg-
|hunt              =  
|hunt              = sev-
|hit              =  
|hit              = bên-
|cut              =  
|cut              = śći-
|split            =  
|split            = ścouć-
|stab              =  
|stab              = gan-
|scratch          =  
|scratch          = raz-
|dig              =  
|dig              = ĺaz-
|swim              =  
|swim              = znav-
|fly              =  
|fly              = ĕśed-
|walk              =  
|walk              = trouģ-
|come              =  
|come              = tred-
|lie              =  
|lie              = lej-
|sit              =  
|sit              = sez-
|stand            =  
|stand            = śtav-
|turn              =  
|turn              = zvel-
|fall              =  
|fall              = ćez-
|give              =  
|give              = da-
|hold              =  
|hold              = gaj-
|squeeze          =  
|squeeze          = vaśc-
|rub              =  
|rub              = rôń-
|wash              =  
|wash              = voug-
|wipe              =  
|wipe              = tran-
|pull              =  
|pull              = ten-
|push              =  
|push              = găźid-
|throw            =  
|throw            = brov-
|tie              =  
|tie              = naśc-
|sew              =  
|sew              = văźi-
|count            =  
|count            = aźiv-
|say              =  
|say              = ved-
|sing              =  
|sing              = can-
|play              =  
|play              = vrej-
|float            =  
|float            = znav-
|flow              =  
|flow              = ber-, ĺi-
|freeze            =  
|freeze            = rev-
|swell            =  
|swell            = zvez-
|sun              =  
|sun              = sule
|moon              =  
|moon              = loura
|star              =  
|star              = śtera
|water            =  
|water            = doura
|rain              =  
|rain              = ĺova
|river            =  
|river            = au (4)
|lake              =  
|lake              = lida
|sea              =  
|sea              = more
|salt              =  
|salt              = sauna
|stone            =  
|stone            = ĺôga
|sand              =  
|sand              = grava
|dust              =  
|dust              = oula
|earth            =  
|earth            = cźid
|cloud            =  
|cloud            = znôza
|fog              =  
|fog              = neula
|sky              =  
|sky              = neu (3)
|wind              =  
|wind              = vita
|snow              =  
|snow              = raja
|ice              =  
|ice              = jeje
|smoke            =  
|smoke            = môga
|fire              =  
|fire              = jaza
|ash              =  
|ash              = lôda
|burn              =  
|burn              = daj-
|road              =  
|road              = śata
|mountain          =  
|mountain          = bada
|red              =  
|red              = rôza
|green            =  
|green            = ura, ĺasa
|yellow            =  
|yellow            = meuna, gela
|white            =  
|white            = vida
|black            =  
|black            = dova
|night            =  
|night            = noć
|day              =  
|day              = ģija
|year              =  
|year              = bĺeza
|warm              =  
|warm              = ĺêda
|cold              =  
|cold              = jeńa
|full              =  
|full              = lana
|new              =  
|new              = noja
|old              =  
|old              = sena
|good              =  
|good              = made, dava
|bad              =  
|bad              = drôga, mala
|rotten            =  
|rotten            = brańe
|dirty            =  
|dirty            = môsa, sałga
|straight          =  
|straight          = jana
|round            =  
|round            = crude
|sharp            =  
|sharp            = leuda
|dull              =  
|dull              = mjala
|smooth            = slena  
|smooth            = slena  
|wet              = vleuga
|wet              = vleuga
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[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
Psammead
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