Linguifex

Bearlandic: Difference between revisions

Page Discussion

Bearlandic (view source)

Revision as of 21:44, 4 July 2021

28,965 bytes added ,  4 July 2021
no edit summary
No edit summary
 
(106 intermediate revisions by 4 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
Kimmig: a [[/Vocabulary|ellpossgirytnē]] enn a [[/Thematic dictionary|prattdúlig]] worrtliss.
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|creator = User:Dē Graut Bʉr
|image =  
|image =  
|imagesize =  
|imagesize =  
|name = Bearlandic
|name = Bearlandic
|nativename = ''Bʉrnlannts''
|nativename = Bʉrnlannts
|pronunciation=  /ˈbœːrnlɑnːts/
|pronunciation=  ˈbœːrnlɑnːts
|region =  
|region =  
|states =  
|states =  
|speakers = Approximately 20 million  
|speakers = ~20 million  
|date = 2653
|date = 2653
|familycolor=
|familycolor=conlang
|family=Iropo-Antilonian languages
|fam1 = Iropo-Antilonian languages
* Berilonian languages
|fam2 = Berilonian languages
** Western Berilonian languages
|fam3 = Western Berilonian languages
*** '''Bearlandic'''
|ancestor=Old Bearlandic
|ancestor=Old Bearlandic
|script=''Unnamed alphabet''
|scripts= * Berilonian alphabet, western style
|agency=
|iso1=
|iso2=
|iso3=
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
}}
}}


==Background==
==Background==
Bearlandic (''Bʉrnlannts'', IPA: /ˈbœːrnlɑnːts/) is one of many languages of the planet which is called Virrolt in Bearlandic. The language belongs to the Berilonian language family, which in its turn is a branch of the Iropo-Antilonian language family.
Bearlandic (''Bʉrnlannts'', IPA: /ˈbœːrnlɑnːts/) is one of many languages of the planet which is called ''dē Virrolt'' in Bearlandic. The language belongs to the Berilonian language family, which in its turn is a branch of the Iropo-Antilonian language family.


Spoken natively by approximately 20 million people, it is one of the most spoken Berilonian languages. It is also one of the major lingua francas of the world, so it also has millions of second-language speakers.
Spoken natively by approximately 20 million people, it is one of the most spoken Berilonian languages. It is also one of the major lingua francas of the world, so it also has millions of second-language speakers. Most speakers can pretend to speak [[Antilonian]] (another Berilonian language) as well, and many also know a few words in random other languages such as [[Kunesian]].
 
"Coincidentally", it is very similar to real-world Germanic languages, in particular to Dutch, which happens to be the creator's native language. However, it is not a member of the Germanic language family, but is instead related to various languages which do not bear such similarities to real-world languages.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Line 94: Line 94:
|  
|  
|}
|}
In some dialects /ʃ/ and /ç/ occur as allophones of /s/ and /x ~ ɣ/. The latter is often slightly fronted or palatalized in the standard dialect.
[ʃ] and [ç] are quite common as allophones of /s/ before stops and /x/ after /i/ respectively. This is however nonstandard and typically associated with lower classes.
 
The velar fricative is often slightly fronted or palatalized in the standard dialect.


All consonants except /b d ŋ kʷ v z h/ can be geminated.
All consonants except /b d ŋ kʷ v z h/ can be geminated.
The velar fricative is pronounced /ɣ/ in onsets (except in the cluster /sx/) and /x/ in codas.
Coda consonants may be voiced when the following syllable begins with a voiced consonant.
Most speakers have [ɬ] as an allophone of /l/, though the exact conditioning of this allophony varies considerably. In the cluster /tl/, the [ɬ] allophone is nearly universal, and the pronunciation of /lh/ as [ɬ], though less common, is also found all over the country. In a few places scattered across the country one may hear [sɬ] or even [ɬ] for /sl/, and in the east, some people devoice /l/ in any cluster involving voiceless consonants.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! style="width: 90px; "|
!  
! style="width: 90px; " |Front
! Front
! style="width: 90px; " |Near-front
! Rounded
! style="width: 90px; " |Central
! Back
! style="width: 90px; " |Near-back
! style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
|-
! style="" |Close
! High
| i u /i y/
| i /ɪ iː/
|  
| u /ʏ yː/
|
| ú /uː/
|
| ú /u/
|-
|-
! style="" |Near-close
! Mid
|  
| e /ɛ eː/
| i u /ɪ ʏ/
| ʉ /œ œː/
|  
| o /ɔ oː/
|
|
|-
! style="" |Close-mid
| e /e/
|
|
|
| o /o/
|-
|-
! style="" |Mid
! Low
|
| colspan="3" | a /ɑ aː/
|
| e /ə/
|  
|
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
| e ʉ /ɛ œ/
|
|
|
| o /ɔ/
|-
! style="" |Near-open
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Open
| a /a/
|
|
|
| a /ɑ/
|}
|}
Short vowels are followed by long consonants and vice versa. Orthographically, vowel length is indicated by the doubling of the following consonant. Word-finally, short vowels are marked with a macron.


There are two diphthongs: y, pronounced /ɛɪ̯/ and au, pronounced /aʊ̯/. Just like long vowels, they are always followed by a short consonant.


Bearlandic distinguishes "short" (ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʏ) and "long" (a e i o y) vowels. However, the "long" vowels are actually only pronounced long when they're stressed. Ú and Ʉ (/u/ and /œ/) are usually considered to be neither short nor long, but are, just like the "long" vowels, pronounced long when they're stressed (except when followed by a geminated consonant) and short otherwise.
In affixes, which are always unstressed, /iː/ is shortened to /i/.
 
There are two diphthongs: y, pronounced /ɛɪ̯/ and au, pronounced /aʊ̯/.


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Bearlandic allows fairly complex syllables, which can begin in up to three and end in up to four consonants, making the maximal syllable structure (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C). The last consonant of final clusters with four consonants is always an -s, as is the first consonant of an initial cluster with three consonants. Note that geminated consonants count as single consonants, and can only appear directly after vowels.
Bearlandic roots consist of one or two syllables and allow clusters of up to three consonants. Affixes usually consist of a single syllable (though a few consist of just a consonant) and never contain any consonant clusters.


===Orthography===
The following rules determine which onsets are possible:
Most of the orthography is clear from the tables above, however, the way "short" and "long" vowels are distinguished isn't. "Short" vowels are indicated by doubling the following consonant (which indeed is geminated). If there is no consonant to double (=if the vowel is at the end of a word), a macron is used to indicate its "shortness".
*S can be followed by any of p t g w n l.
*An obstruent other than q s z h can be followed by r.
*An obstruent other than q t d h can be followed by l.
*T d z can be followed by w.
*K can be followed by n.
*Ng does not occur at the beginning of a syllable.


==Morphology==
To codas the following rules apply:
===Nouns===
*There is no phonemic voicing contrast, but instead all syllable-final obstruents are voiceless by default. However, they may be optionally voiced if the following syllable starts with a voiced consonant.
Nouns don't have cases or genders, only numbers. The plural is usually made by adding -s to the end of the word. If it already ends in -s, -enn is added instead. However, a few nouns don't follow these rules and add -er instead, or don't change at all.
*P t k s can be preceded by r l s or a homorganic nasal consonant.
*H q do not occur at the end of a syllable.


===Adjectives===
In general, disyllabic roots consist of a syllable which would be a valid monosyllabic root followed by a sequence of a vowel and a consonant or just a vowel. In native roots, the only such sequences that are known to occur are /ər ɛrː ɪrː ɔlː ol ɪmː ɪsː ɛ ɪ ʏ oː/, and of these, /ɪmː ʏ oː/ are all restricted to a single root. In addition to the possible syllable-final cluster, /tj/ is also a possible medial cluster in disyllabic roots.
The comparative is formed by adding -err to the end of the adjective, while the superlative ends in -iss. If the adjective ends in a vowel, a -t- is inserted between the stem and the ending.


Any adjective can be turned into an adverb by adding -lyk. This is however only needed and done with adjectives that end in -ig.
There is a slight tendency to shorten disyllabic roots to monosyllabic ones. Occasionally this has created two variants of a single root, as in ''valt'' "go for a walk" and its derived noun ''vantl-ing'' "walk".


There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.
Some non-native or recently coined words break these rules. /tl/, which is realised as [tɬ] by most speakers, is a particularly common cluster in non-inherited vocabulary.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
==Verbs==
! Positive
===Conjugation===
! Comparative
====Weak verbs====
! Superlative
|-
| gut
| byterr
| bisst
|-
| fill
| mirr
| filless
|-
| ferr
| ferrtē
| firrst
|}
 
===Verbs===
====Regular verbs====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!  
!  
! "walk"
! "walk"
! "shoot"
! "shoot"
! "improve"
! "need"
! "leave"
|-
|-
! Present
! Present
| lop
| lop
| sgit
| sgit
| byterr
| bi-húf
| aus-dwyn, dwyn aus
|-
|-
! Past
! Past
| lop-ti
| lop-ti
| sgit-i
| sgit-<font color="red">i</font>
| byterr-ti
| bi-húf-ti
| aus-dwyn-ti, dwyn-ti aus
|-
|-
! Perfect
! Perfect
| gi-lop-t
| gi-lop-t
| gi-sgit
| gi-sgit-<font color="red">Ø</font>
| gi-byterr-t
| <font color="red">bi</font>-húf-t
| aus-gi-dwyn-t
|-
|-
! ''Byform''
! Ē-form
| lop-ē
| lop-ē
| sgit-ē
| sgit-ē
| byt<font color="red">r</font>-ē
| bi-hú<font color="red">v</font>-ē
| aus-dwyn-ē
|-
|-
! Present participle
! Present participle
| lop-nē
| lop-nē
| sgit-nē
| sgit-nē
| byt<font color="red">re</font>-nē
| bi-húf-nē
| aus-dw<font color="red">in</font>-nē
|-
|-
! Past participle
! Past participle
| gi-lop-t-nē
| gi-lop-t-nē
| gi-sgit-nē
| gi-sgit-<font color="red">Ø</font>-nē
| gi-byterr-t-nē
| <font color="red">bi</font>-húf-t-nē
| aus-gi-dwyn-t-nē
|}
There are a few minor irregularities (marked in red in the table above) which are all fully predictable:
* Verbs ending in -t don't add an extra t in the past and perfect forms.
* Verbs ending in -n do add an extra n in the present participle, causing the preceding vowel to become short. If this vowel is y, it becomes i. If the verb already has a short vowel, the participle is written with three consecutive n's, but there is no change in pronunciation.
* Verbs with a disyllabic root drop the second vowel in the ē-form and the present participle. In the latter form, this would result in an unpronounceable consonant cluster which is broken up by an /ə/ directly before the ending.
* If the stem ends in a short f or s, this final fricative becomes voiced in the ē-form.
* Verbs beginning with an unstressed prefix don't add an extra prefix in the perfect forms.
* Verbs beginning with a stressed prefix are separable. Depending on the context, the prefix may be separated from the stem in the present and past tenses, and in the perfect, the gi- prefix comes between the separable prefix and the stem.
 
The ē-form is used for several unrelated purposes and may be thought of as a variant present form.
 
====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs are conjugated just like weak verbs, but additionally feature some vowel changes. These vowel changes can be summarised like this.
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! Present
! Past
! Perfect
|-
| a
| i
| o
|-
| a
| i
| short i
|-
| e
| a
| o
|-
| e
| a
| short i
|-
| i
| a
| o
|-
| o
| i
| short i
|-
| y
| i
| short i
|}
|}
The ē-form of strong verbs always has either an y or a short i, depending on the length of the stem vowel. There are three verbs whose ē-form seemingly has the wrong vowel, namely ''zegg'' "say", whose ē-form is ''zygē'', ''stass'' "stand", whose ē-form may be either ''stissē'' or ''styzē'', and ''slap'' "sleep", whose ē-form ''slapē'' retains the stem vowel of the present tense.
Some examples:


Unfortunately, I don't know how the ''byform'' is called in English.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!
! "carry"
! "stand"
! "weigh"
! "read"
! "win"
! "come"
! "write"
|-
! Present
| barr
| stass
| veg
| les
| winn
| komm
| sgryf
|-
! Past
| birrti
| stissti
| vagti
| lasti
| wannti
| kimmti
| sgrifti
|-
! Perfect
| giborrt
| gistisst
| givogt
| gilisst
| giwonnt
| gikimmt
| gisgrifft
|-
! Ē-form
| birrē
| stissē/styzē
| vygē
| lyzē
| winnē
| kimmē
| sgryvē
|-
! Present participle
| barrnē
| stassnē
| vegnē
| lesnē
| winnnē
| kommnē
| sgryfnē
|-
! Past participle
| giborrtnē
| gistisstnē
| givogtnē
| gilisstnē
| giwonntnē
| gikimmtnē
| gisgrifftnē
|}


====Irregular verbs====
====Irregular verbs====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!  
!
! "be"
! "be"
! "have"
! "have"
! "eat"
! "go"
! "go"
! "give"
! "give"
! "eat"
! "know"
! "become"
|-
|-
! Present
! Present
| iss
| iss
| heppt
| heppt
| et
| ga
| ga
| gef
| gef
| et
| wet
| vort
|-
|-
! Past
! Past
| wast
| wast
| haptē
| haptē
| ati
| gigti
| gigti
| giffti
| giffti
| ati
| wati
| virti
|-
|-
! Perfect
! Perfect
| giassit
| giasst
| gihapt
| gihapt
| giotē
| gigisst
| gigisst
| gigifft
| gigifft
| giotē
| giwotē
| givirtē
|-
|-
! ''Byform''
! Ē-form
| zyt, zyti
| yē, zyt
| hypē
| hypē
| ytē
| gatē
| gatē
| gyvē
| gyvē
| ytē
| wytē
| vortē
|-
|-
! Present participle
! Present participle
| zytnē
| zytnē
| hepptnē
| hepptnē
| etnē
| gatnē
| gatnē
| gefnē
| gefnē
| etnē
| wetnē
| vortnē
|-
|-
! Past participle
! Past participle
| -
| wastnē
| hassnē
| gihaptnē
| gigisstnē
| gigifftnē
| giotnē
| giotnē
| -
| giwotnē
| gigifftnē
| givirtnē
|}
|}


===Pronouns===
''Iss'' has two distinct forms corresponding to the ē-forms of all other verbs. ''Yē'' is used as an infinitive, whereas ''zyt'' is used in subordinate clauses.
 
===Tenses===
Bearlandic has two simple tenses, two perfect tenses and two future tenses.
 
====Formation====
The formation of the present and the simple past is described above. The remaining four tenses are all formed periphrastically.
 
The perfect tenses are formed using the perfect form and an auxiliary, which depending on the verb can be either ''heppt'' or ''iss''. As a general rule, intransitive verbs use ''iss'', whereas transitive and impersonal verbs all use ''heppt''. The present perfect uses the present of the auxiliary, while the past perfect uses the past.
 
''Ig '''heppt''' a appoll '''giotē'''.''<br>
I '''have eaten''' an apple.
 
''Dē mann '''iss gilopt'''.''<br>
The man '''has walked'''.
 
''Dē '''heppt gisniwwt'''.''<br>
It '''has snowed'''.
 
Modal verbs take the same auxiliary as the main verb. The modal is put in the perfect form, while the main verb is put in the ē-form and preceded by ''oss''.
 
''Ig '''heppt gikusst''' oss ytē.''<br>
I '''have been able''' to eat.
 
''Dē mann '''iss gikusst''' oss lopē.''<br>
The man '''has been able''' to walk.
 
The prase ''dē zyt'' "there is" becomes ''dē zyt giasst'' in the present perfect.
 
''Dē '''zyt''' a pegging '''giasst'''.''<br>
There '''has been''' an accident.
 
The verb ''zʉll'' and its past form ''zʉllti'' are used to form the future and the future past respectively. These are both followed by the ē-form.
 
''Ig '''zʉll ytē'''.''<br>
I '''will eat'''.
 
''Anymann '''zʉllti''' bly '''yē'''.''<br>
''Everyone '''would be''' happy.''
 
====Usage====
 
===The passive===
The passive is formed with the verb ''vort'' and the perfect form.
 
''Dē appoll '''vort giotē'''.''<br>
''The apple '''is eaten'''.
 
In the perfect tenses, the perfect form of ''vort'' is optional and may be left out.
 
''Miess ferrpratter '''iss gidift (givirtē)'''.<br>
''My phone '''has been stolen'''.
 
===Modality===
Modality is expressed using a variety of modal auxiliary verbs. The main ones are basic auxiliaries ''kuss'' "can", ''mut'' "must", ''will'' "want", ''mogg'' "may", as well as ''tyē, yē, hyē, wylē'' and ''kynē'', which are remnants of old optative forms of ''tú'' "do", ''iss'' "be", ''heppt'' "have", ''will'' and ''kuss'' respectively.
 
After the basic auxiliaries one can choose between two possible constructions: SVOV using an ē-form and SVVO using the base form. These two constructions differ slightly in meaning in some contexts and are known as the "definite" and "uncertain" mood respectively. An optative may only be followed by an ē-form when used as an auxiliary. Thus one may say:
 
* ''Ig kuss dē túē.'' (definite)
* ''Ig kuss tú dē.'' (uncertain)
* ''Ig kynē dē túē.'' (optative)
 
The choice between these forms is a complicated matter and varies considerably between dialects and even between different speakers of the same dialect. Some guidelines are presented below, but the reader should bear in mind that the actual usage is considerably more complicated than can be shown here.
 
====''Kuss''====
''Kuss'' indicates an ability or a possibility. In affirmative sentences, it normally takes the definite mood.
 
''Ig '''kuss''' dē Bʉrnlannts '''prattē'''.''<br>
I '''can speak''' Bearlandic.
 
In negative sentences, the definite mood indicates a "stronger" impossibility that the uncertain mood.
 
''Hissē '''kuss nikkt flikē'''.''<br>
Houses '''cannot fly'''.
 
''Ig '''kuss nikkt les''' oss dē tē dorrk zyt.<br>
I '''can't read''' because it's too dark.
 
====''Mut''====
Just like ''kuss'', ''mut'' usually takes the definite mood in affirmative sentences.
 
''Ig '''mut''' oss itē '''slapē'''.''<br>
I '''should get''' some '''sleep'''.
 
In negative sentences, the definite mood indicates something which is disrecommendable, while the uncertain mood indicates something which is possible but not necessary.
 
''Man '''mut gyn''' rʉtig gʉmless '''ytē'''.<br>
You '''shouldn't eat''' rotten fruit.
 
====''Will''====
With ''will'', the definite mood implies determination or immediacy, whereas the uncertain mood may imply hesitation or hindrance.
 
''Ig '''will pratt''' oss emm, mar hi bigryf miess spraking nikkt.''<br>
I '''want to talk''' to him, but he doesn't understand my dialect.
 
====''Mogg''====
''Mogg'' usually indicates permission, but occasionally it may indicate a possibility instead. In affirmative sentences it usually takes the uncertain mood.
 
In negative sentences, it indicates something which is forbidden and typically takes the definite mood.
 
====The optative====
As mentioned above, there exist five synthetic optatives. All other optatives are made by using one of these as an auxiliary verb. Note that although ''wylē'' derives from the ancient optative of ''will'', it functions as a separate verb in modern Bearlandic rather than as a form of "want".
 
The optative can be used in several ways, two of which will be discussed in this section. Firstly, it may be used to express a wish. In this case, the optative verb comes at the beginning of the sentence, and ''tyē'' is used when the subject can control the action, whereas ''wylē'' is used when it can't.
 
'''''Yē''' hi oss hirr!''<br>
'''If only''' he '''were''' here!
 
'''''Tyē''' hi '''ytē'''!''<br>
'''May''' he '''eat'''!
 
'''''Wylē''' dē zoll '''sgynē'''!''<br>
'''May''' the sun '''shine'''!
 
The optative may also be used to express a possibility. In this case, the normal word order (SVOV) is used and the auxiliary verb is ''kynē''.
 
''Ig '''yē''' túpig.''<br>
I '''may be''' mad.
 
''Ig '''kynē''' dē '''túē'''.''<br>
I '''could do''' that.
 
The optative also appears in certain conditional clauses. These uses are explained [[#Conditionals|here]].
 
===Verbal prefixes===
Verbs can have up to two derivational prefixes. There are two types of prefixes: stressed prefixes, which are separable, and unstressed prefixes, which always remain attached to the root. A verb may have at most one prefix of either type, and when both are present, the stressed one comes first. Most are very productive and also very vague semantically.
 
*Stressed prefixes:
**''aus-'': this one generally marks the end of an action or a state.
***''mogg'' "be allowed to" -> ''ausmogg'' "forbid"
***''gygē'' "beard" -> ''ausgyg'' "shave" ("end the state of having a beard")
**''ferr-'': this one usually creates a causative verb.
***''dwyn'' "disappear" -> ''ferrdwyn'' "remove"
***''sgill'' "be different" -> ''ferrsgill'' "distinguish"
**''inn-'': this one generally indicates being or going inside, or the beginning of a state.
***''heppt'' "have" -> ''innhyf'' "contain" ("have inside")
***''vúr'' "bring" -> ''innvúr'' "bring in"
***''slap'' "sleep" -> ''innslap'' "fall asleep"
**''oss-'': this one usually marks either a causative verbs or the beginning of a state.
***''lag'' "laugh" -> ''osslag'' "be ridiculous, make someone laugh"
***''rʉtig'' "rotten" -> ''ossrʉt'' "rot"
**''yt-'': this one is no longer productive and its meaning is not yet well understood.
***''pratt'' "speak" -> ''ytpratt'' "pronounce"
*Unstressed prefixes:
**''bi-'': this one is very productive and can form verbs from any other word.
***''kopp'' "buy" -> ''bikopp'' "sell"
***''irrig'' "annoying" -> ''biirr'' "annoy"
***''kis'' "choose" -> ''bikis'' "vote"
***''straf'' "punishment" -> ''bistraf'' "punish"
***''siff'' "number" -> ''bisiff'' "calculate"
**''her-'': this one indicates a repetition.
***''tú'' "do" -> ''hertú'' "repeat"
***''wet'' "know" -> ''herwet'' "remember"
 
====Conjugation of prefixed verbs====
Verbs derived from other verbs are conjugated the same as their base verbs. The only exceptions to this rule are the verbs derived from ''iss'' and ''heppt'',  which become ''zyt'' and ''hyf'' respectively when a prefix is added. Both are then conjugated like weak verbs.
 
Verbs derived from other parts of speech are almost always weak, except if the base word has y as its stem vowel, in which case it is strong. Thus ''ossrʉt'' is weak while ''ausgyg'' is strong.
 
====Separation====
As mentioned, the stressed prefixes can be separated from the root. This happens in the main clause, whereas the prefix remains attached in subordinate clauses.
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Hi pratti miess nam fautlyk yt.
| gloss = 3SG.SUBJ speak-PST 1SG.POSS name wrong-ADV YT
| translation = He pronounced my name wrongly.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig bizaggti oss emm dass hi miess nam fautlyk ytpratti.
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ tell.PST to 3SG.OBJ that 3SG.SUBJ 1SG.POSS name wrong-ADV YT-speak-PST
| translation = I told him that he pronounced my name wrongly.
}}
 
==Nouns==
Nouns distinguish two numbers and are otherwise uninflected. A few ancient case forms survive in fixed expressions, all of them preceded by the preposition ''oss''.
 
===Pluralisation===
Most nouns form their plural by adding -s. If the noun ends in a short vowel, the plural suffix is a long -ss.
 
*''vogg'' "bird" > ''voggs'' "birds"
*''mann'' "man" > ''manns'' "men"
*''fingrī'' "finger" > ''fingriss'' "fingers"
 
A few nouns feature an irregular vowel change in the plural.
 
*''ze'' "sea" > ''zyess'' "seas"
*''sten'' "stone" > ''styness'' "stones"
*''ry'' "row" > ''ryess'' "rows"
*''kennī'' "dog" > ''kenniss'' "dogs"
 
The nouns which end in -s in the singular are all irregular. Three of them have a plural in -issē.
 
*''haus'' "house" > ''hissē'' "houses"
*''maus'' "mouse" > ''missē'' "mice"
*''voss'' "fox" > ''vissē'' "foxes"
 
The remaining native nouns ending in -s, as well as some thirty other irregular nouns, have plurals in -er.
 
*''fiss'' "fish" > ''fisser'' "fish"
*''bom'' "tree" > ''bomer'' "trees"
 
Nouns which end in -er in the singular have identical singular and plural forms.
 
*''jaggter'' "hunter" > ''jaggter'' "hunters"
 
===Nominalising suffixes===
The main nominalising suffixes are:
 
*''-ē'': an all-purpose noun suffix. Among the functions it can have are:
**Forming a noun meaning "person/thing with quality X" from an adjective: ''stirg'' "strong" -> ''a stirgē'' "a strong person", ''lykig'' "similar" -> ''a lykigē'' "something similar"
**Forming various kinds of associated nouns from various other parts of speech: ''knirr'' "cut with scissors" -> ''knirrē'' "scissors"
**Forming diminutives, often with highly idiomatic meanings and frequently accompanied by a vowel change: ''vogg'' "bird" -> ''vʉggē'' "feather"
**For many nouns ending in -ē, this ending has no meaning at all: ''atjē'' "bridge", ''hillvē'' "hill"
*''-hyt'': an abstract noun suffix, usually but not always added to adjectives to form a nouns referring a state:
**''bly'' "happy" -> ''blyhyt'' "happiness"
**''brútē'' "brother" -> ''brúthyt'' "family"
*''-ing'': an abstract noun suffix which is usually added to verbs:
**''kis'' "choose" -> ''kising'' "choice"
**''kopp'' "buy" -> ''kopping'' "trade"
*''-er'': forms a noun referring to either the person doing something or the instrument used for it
**''jaggt'' "hunt" -> ''jaggter'' "hunter"
**''sgit'' "shoot" -> ''sgiter'' "gun"
*''-ness'': technically not a single suffix but a pluralised nominalised participle. It forms collective nouns.
**''won'' "live, dwell" -> ''wonness'' "population"
**''burr'' "happen" -> ''giburrtness'' "history"
 
==Adjectives==
Adjectives are placed before the nouns they modify.
 
===Formation===
With a few exceptions, all adjectives end in the highly productive adjectivising suffix -ig. Adjectives derived from place names and names of ethnic groups end in -iess instead, and a closed class of native adjectives has no suffix at all.
 
A sizeable group of adjectives look like past participles, but are not derived from any actually existing verb. For example, ''ausgioggt(nē)'' "neutral" looks like it is the past participle of ''*ausogg'', but no such verb actually exists.
 
===Inflection===
Adjectives are inflected for three degrees of comparison. The positive is unmarked. The comparative and superlative are marked with the suffixes -err and -iss respectively, which become -terr and -tiss after vowels.
 
*''klyn'' "small" > ''klynerr'' "smaller" > ''klyniss'' "smallest"
*''mojj'' "beautiful" > ''mojjerr'' "more beautiful" > ''mojjiss'' "most beautiful"
*''kra'' "big" > ''kraterr'' "bigger" > ''kratiss'' "biggest"
 
There are three irregular adjectives.
 
*''gut'' "good" > ''byterr'' "better" > ''bisst'' "best"
*''fill'' "much/many" > ''mirr'' "more" > ''filless'' "most"
*''ferr'' "far" > ''ferrtē'' "further" > ''firrst'' "furthest"
 
Adverbs can be derived from adjectives using the suffix -lyk. Most adjectives not ending in -ig can be used as adverbs without first adding -lyk.
 
Participial adjectives, as well as ''wyg'' "few, little", have separate attributive and predicative forms. When used attributively, the end in -nē, while they have no ending when used predicatively. The citation form of these adjectives is the predicative from.
 
===Comparison===
In the formal standard language, comparisons of equality are expressed by ''ef ... solls''. However, in informal language, ''solls'' in this expression is often replaced by ''oss''.
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē bom iss ef kra solls dē haus.
| gloss = DEF tree be equally big as DEF house
| translation = The tree is as tall as the house
}}
 
Comparisons of inequality always use ''oss''.
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig iss auterr oss emm.
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ be old-COMP than 3SG.OBJ
| translation = I am older than him.
}}
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē missē iss minnig snell oss dē katt.
| gloss = DEF mouse.PL be less fast than DEF cat
| translation = The mice are not as fast as the cat.
}}
 
==Pronouns==
===Personal and possessive pronouns===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! Number
! colspan="2" |
! Person
! Subject
! Subject
! Object/Reflexive
! Object
! Possessive
! Possessive
|-
|-
! rowspan="5" | Singular
! colspan="2" | 1sg
! 1st
| ig
| ig
| mi
| mi
| miess
| miess
|-
|-
! 2nd
! colspan="2" | 2sg
| ji
| ji /jɪ/
| ji
| ji /jɪ/
| jiess
| jiess
|-
|-
! 3rd masculine
! rowspan="3" | 3sg
! Masculine
| hi
| hi
| emm, zigg
| emm, zigg
| hiess
| hiess
|-
|-
! 3rd feminine
! Feminine
| zē
| zē
| zy, zigg
| zy, zigg
| zess
| zess
|-
|-
! 3rd neuter
! Neuter
| dē
| dē
| dē, zigg
| dē, zigg
| dess
| dess
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural
! colspan="2" | 1pl
! 1st
| wi
| wi
| oss
| oss
| oss
| oss
|-
|-
! 2nd
! colspan="2" | 2pl
| jis
| jis
| jis
| jis
| jisiss
| jisiss
|-
|-
! 3rd
! rowspan="2" | 3pl
! Human
| zess
| hʉn, zess, zy
| hʉness, zess
|-
! Non-human
| zess
| zess, zy
| zess
| zess
| hunn, zy
| hʉn
|}
|}
''Zigg'' and ''zy'' are singular and plural reflexive pronouns respectively. ''Hʉn'' and ''hʉness'' are mainly used for emphasis, and tend to be replaced by ''zess'' in other contexts.


===Articles===
The gender distinction in the third person singular is based purely on natural gender. Children and animals of unknown gender may be referred to by ''dē'', but for teenagers and adults of unknown gender it is more common to use ''hi'' as a gender-neutral pronoun.
There are two articles, the definite article ''dē'' and the indefinite article ''a''.
 
===Relative pronouns===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!
! Without preposition
! With preposition
|-
! Person
| colspan="2" | wē
|-
! Thing
| dē
| dy
|-
! Several things
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" | dy
|-
! Sentence
|-
! "that which"
|}


===Numerals===
===Other pronouns===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!
! Which
! This
! That
! All
! Some
! None
|-
! Determiner
| willg
| rowspan="2" | ditt, dē
| rowspan="2" | di, dē
| all, anē
| somm, imig, itig
| gyn
|-
! Thing
| wass
| all, alltingiss
| itiss
| nikktitiss, nytitiss, nitiss
|-
! Person
| wi
| colspan="2" | hi, zē, zess
| anmann, all
| imann, imē
| nimē, nytimē
|-
! Place
| warr
| hirr
| dirr
| oss allpē
| irgiss
| nytirgiss, nirgiss
|-
! Time
| wann
| nu
| tann
| alltyt
| oss ojjē
| nauter
|-
! Reason
| werrmē
| colspan="2" | darross, derrmē
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#DDDDDD" |
|-
! Manner
| hu, hulyk
| colspan="2" | zoss, solls dē
|}
''Ditt'' and ''di'' are used less often than "this" and "that" in English.
The determiners ''all'' and ''somm'' cannot be followed by a singular countable noun; they have to be followed by either a plural noun or an uncountable one. ''Anē'', ''imig'' and ''itig'' on the other hand can only be followed by a singular noun. ''Imig'' is only used before nouns referring to people, whereas ''itig'' is only used before other nouns.
''Alltingiss'' is an emphatic variant of ''all'' in the sense of "everything".
''All'' in the sense of "everyone" is dialectal and tends to be avoided in formal speech and writing.
The short forms ''nitiss'' and ''nirgiss'' of the negative pronouns are colloquial, and in many situations the full forms are preferred. By contrast, the short form ''nimē'' is generally preferred to the somewhat archaic ''nytimē''.
''solls dē'' generally refers to something more concrete than ''zoss''.
==Numerals==
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!
! x
! 10x
! Ordinal
|-
! 1
! 1
| a
| a
| tinn
| astē, atiss
|-
|-
! 2
! 2
| to
| to
| totē
| tostē
|-
|-
! 3
! 3
| tri
| tri
| tritē
| tristē
|-
|-
! 4
! 4
| forr
| forr
| forrtē
| forrstē
|-
|-
! 5
! 5
| vy
| vy
| vytē
| vystē
|-
|-
! 6
! 6
| zett
| zett
| zetttē
| zettstē
|-
|-
! 7
! 7
| safē
| safē
| saftē
| safstē
|-
|-
! 8
! 8
| ottjo
| ottjo
| otttē
| ottstē
|-
|-
! 9
! 9
| nippē
| nippē
| nipptē
| nippstē
|-
|-
! 10
! 10
| tinn
| tinn
|-
! 11
| atinn
|-
! 12
| totinn
|-
! 20
| totē
|-
! 21
| atotē
|-
! 30
| tritē
|-
! 40
| forrtē
|-
! 50
| vytē
|-
! 60
| zetttē
|-
! 70
| saftē
|-
! 80
| otttē
|-
! 90
| nipptē
|-
! 100
| horrt
| horrt
|-
| tinnstē
! 1000
| dass
|}
|}
Note: ''otttē'' derives from an earlier ''ottjotē''.
Words for higher numbers are ''dass'' "thousand" and ''millē'' "million".


Ordinal numbers are made by adding -stē. If a number ends in -ē, that -ē is dropped, so "first" is "astē" and "seventh" is "safstē". The -ē is however not left out in "zettēstē", as it otherwise would sound the same as "zettstē".
Numbers from 11-99 are expressed as units-tens. Multiples of hundred and thousand are expressed as compounds, but ''millē'' behaves as a noun and needs to be pluralised when making multiples of it. Numbers above 100 are formed by placing the parts of it after each other, starting with the largest number.


==Syntax==
*''toforrtē'' 42
Bearlandic normally has a SVO word order, but questions have a VSO order. Any constituent can be placed in front of the verb to add emphasis, but there can only be one constituent (which includes subordinate clauses) before the verb, which means that the subject is moved to after the verb when another constituent, or a subclause, is placed before the verb.
*''horrt atotē'' 121
*''nippēdass nippēhorrt nippēnipptē'' 9999
*''to milless'' 2,000,000
*''zetttinn milless vyhorrtnippētinndass trihorrt safēnipptē'' 16,519,397
 
Ordinals are formed by adding -stē to the last part: ''forrhorrt tonipptēstē'' "492nd".
 
Non-final ē in numerals is usually pronounced as /ə/.
 
==Compounding==
Compounds can be made freely and are always head-last. There are several types:
* Noun-noun:
** ''bʉk'' "book" + ''haus'' "house" -> ''bʉkhaus'' "library"
* Verb-noun:
** ''slap'' "to sleep" + ''kammerr'' "room" -> ''slapkammerr'' "bedroom"
Adjective-noun compounds can be used when the adjective describes a typical quality.
 
Either part of a compound can in itself also be a compound, thus a compound can theoretically be infinitely long. Long compounds do however have some complications:
* Noun-noun-noun compounds can be slightly ambiguous as to whether it's compound-noun or noun-compound. They can sometimes be disambiguated by context or meaning, but sometimes a workaround is needed.
* In an adjective-noun-noun compound, the adjective refers to the first noun only, whereas when the adjective is used as a separate word, it refers to the entire compound.
 
==Word order==
===Sentence===
Bearlandic normally has SVO and V2 word order, but questions have a VSO order. Any constituent can be placed in front of the verb to add emphasis, but because of the V2 word order, the subject will have to be moved to directly after the verb.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss a sgiter.
| phrase = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss a sgiter.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin ɔsː a ˈsxiːtər/
| gloss = The hunter shoot the rabbit with a gun
| morphemes = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss a sgiter.
| gloss = The hunter shoot the rabbit with a gun.
| translation = The hunter shoots the rabbit with a gun.
| translation = The hunter shoots the rabbit with a gun.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Oss a sgiter sgit dē jaggter dē konin.
| phrase = Oss a sgiter sgit dē jaggter dē konin.
| IPA = /ɔsː a ˈsxiːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ˈkoːnin/
| morphemes = Oss a sgiter sgit dē jaggter dē konin.
| gloss = With a gun shoot the hunter the rabbit.
| gloss = With a gun shoot the hunter the rabbit.
| translation = With a gun, the hunter shoots the rabbit.
| translation = With a gun, the hunter shoots the rabbit.
}}
The object is usually not fronted; instead the passive is usually used. However, since pronouns distinguish between subject and object forms, if either the subject or the object (or both) is a pronoun, an OVS construction will be used.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē konin vort oss dē jaggter gisgit.
| gloss = The rabbit become by the hunter PERF-shoot-PERF.
| translation = The rabbit is shot by the hunter with a gun.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Oss dē a konin zyt sgit dē jaggter dē oss a sgiter.
| phrase = Dē konin sgit ig.
| IPA = /ɔsː dɛ a ˈkoːnin ˈzɛɪ̯t ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ɔsː a sxiːtər/
| gloss = The rabbit shoot I.
| morphemes = Oss dē a konin zyt sgit dē jaggter dē oss a sgiter.
| translation = The rabbit I shoot.
| gloss = If 3SG be.BYF a rabbit shoot the hunter 3SG with a gun.
| translation = If there is a rabbit, the hunter shoots it with a gun.
}}
}}


The object is rarely fronted. Instead the passive is used:
===Noun phrase===
Within the noun phrase the word order is determiner - number - adjective(s) - noun - modifying phrase, where the modifying phrase may be either a relative clause or a prepositional phrase. A single noun phrase may contain several adjectives, though all other elements can appear only once.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē konin vort oss dē jaggter oss a sgiter gisgit.
| phrase = dē tri klyn witt hissē inn dē tarrp
| IPA = /dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈvoːrt ɔsː dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ɔsː a ˈsxiːtər ɣiˈsxiːt/
| gloss = the three small white house.PL in the village
| morphemes = Dē konin vort oss dē jaggter oss a sgiter gi-sgit.
| translation = the three small white houses in the village
| gloss = The rabbit PASS by the hunter with a gun PERF-shoot.
}}
| translation = The rabbit is shot by the hunter with a gun.
 
==Complex sentences==
===Subordinate clauses===
Subordinate clauses always begin with a subordinating word, which, depending on the type of clause, is either a conjunction or a relative pronoun, and can be preceded by a preposition. Just like modal verbs, subordinate clauses distinguish between definite, uncertain and optative moods.
 
====Complement clauses====
Complement clauses begin with the conjunction ''dass'', which becomes ''dy'' after prepositions. Unlike in English, the conjunction cannot be left out. Usually the definite mood is used in complement clauses.
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet dass hi a yzēpart hypē.
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ know that 3SG.M.SUBJ INDEF car have.INF
| translation = I know (that) he has a car.
}}
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig iss zykrig oss dy ji dē wytē.
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ be certain PREP that 2SG 3SG.N know.INF
| translation = I am certain that you know that.
}}
}}


If there is more than one verb in the sentence, there are two possibile constructions: one with an SVVO and one with an SVOV order.
====Indirect questions====
Indirect yes-no questions are introduced by ''oss dy''.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter will sgit dē konin.
| phrase = Ig wet nikkt oss dy dē a prʉlē zyt.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjaxːtər ˈʋɪlː ˈsxiːt dɛ koːnin/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ know not PREP that 3SG.N INDEF problem be.DEF
| morphemes = Dē jaggter will sgit dē konin.
| translation = I don't know if that's a problem.
| gloss = The hunter want shoot the rabbit.
| translation = The hunter wants to shoot the rabbit.
}}
}}
Indirect open questions can be formed in two ways:
* ''oss dy'' + interrogative pronoun
* interrogative pronoun + ''dy''


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter will dē konin sgitē.
| phrase = Hi frigti oss mi warr dy dē pispott dē zyti.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjaxːtər ˈʋɪlː dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈsxiːtɛ/
| gloss = 3SG.M.SUBJ ask.PST PREP 1SG.OBJ where that DEF toilet PT exist-PST
| morphemes = Dē jaggter will dē konin sgit-ē.
| translation = He asked me where the toilet was.
| gloss = The hunter want the rabbit shoot-BYF.
| translation = The hunter wants to shoot the rabbit.
}}
}}


Note the use of a ''byform'' in the second sentence.  
====Relative clauses====
Relative clauses start with a [[#Relative pronouns|relative pronoun]]. The pronoun is followed by the subject of the clause (if it isn't the same as the antecedent), which in turn is followed by the verb.
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē mann wē plʉkti dē fiss iss stoppig.
| gloss = DEF man REL.HUM catch-PST DEF fish be stupid
| translation = The man who caught the fish is stupid.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = Hi heppt dē fiss dē hi plʉkti giotē.
| gloss = 3SG.M.SUBJ have DEF fish REL.NHUM 3SG.M.SUBJ catch-PST eat.PERF
| translation = He has eaten the fish he caught.
}}


===Subordinate clauses===
Since the position of the verb within a relative clause is determined by strict rules, so is the choice of the verb form. In the present tense, an ē-form is used if the verb is the last word in the clause, while otherwise the ordinary present is used.
In subordinate clauses the verb can generally be placed either directly after the first constituent or at the end:


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet dass dē jaggter sgit dē konin.
| phrase = Ig tú dy ig willē.
| IPA = /ix ˈʋeːt dɑsː dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ do that.which 1SG.SUBJ want-INF
| morphemes = Ig wet dass dē jaggter sgit dē konin.
| translation = I do what I want.
| gloss = I know that the hunter shoot the rabbit.
| translation = I know that the hunter shoots the rabbit.
}}
}}
====Conditional and causal clauses====
Conditional and causal clauses both start with the conjunction ''oss'', but are distinguished from one another by the choice of moods.
===Participial phrases===
A participial phrase consists of the preposition ''oss'' and a participle and functions as a kind of temporal or adverbial clause. A subject may be specified, in which case it comes between ''oss'' and the participle. If no subject is specified, the subject of the participial phrase is taken to be the same as the sentence's subject.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet dass dē jaggter dē konin sgitē.
| phrase = Oss zangnē lopti wi nass haus.
| IPA = /ix ˈʋeːt dɑsː dɛ ˈjaxːtər dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈsxiːtɛ/
| gloss = PREP sing-PTC walk-PST 1PL.SUBJ to house
| morphemes = Ig wet dass dē jaggter dē konin sgit-ē.
| translation = While singing, we walked home.
| gloss = I know that the hunter the rabbit shoot-BYF
| translation = I know that the hunter shoots the rabbit.
}}
}}


When there is more than one verb in the subordinate clause there are three different possible word orders: one in which the verbs are placed direclty after the first constituent, and two in which the verbs are placed at the end.
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet dass dē jaggter will sgit dē konin.
| phrase = Oss mi zangnē lopti wi nass haus.
| IPA = /ix ˈʋeːt dɑsː dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈʋɪlː ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin/
| gloss = PREP 1SG.OBJ sing-PTC walk-PST 1PL.SUBJ to house
| morphemes = Ig wet dass dē jaggter will sgit dē konin.
| translation = While I was singing, we walked home.
| gloss = I know that the hunter want shoot the rabbit.
| translation = I know that the hunter wants to shoot the rabbit.
}}
}}
Participial phrases can also have objects and adverbial phrases, both of which follow the participle. Having multiple modifiers within a single participial phrase is considered awkward and is best avoided.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet dass dē jaggter dē konin will sgitē.
| phrase = Hi zitti oss dirr oss lesnē a bʉk.
| IPA = /ix ˈʋeːt dɑsː dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈʋɪlː ˈsxiːtɛ/
| gloss = 3SG.SUBJ sit-PST PREP there PREP read-PTC INDEF book
| morphemes = Ig wet dass dē jaggter dē konin will sgit-ē.
| translation = He sat there, reading a book.
| gloss = I know that the hunter the rabbit want shoot-BYF.
| translation = I know that the hunter wants to shoot the rabbit.
}}
}}
===Independent infinitives===
Infinitives can be used as nouns. Just like participial phrases, independent infinitives can be followed by objects and adverbs, though they cannot have a subject.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet dass dē jaggter dē konin sgitē willē.
| phrase = Ytē gʉmless iss gut oss dē zaning.
| IPA = /ix ʋeːt dɑsː dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈsxiːtɛ ˈʋɪlːɛ/
| gloss = eat.INF fruit-PL be good for DEF health
| morphemes = Is wet dass dē jaggter dē konin sgit-ē will-ē.
| translation = Eating fruit is good for your health.
| gloss = I know that the hunter the rabbit shoot-BYF want-BYF.
| translation = I know that the hunter wants to shoot the rabbit.
}}
}}


The word ''oss'' can have many different meanings. When it is a conjunction, the meaning is determined by the word order in the clause:
==Negation==
Sentences are negated by means of a variety of negative words. The most basic negator is the adverb ''nikkt'' "not", which is usually placed after the object, or after the verb if there is no object.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss dē iss hiess verking.
| phrase = Hi ziti dē mann nikkt.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin ɔsː dɛ ˈɪsː ˈhiːɛsː veːrkiŋ/
| gloss = 3SG.SUBJ see-PST DEF man not
| morphemes = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss dē iss hiess verking.
| translation = He didn't see the man.
| gloss = The hunter shoot the rabbit if it be his job.
| translation = The hunter shoots the rabbit if it's his job.
}}
}}
Sentences with indefinite objects, however, are negated with ''gyn'' "no, none" instead.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss dē hiess verking zyt.
| phrase = Miess brútē lif gyn vyn.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin ɔsː dɛ ˈhiːɛsː ˈveːrkiŋ ˈzɛɪ̯t/
| gloss = 1SG.POSS brother like no wine
| morphemes = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss dē hiess verking zyt.
| translation = My brother doesn't like wine.
| gloss = The hunter shoot the rabbit because it his job be.BYF.
| translation = The hunter shoots the rabbit because it's his job.
}}
}}


===Questions===
When a negative pronoun is used, no other negator has to be used.
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet nikktitiss oss dē talllirring.
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ know nothing about DEF linguistics.
| translation = I know nothing about linguistics.
}}
 
==Questions==
Yes-no questions are made by inverting the subject and the verb and raising the tone:
Yes-no questions are made by inverting the subject and the verb and raising the tone:


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Sxit dē jaggter dē konin?
| phrase = Pratt ji dē Bʉrnlannts?
| IPA = /ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ˈkóːnin/
| gloss = speak 2SG DEF Bearlandic
| morphemes = Sxit dē jaggter dē konin?
| translation = Do you speak Bearlandic?
| gloss = Shoot the hunter the rabbit?
| translation = Does the hunter shoot the rabbit?
}}
}}


Line 543: Line 1,063:


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Wi sgiti dē konin?
| phrase = Wass tú ji?
| IPA = /ˈʋi ˈsxiːti dɛ ˈkónin/
| gloss = what do 2SG
| morphemes = Wi sgit-ti dē konin?
| translation = What are you doing?
| gloss = Who shoot-PAST the rabbit?
}}
| translation = Who shot the rabbit?
 
In questions, ''iss'', ''kuss'' and ''will'' usually appear in their optative forms ''yē'', ''kynē'' and ''wylē''. The latter two are used to make polite requests or offers.
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Yē dē a maktall?
| gloss = be.OPT 3SG.N INDEF conlang
| translation = Is that a conlang?
}}
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Kynē ji mi hellfē?
| gloss = can.OPT 2SG 1SG.OBJ help-INF
| translation = Could you help me?
}}
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Wylē ji itiss oss ytē?
| gloss = want.OPT 2SG something PREP eat-INF
| translation = Would you like something to eat?
}}
 
The particle ''nyē'' can be placed at the end of a sentence to form a tag question.
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ji pratt gyn Kunyziess, nyē?
| gloss = 2SG speak none Kunesian Q
| translation = You don't speak Kunesian, do you?
}}
 
==''Dē zyt''==
The phrase ''dē zyt'' "there is, exist" behaves a bit oddly syntactically. The word ''dē'' is treated as the subject, while the thing that exists behaves as an object.
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē zyt a haus.
| gloss = PT exist a house.
| translation = there is a house.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = Mi zyt dē.
| gloss = 1SG.OBJ exist PT
| translation = I exist.
}}
==Samples==
===The North Wind and the Sun===
Dē Norrtwinnt enn dē Sonn wast toig oss dy wi stirgiss wast. Oss dē tythyt kimmti a lauf wē barrti a warrm klúk oss dē vegg, enn zess avirti oss dass hi wē oss atiss kussti bitúē dass dē lauf hiess klúk austúti solls dē stirgissē gisgaut zʉllti vortē. Tann blissti dē Norrtwinnt ef hart solls dē kussti, mar oss dē harterr blissti túti dē lauf hiess klúk byigerr oss, enn oss dē ynt ferrgifti dē dē pogging. Tann bisgynti dē Sonn hilliglyk warrm oss dess lygess, enn dellyk túti dē lauf hiess klúk aus enn wast dē Norrtwinnt ferrgimut oss bizeggē dass dē sonn dē stirgissē wast oss hʉn to.
The North Wind and the Sun were disputing who was the strongest. At that moment, a traveller who wore a warm cloak came on the road, and they agreed that he who first could make the traveller take off his cloak would be considered the strongest. Then The North Wind blew as hard as it could, but the harder it blew the more closely the traveller wrapped the cloak around him, and at last it gave up the attempt. Then the Sun let its rays shine very warmly, and immediately the traveller took off his cloak and the North Wind was forced to admit that the Sun was the strongest of the two.
===A bit of history===
Oss dē a tingī zyti dē dē norrtig stattryks nikkt willti, wast dē ausgikrygt vortē oss dē Niwryk. Enn oss dē a tingī zytī dē dē Niwryk jagglyk willti, wast dē auskrygē dē norrtig stattryks. A kryg zʉllti kommē, mar wann?
Wyl dē kryg dē nikkt zyti makti dē norrtig stattryks grautig bihellfighyts. Kra murs fisgynti oss dē nikktitiss allig oss dē lannt enn oss sgillig plikks virti wasssgillts gimakt oss stoppē dē fikess. Oss dē tyt virti dē bihellfighyts gibyterrt enn oss zellig virti dē auslanntig veggs ferrgisligt. Oss yntighyt virti dē auslannt a sorrtig dwalstatt. Oss snell tyt wast dē bynē nitkunnig oss finntē dē vegg tʉssig oss dē statts. Zell dē dirrig manns bidwalti, enn fann nu wast difer dē lytness oss dē auslannt.
Dē statts makti oss zesszell aug bihellfighyts: dē graut vorrbylt oss dē iss dē statt Westēfúrt. Dirr virti oss atiss a fúrt gibaut oss sgilltē oss a dirrig lyter. Natig oss dē grúti a klyn statt ronnig oss dē fúrt enn darros virti niw murs gibaut. A mur virti nikkt oss nugig gidenkt, oss allig virti tri murs gibaut, enn tʉssig oss zess zyti dē wasssgillts enn fills.
Wann dē krygness oss dē Niwryk kimmti zyti dē dass dē bihellfighyts dē nikkt oss nititiss zyti: zess virti ausgilslomt, enn dē fillē virti gidot oss dē difer enn dē pylsgiter oss dē murs. Mar dē zyti a kra prʉl oss dē follk: dē etgyving wast sammig oss dē veggs ferrgisligt. Darross zyti dē minnig oss minnig oss ytē, enn dē makti dē follk wyg. Dē verletigti dē winnē oss dē Niwryk.
Ausgislomt virti dē stattryks ausgikrygt. Dē klyn tarrps wast dē letigess oss auskrygē, dʉs zess wast aug de astē oss vortē ausgikrygt. Oss dē nu hilliglyk gyn búrs oss mirr zyti wē dē statts kussti bivútē ginnti a haping inn zess. Wylig oss dē poggti dē Niwryk oss ausbrykē dē murs oss inngatē dē krygness inn dē statts. Nat tyt virti aug dē statts ausgikrygt. Oss ynt virti virti Kyrgeffstatt, dē latiss bizytnē stattryk, ausgikrygt.
Dē hillig ylanntgrúp wast oss dē niwē agivirtē oss a kiksryk.
If there was one thing that the northern city-states did not want, it was to be conquered by the New Kingdom. And if there was one thing that the New Kingdom ''did'' want, it was to conquer the northern city-states. A war was to come, but when?
While the war hadn't started yet the northern city-states made impressive defenses. Great walls appeared all over the land and at several spots canals were dug to stop the enemies. Over time the defenses were improved and at the same time the roads got worse. Eventually the countryside literally became a labyrinth. Soon it had become nearly impossible to find a way between the cities. Even the local people got lost, and from now on bandits ruled the countryside.
The cities themselves also made defenses. The great example of this is the city of Westēfúrt. A fortress wast built there to protect a local chief. Afterwards a small town arose around the fortress and new walls were built. One wall wasn't considered enough, in total three walls were built, and between them there were moats and traps.
When the troops of the New Kingdom came it became clear that the defenses hadn't been completely useless: they were slowed down, and many were killed by the bandits and the archers on top of the walls. But the was one big problem for the people: the food supply had become worse together with the roads. Therefore there was increasingly less to eat, and that made the people weak. This made it easier to win for the New Kingdom.
Slowly the city-states were conquered. The smaller villages were the easiest to conquer, so they were also the first ones to be conquered. As there were no farmers at all who could feed the cities a famine began. In the meantime the New Kingdom tried to destroy the walls to let their warriors go inside the cities. After a while the cities were conquered as well. At last Krygeffstatt, the last remaining city-state, was conquered.
The whole archipelago was united in one kingdom again.


==Sample==
===A random sentence===
Dē fillgikentnē mann hermakti miess aut enn itig mojj bot nat dē pabrúr oss a stoppig mys dē oss pegging oss a aut zworrt zwart gisgat haptē.
Dē fillgikentnē mann hermakti miess aut enn itig mojj bot nat dē pabrúr oss a stoppig mys dē oss pegging oss a aut zworrt zwart gisgat haptē.


The well-known man repaired my old and quite beautiful boat after a stupid girl's uncle by accident had damaged it with an old black sword.
The well-known man repaired my old and quite beautiful boat after a stupid girl's uncle by accident had damaged it with an old black sword.


[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Languages]]
Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/14754...230159"