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Kimmig: a [[/Vocabulary|ellpossgirytnē]] enn a [[/Thematic dictionary|prattdúlig]] worrtliss.
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|creator = User:Dē Graut Bʉr
|image =  
|image =  
|imagesize =  
|imagesize =  
|name = Bearlandic
|name = Bearlandic
|nativename = ''Bʉrnlannts''
|nativename = Bʉrnlannts
|pronunciation=  /ˈbœːrnlɑnːts/
|pronunciation=  ˈbœːrnlɑnːts
|region =  
|region =  
|states =  
|states =  
|speakers = Approximately 20 million  
|speakers = ~20 million  
|date = 2653
|date = 2653
|familycolor=
|familycolor=conlang
|family=Iropo-Antilonian languages
|fam1 = Iropo-Antilonian languages
* Berilonian languages
|fam2 = Berilonian languages
** Western Berilonian languages
|fam3 = Western Berilonian languages
*** '''Bearlandic'''
|ancestor=Old Bearlandic
|ancestor=Old Bearlandic
|script=''Unnamed alphabet''
|scripts= * Berilonian alphabet, western style
|agency=
|iso1=
|iso2=
|iso3=
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
}}
}}


==Background==
==Background==
Bearlandic (''Bʉrnlannts'', IPA: /ˈbœːrnlɑnːts/) is one of many languages of the planet which is called Virrolt in Bearlandic. The language belongs to the Berilonian language family, which in its turn is a branch of the Iropo-Antilonian language family.
Bearlandic (''Bʉrnlannts'', IPA: /ˈbœːrnlɑnːts/) is one of many languages of the planet which is called ''dē Virrolt'' in Bearlandic. The language belongs to the Berilonian language family, which in its turn is a branch of the Iropo-Antilonian language family.


Spoken natively by approximately 20 million people, it is one of the most spoken Berilonian languages. It is also one of the major lingua francas of the world, so it also has millions of second-language speakers.
Spoken natively by approximately 20 million people, it is one of the most spoken Berilonian languages. It is also one of the major lingua francas of the world, so it also has millions of second-language speakers. Most speakers can pretend to speak [[Antilonian]] (another Berilonian language) as well, and many also know a few words in random other languages such as [[Kunesian]].
 
"Coincidentally", it is very similar to real-world Germanic languages, in particular to Dutch, which happens to be the creator's native language. However, it is not a member of the Germanic language family, but is instead related to various languages which do not bear such similarities to real-world languages.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Line 103: Line 103:


Coda consonants may be voiced when the following syllable begins with a voiced consonant.
Coda consonants may be voiced when the following syllable begins with a voiced consonant.
Most speakers have [ɬ] as an allophone of /l/, though the exact conditioning of this allophony varies considerably. In the cluster /tl/, the [ɬ] allophone is nearly universal, and the pronunciation of /lh/ as [ɬ], though less common, is also found all over the country. In a few places scattered across the country one may hear [sɬ] or even [ɬ] for /sl/, and in the east, some people devoice /l/ in any cluster involving voiceless consonants.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! style="width: 90px; "|
!  
! style="width: 90px; " |Front
! Front
! style="width: 90px; " |Near-front
! Rounded
! style="width: 90px; " |Central
! Back
! style="width: 90px; " |Near-back
! style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
! style="" |Close
| i u /i y/
|
|
|
| ú /u/
|-
! style="" |Near-close
|
| i u /ɪ ʏ/
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Close-mid
| e /e/
|
|
|
| o /o/
|-
! style="" |Mid
|
|
| e /ə/
|
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
! High
| e ʉ /ɛ œ/
| i /ɪ iː/
|  
| u /ʏ yː/
|  
| ú /uː/
|
| o /ɔ/
|-
|-
! style="" |Near-open
! Mid
|
| e /ɛ eː/
|
| ʉ /œ œː/
|  
| o /ɔ oː/
|  
|  
|-
|-
! style="" |Open
! Low
| a /a/
| colspan="3" | a /ɑ aː/
|
|
|
| a /ɑ/
|}
|}
Short vowels are followed by long consonants and vice versa. Orthographically, vowel length is indicated by the doubling of the following consonant. Word-finally, short vowels are marked with a macron.


There are two diphthongs: y, pronounced /ɛɪ̯/ and au, pronounced /aʊ̯/. Just like long vowels, they are always followed by a short consonant.


Bearlandic distinguishes "short" (ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʏ) and "long" (a e i o y) vowels. However, the "long" vowels are actually only pronounced long when they're stressed. Ú and Ʉ (/u/ and /œ/) are usually considered to be neither short nor long, but are, just like the "long" vowels, pronounced long when they're stressed (except when followed by a geminated consonant) and short otherwise.
In affixes, which are always unstressed, /iː/ is shortened to /i/.
 
There are two diphthongs: y, pronounced /ɛɪ̯/ and au, pronounced /aʊ̯/.


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Bearlandic allows fairly complex syllables, which can begin in up to three and end in up to four consonants, making the maximal syllable structure (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C). The last consonant of final clusters with four consonants is always an -s, as is the first consonant of an initial cluster with three consonants. Note that geminated consonants count as single consonants, and can only appear directly after vowels.
Bearlandic roots consist of one or two syllables and allow clusters of up to three consonants. Affixes usually consist of a single syllable (though a few consist of just a consonant) and never contain any consonant clusters.
 
===Orthography===
Most of the orthography is clear from the tables above, however, the way "short" and "long" vowels are distinguished isn't. "Short" vowels are indicated by doubling the following consonant (which indeed is geminated). If there is no consonant to double (=if the vowel is at the end of a word), a macron is used to indicate its "shortness".


==Morphology==
The following rules determine which onsets are possible:
===Nouns===
*S can be followed by any of p t g w n l.
Nouns don't have cases or genders, only numbers. The plural can be made in three different ways:
*An obstruent other than q s z h can be followed by r.
*An obstruent other than q t d h can be followed by l.
*T d z can be followed by w.
*K can be followed by n.
*Ng does not occur at the beginning of a syllable.


# Adding -s
To codas the following rules apply:
# Adding -en
*There is no phonemic voicing contrast, but instead all syllable-final obstruents are voiceless by default. However, they may be optionally voiced if the following syllable starts with a voiced consonant.
# Adding -er
*P t k s can be preceded by r l s or a homorganic nasal consonant.
*H q do not occur at the end of a syllable.


The first class contains by far most nouns. The second class contains almost all nouns that end in -s (except a few with -er plurals). The third class consists of about twenty irregular nouns, and also includes all nouns ending in -er, which have identical singular and plural forms. Note that the third class does ''not'' include nouns ending in -err.
In general, disyllabic roots consist of a syllable which would be a valid monosyllabic root followed by a sequence of a vowel and a consonant or just a vowel. In native roots, the only such sequences that are known to occur are /ər ɛrː ɪrː ɔlː ol ɪmː ɪsː ɛ ɪ ʏ oː/, and of these, /ɪmː ʏ oː/ are all restricted to a single root. In addition to the possible syllable-final cluster, /tj/ is also a possible medial cluster in disyllabic roots.


===Adjectives===
There is a slight tendency to shorten disyllabic roots to monosyllabic ones. Occasionally this has created two variants of a single root, as in ''valt'' "go for a walk" and its derived noun ''vantl-ing'' "walk".
The comparative is formed by adding -err to the end of the adjective, while the superlative ends in -iss. If the adjective ends in a vowel, a -t- is inserted between the stem and the ending.


Any adjective can be turned into an adverb by adding -lyk. This is however only needed and done with adjectives that end in -ig.
Some non-native or recently coined words break these rules. /tl/, which is realised as [tɬ] by most speakers, is a particularly common cluster in non-inherited vocabulary.
 
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
==Verbs==
! Meaning
===Conjugation===
! Positive
====Weak verbs====
! Comparative
! Superlative
|-
! "good"
| gut
| byterr
| bisst
|-
! "many"
| fill
| mirr
| filless
|-
! "far"
| ferr
| ferrtē
| firrst
|}
 
===Verbs===
====Regular verbs====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!  
!  
Line 227: Line 169:
| sgit
| sgit
| byterr
| byterr
| bihúf
| bi-húf
| ausdwyn, dwyn aus
| aus-dwyn, dwyn aus
|-
|-
! Past
! Past
| lop-ti
| lop-ti
| sgit-i
| sgit-<font color="red">i</font>
| byterr-ti
| byterr-ti
| bihúf-ti
| bi-húf-ti
| ausdwyn-ti, dwyn-ti aus
| aus-dwyn-ti, dwyn-ti aus
|-
|-
! Perfect
! Perfect
| gi-lop-t
| gi-lop-t
| gi-sgit
| gi-sgit-<font color="red">Ø</font>
| gi-byterr-t
| gi-byterr-t
| bihúf-t
| <font color="red">bi</font>-húf-t
| aus-gi-dwyn-t
| aus-gi-dwyn-t
|-
|-
! ''Byform''<sup>1</sup>
! Ē-form
| lop-ē
| lop-ē
| sgit-ē
| sgit-ē
| bytr-ē
| byt<font color="red">r</font>-ē
| bihúv-ē
| bi-hú<font color="red">v</font>-ē
| ausdwyn-ē
| aus-dwyn-ē
|-
|-
! Present participle
! Present participle
| lop-nē
| lop-nē
| sgit-nē
| sgit-nē
| bytre-nē
| byt<font color="red">re</font>-nē
| bihúf-nē
| bi-húf-nē
| ausdwyn-nē
| aus-dw<font color="red">in</font>-nē
|-
|-
! Past participle
! Past participle
| gi-lop-t-nē
| gi-lop-t-nē
| gi-sgit-nē
| gi-sgit-<font color="red">Ø</font>-nē
| gi-byterrt-nē
| gi-byterr-t-nē
| bihúf-t-nē
| <font color="red">bi</font>-húf-t-nē
| aus-gi-dwyn-t-nē
| aus-gi-dwyn-t-nē
|}
|}
<small>1) The ''byform'' is a verb form that used to be an infinitive, but in modern Bearlandic its use extends to quite a few other things so "infinitive" isn't a very accurate description anymore.</small>
There are a few minor irregularities (marked in red in the table above) which are all fully predictable:
* Verbs ending in -t don't add an extra t in the past and perfect forms.
* Verbs ending in -n do add an extra n in the present participle, causing the preceding vowel to become short. If this vowel is y, it becomes i. If the verb already has a short vowel, the participle is written with three consecutive n's, but there is no change in pronunciation.
* Verbs with a disyllabic root drop the second vowel in the ē-form and the present participle. In the latter form, this would result in an unpronounceable consonant cluster which is broken up by an /ə/ directly before the ending.
* If the stem ends in a short f or s, this final fricative becomes voiced in the ē-form.
* Verbs beginning with an unstressed prefix don't add an extra prefix in the perfect forms.
* Verbs beginning with a stressed prefix are separable. Depending on the context, the prefix may be separated from the stem in the present and past tenses, and in the perfect, the gi- prefix comes between the separable prefix and the stem.
 
The ē-form is used for several unrelated purposes and may be thought of as a variant present form.


As can be seen, there are some minor exceptions in the verb system (and also some major ones, which are described in more detail below). Although the above table mentions all of them, it is useful to explain them more clearly:
====Strong verbs====
# Verbs ending in -t don't add an extra -t in the past and perfect tenses.
Strong verbs are conjugated just like weak verbs, but additionally feature some vowel changes. These vowel changes can be summarised like this.
# Verbs ending in unstressed -Vr drop the V in the ''byform'' and the present participle, inserting a schwa in the latter form.
 
# Verbs beginning with unstressed prefixes like bi- don't add gi-.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
# Verbs beginning with stressed prefixes like aus- are separable. The gi- prefix is added between the separable particle and the root.
! Present
# The ''byform'' ending voices preceding fricatives, unless they're geminated.
! Past
! Perfect
|-
| a
| i
| o
|-
| a
| i
| short i
|-
| e
| a
| o
|-
| e
| a
| short i
|-
| i
| a
| o
|-
| o
| i
| short i
|-
| y
| i
| short i
|}
The ē-form of strong verbs always has either an y or a short i, depending on the length of the stem vowel. There are three verbs whose ē-form seemingly has the wrong vowel, namely ''zegg'' "say", whose ē-form is ''zygē'', ''stass'' "stand", whose ē-form may be either ''stissē'' or ''styzē'', and ''slap'' "sleep", whose ē-form ''slapē'' retains the stem vowel of the present tense.
 
Some examples:
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!
! "carry"
! "stand"
! "weigh"
! "read"
! "win"
! "come"
! "write"
|-
! Present
| barr
| stass
| veg
| les
| winn
| komm
| sgryf
|-
! Past
| birrti
| stissti
| vagti
| lasti
| wannti
| kimmti
| sgrifti
|-
! Perfect
| giborrt
| gistisst
| givogt
| gilisst
| giwonnt
| gikimmt
| gisgrifft
|-
! Ē-form
| birrē
| stissē/styzē
| vygē
| lyzē
| winnē
| kimmē
| sgryvē
|-
! Present participle
| barrnē
| stassnē
| vegnē
| lesnē
| winnnē
| kommnē
| sgryfnē
|-
! Past participle
| giborrtnē
| gistisstnē
| givogtnē
| gilisstnē
| giwonntnē
| gikimmtnē
| gisgrifftnē
|}


====Irregular verbs====
====Irregular verbs====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!  
!
! "be"
! "be"
! "have"
! "have"
! "eat"
! "go"
! "go"
! "give"
! "give"
! "eat"
! "know"
! "become"
! "become"
|-
|-
Line 287: Line 336:
| iss
| iss
| heppt
| heppt
| et
| ga
| ga
| gef
| gef
| et
| wet
| vort
| vort
|-
|-
Line 295: Line 345:
| wast
| wast
| haptē
| haptē
| ati
| gigti
| gigti
| giffti
| giffti
| ati
| wati
| virti
| virti
|-
|-
! Perfect
! Perfect
| giassit
| giasst
| gihapt
| gihapt
| giotē
| gigisst
| gigisst
| gigifft
| gigifft
| giotē
| giwotē
| givirtē
| givirtē
|-
|-
! ''Byform''
! Ē-form
| zyt, zyti
| yē, zyt
| hypē
| hypē
| ytē
| gatē
| gatē
| gyvē
| gyvē
| ytē
| wytē
| vortē
| vortē
|-
|-
Line 319: Line 372:
| zytnē
| zytnē
| hepptnē
| hepptnē
| etnē
| gatnē
| gatnē
| gefnē
| gefnē
| etnē
| wetnē
| vortnē
| vortnē
|-
|-
! Past participle
! Past participle
| -
| wastnē
| hassnē
| gihaptnē
| gigisstnē
| gigifftnē
| giotnē
| giotnē
| -
| giwotnē
| gigifftnē
| givirtnē
| -
|}
|}


====Strong verbs====
''Iss'' has two distinct forms corresponding to the ē-forms of all other verbs. ''Yē'' is used as an infinitive, whereas ''zyt'' is used in subordinate clauses.
Strong verbs are irregular in that they are a more or less random set of verbs, but as the only difference between regular verbs are the more or less regular vowel changes, they are often not considered really irregular. These vowel changes can be summarised like this:
 
===Tenses===
Bearlandic has two simple tenses, two perfect tenses and two future tenses.
 
====Formation====
The formation of the present and the simple past is described above. The remaining four tenses are all formed periphrastically.
 
The perfect tenses are formed using the perfect form and an auxiliary, which depending on the verb can be either ''heppt'' or ''iss''. As a general rule, intransitive verbs use ''iss'', whereas transitive and impersonal verbs all use ''heppt''. The present perfect uses the present of the auxiliary, while the past perfect uses the past.
 
''Ig '''heppt''' a appoll '''giotē'''.''<br>
I '''have eaten''' an apple.
 
''Dē mann '''iss gilopt'''.''<br>
The man '''has walked'''.
 
''Dē '''heppt gisniwwt'''.''<br>
It '''has snowed'''.
 
Modal verbs take the same auxiliary as the main verb. The modal is put in the perfect form, while the main verb is put in the ē-form and preceded by ''oss''.
 
''Ig '''heppt gikusst''' oss ytē.''<br>
I '''have been able''' to eat.
 
''Dē mann '''iss gikusst''' oss lopē.''<br>
The man '''has been able''' to walk.
 
The prase ''dē zyt'' "there is" becomes ''dē zyt giasst'' in the present perfect.
 
''Dē '''zyt''' a pegging '''giasst'''.''<br>
There '''has been''' an accident.
 
The verb ''zʉll'' and its past form ''zʉllti'' are used to form the future and the future past respectively. These are both followed by the ē-form.
 
''Ig '''zʉll ytē'''.''<br>
I '''will eat'''.
 
''Anymann '''zʉllti''' bly '''yē'''.''<br>
''Everyone '''would be''' happy.''
 
====Usage====
 
===The passive===
The passive is formed with the verb ''vort'' and the perfect form.
 
''Dē appoll '''vort giotē'''.''<br>
''The apple '''is eaten'''.
 
In the perfect tenses, the perfect form of ''vort'' is optional and may be left out.
 
''Miess ferrpratter '''iss gidift (givirtē)'''.<br>
''My phone '''has been stolen'''.
 
===Modality===
Modality is expressed using a variety of modal auxiliary verbs. The main ones are basic auxiliaries ''kuss'' "can", ''mut'' "must", ''will'' "want", ''mogg'' "may", as well as ''tyē, yē, hyē, wylē'' and ''kynē'', which are remnants of old optative forms of ''tú'' "do", ''iss'' "be", ''heppt'' "have", ''will'' and ''kuss'' respectively.
 
After the basic auxiliaries one can choose between two possible constructions: SVOV using an ē-form and SVVO using the base form. These two constructions differ slightly in meaning in some contexts and are known as the "definite" and "uncertain" mood respectively. An optative may only be followed by an ē-form when used as an auxiliary. Thus one may say:
 
* ''Ig kuss dē túē.'' (definite)
* ''Ig kuss tú dē.'' (uncertain)
* ''Ig kynē dē túē.'' (optative)
 
The choice between these forms is a complicated matter and varies considerably between dialects and even between different speakers of the same dialect. Some guidelines are presented below, but the reader should bear in mind that the actual usage is considerably more complicated than can be shown here.
 
====''Kuss''====
''Kuss'' indicates an ability or a possibility. In affirmative sentences, it normally takes the definite mood.
 
''Ig '''kuss''' dē Bʉrnlannts '''prattē'''.''<br>
I '''can speak''' Bearlandic.
 
In negative sentences, the definite mood indicates a "stronger" impossibility that the uncertain mood.
 
''Hissē '''kuss nikkt flikē'''.''<br>
Houses '''cannot fly'''.
 
''Ig '''kuss nikkt les''' oss dē tē dorrk zyt.<br>
I '''can't read''' because it's too dark.
 
====''Mut''====
Just like ''kuss'', ''mut'' usually takes the definite mood in affirmative sentences.
 
''Ig '''mut''' oss itē '''slapē'''.''<br>
I '''should get''' some '''sleep'''.
 
In negative sentences, the definite mood indicates something which is disrecommendable, while the uncertain mood indicates something which is possible but not necessary.
 
''Man '''mut gyn''' rʉtig gʉmless '''ytē'''.<br>
You '''shouldn't eat''' rotten fruit.
 
====''Will''====
With ''will'', the definite mood implies determination or immediacy, whereas the uncertain mood may imply hesitation or hindrance.
 
''Ig '''will pratt''' oss emm, mar hi bigryf miess spraking nikkt.''<br>
I '''want to talk''' to him, but he doesn't understand my dialect.
 
====''Mogg''====
''Mogg'' usually indicates permission, but occasionally it may indicate a possibility instead. In affirmative sentences it usually takes the uncertain mood.
 
In negative sentences, it indicates something which is forbidden and typically takes the definite mood.
 
====The optative====
As mentioned above, there exist five synthetic optatives. All other optatives are made by using one of these as an auxiliary verb. Note that although ''wylē'' derives from the ancient optative of ''will'', it functions as a separate verb in modern Bearlandic rather than as a form of "want".
 
The optative can be used in several ways, two of which will be discussed in this section. Firstly, it may be used to express a wish. In this case, the optative verb comes at the beginning of the sentence, and ''tyē'' is used when the subject can control the action, whereas ''wylē'' is used when it can't.
 
'''''Yē''' hi oss hirr!''<br>
'''If only''' he '''were''' here!
 
'''''Tyē''' hi '''ytē'''!''<br>
'''May''' he '''eat'''!
 
'''''Wylē''' dē zoll '''sgynē'''!''<br>
'''May''' the sun '''shine'''!
 
The optative may also be used to express a possibility. In this case, the normal word order (SVOV) is used and the auxiliary verb is ''kynē''.
 
''Ig '''yē''' túpig.''<br>
I '''may be''' mad.
 
''Ig '''kynē''' dē '''túē'''.''<br>
I '''could do''' that.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
The optative also appears in certain conditional clauses. These uses are explained [[#Conditionals|here]].
! Present
! Past
! Perfect
|-
| a
| i
| o
|-
| e
| a
| short i
|-
| i
| a
| o
|-
| o
| i
| i
|-
| y
| i
| short i
|}


The byform of these verbs always has a y.
===Verbal prefixes===
Verbs can have up to two derivational prefixes. There are two types of prefixes: stressed prefixes, which are separable, and unstressed prefixes, which always remain attached to the root. A verb may have at most one prefix of either type, and when both are present, the stressed one comes first. Most are very productive and also very vague semantically.


U, Ú and Ʉ are omitted from this table because strong verbs with those vowels simply don't exist.
*Stressed prefixes:
**''aus-'': this one generally marks the end of an action or a state.
***''mogg'' "be allowed to" -> ''ausmogg'' "forbid"
***''gygē'' "beard" -> ''ausgyg'' "shave" ("end the state of having a beard")
**''ferr-'': this one usually creates a causative verb.
***''dwyn'' "disappear" -> ''ferrdwyn'' "remove"
***''sgill'' "be different" -> ''ferrsgill'' "distinguish"
**''inn-'': this one generally indicates being or going inside, or the beginning of a state.
***''heppt'' "have" -> ''innhyf'' "contain" ("have inside")
***''vúr'' "bring" -> ''innvúr'' "bring in"
***''slap'' "sleep" -> ''innslap'' "fall asleep"
**''oss-'': this one usually marks either a causative verbs or the beginning of a state.
***''lag'' "laugh" -> ''osslag'' "be ridiculous, make someone laugh"
***''rʉtig'' "rotten" -> ''ossrʉt'' "rot"
**''yt-'': this one is no longer productive and its meaning is not yet well understood.
***''pratt'' "speak" -> ''ytpratt'' "pronounce"
*Unstressed prefixes:
**''bi-'': this one is very productive and can form verbs from any other word.
***''kopp'' "buy" -> ''bikopp'' "sell"
***''irrig'' "annoying" -> ''biirr'' "annoy"
***''kis'' "choose" -> ''bikis'' "vote"
***''straf'' "punishment" -> ''bistraf'' "punish"
***''siff'' "number" -> ''bisiff'' "calculate"
**''her-'': this one indicates a repetition.
***''tú'' "do" -> ''hertú'' "repeat"
***''wet'' "know" -> ''herwet'' "remember"


As an example, this is the full conjugation of the strong verb ''sgryf'' "to write":
====Conjugation of prefixed verbs====
Verbs derived from other verbs are conjugated the same as their base verbs. The only exceptions to this rule are the verbs derived from ''iss'' and ''heppt'',  which become ''zyt'' and ''hyf'' respectively when a prefix is added. Both are then conjugated like weak verbs.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
Verbs derived from other parts of speech are almost always weak, except if the base word has y as its stem vowel, in which case it is strong. Thus ''ossrʉt'' is weak while ''ausgyg'' is strong.
! Present
| sgryf
|-
! Past
| sgrifti
|-
! Perfect
| gisgrifft
|-
! ''Byform''
| sgryvē
|-
! Present participle
| sgryfnē
|-
! Past participle
| gisgrifftnē
|}


====Perfect tenses====
====Separation====
The perfect tenses are made with an auxiliary verb (either ''heppt'' or ''iss'') and a perfect participle, which can be placed either directly after the auxiliary (less common) or at the end of the sentence (more common).  
As mentioned, the stressed prefixes can be separated from the root. This happens in the main clause, whereas the prefix remains attached in subordinate clauses.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig heppt a fiss gizit.
| phrase = Hi pratti miess nam fautlyk yt.
| IPA = /ˈix ˈhɛpːt a ˈfɪsː ɣiˈziːt/
| gloss = 3SG.SUBJ speak-PST 1SG.POSS name wrong-ADV YT
| morphemes = Ig heppt a fiss gi-zi-t.
| translation = He pronounced my name wrongly.
| gloss = 1SG have a fish PERF-see-PERF.
}}
| translation = I have seen a fish.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig bizaggti oss emm dass hi miess nam fautlyk ytpratti.
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ tell.PST to 3SG.OBJ that 3SG.SUBJ 1SG.POSS name wrong-ADV YT-speak-PST
| translation = I told him that he pronounced my name wrongly.
}}
}}


====The passive====
==Nouns==
The passive is made like the perfect tenses, but uses ''vort'' as auxiliary verb, rather than ''heppt'' or ''iss''.
Nouns distinguish two numbers and are otherwise uninflected. A few ancient case forms survive in fixed expressions, all of them preceded by the preposition ''oss''.
 
===Pluralisation===
Most nouns form their plural by adding -s. If the noun ends in a short vowel, the plural suffix is a long -ss.
 
*''vogg'' "bird" > ''voggs'' "birds"
*''mann'' "man" > ''manns'' "men"
*''fingrī'' "finger" > ''fingriss'' "fingers"
 
A few nouns feature an irregular vowel change in the plural.
 
*''ze'' "sea" > ''zyess'' "seas"
*''sten'' "stone" > ''styness'' "stones"
*''ry'' "row" > ''ryess'' "rows"
*''kennī'' "dog" > ''kenniss'' "dogs"
 
The nouns which end in -s in the singular are all irregular. Three of them have a plural in -issē.
 
*''haus'' "house" > ''hissē'' "houses"
*''maus'' "mouse" > ''missē'' "mice"
*''voss'' "fox" > ''vissē'' "foxes"
 
The remaining native nouns ending in -s, as well as some thirty other irregular nouns, have plurals in -er.
 
*''fiss'' "fish" > ''fisser'' "fish"
*''bom'' "tree" > ''bomer'' "trees"
 
Nouns which end in -er in the singular have identical singular and plural forms.
 
*''jaggter'' "hunter" > ''jaggter'' "hunters"
 
===Nominalising suffixes===
The main nominalising suffixes are:
 
*''-ē'': an all-purpose noun suffix. Among the functions it can have are:
**Forming a noun meaning "person/thing with quality X" from an adjective: ''stirg'' "strong" -> ''a stirgē'' "a strong person", ''lykig'' "similar" -> ''a lykigē'' "something similar"
**Forming various kinds of associated nouns from various other parts of speech: ''knirr'' "cut with scissors" -> ''knirrē'' "scissors"
**Forming diminutives, often with highly idiomatic meanings and frequently accompanied by a vowel change: ''vogg'' "bird" -> ''vʉggē'' "feather"
**For many nouns ending in -ē, this ending has no meaning at all: ''atjē'' "bridge", ''hillvē'' "hill"
*''-hyt'': an abstract noun suffix, usually but not always added to adjectives to form a nouns referring a state:
**''bly'' "happy" -> ''blyhyt'' "happiness"
**''brútē'' "brother" -> ''brúthyt'' "family"
*''-ing'': an abstract noun suffix which is usually added to verbs:
**''kis'' "choose" -> ''kising'' "choice"
**''kopp'' "buy" -> ''kopping'' "trade"
*''-er'': forms a noun referring to either the person doing something or the instrument used for it
**''jaggt'' "hunt" -> ''jaggter'' "hunter"
**''sgit'' "shoot" -> ''sgiter'' "gun"
*''-ness'': technically not a single suffix but a pluralised nominalised participle. It forms collective nouns.
**''won'' "live, dwell" -> ''wonness'' "population"
**''burr'' "happen" -> ''giburrtness'' "history"
 
==Adjectives==
Adjectives are placed before the nouns they modify.
 
===Formation===
With a few exceptions, all adjectives end in the highly productive adjectivising suffix -ig. Adjectives derived from place names and names of ethnic groups end in -iess instead, and a closed class of native adjectives has no suffix at all.
 
A sizeable group of adjectives look like past participles, but are not derived from any actually existing verb. For example, ''ausgioggt(nē)'' "neutral" looks like it is the past participle of ''*ausogg'', but no such verb actually exists.
 
===Inflection===
Adjectives are inflected for three degrees of comparison. The positive is unmarked. The comparative and superlative are marked with the suffixes -err and -iss respectively, which become -terr and -tiss after vowels.
 
*''klyn'' "small" > ''klynerr'' "smaller" > ''klyniss'' "smallest"
*''mojj'' "beautiful" > ''mojjerr'' "more beautiful" > ''mojjiss'' "most beautiful"
*''kra'' "big" > ''kraterr'' "bigger" > ''kratiss'' "biggest"
 
There are three irregular adjectives.
 
*''gut'' "good" > ''byterr'' "better" > ''bisst'' "best"
*''fill'' "much/many" > ''mirr'' "more" > ''filless'' "most"
*''ferr'' "far" > ''ferrtē'' "further" > ''firrst'' "furthest"
 
Adverbs can be derived from adjectives using the suffix -lyk. Most adjectives not ending in -ig can be used as adverbs without first adding -lyk.
 
Participial adjectives, as well as ''wyg'' "few, little", have separate attributive and predicative forms. When used attributively, the end in -nē, while they have no ending when used predicatively. The citation form of these adjectives is the predicative from.
 
===Comparison===
In the formal standard language, comparisons of equality are expressed by ''ef ... solls''. However, in informal language, ''solls'' in this expression is often replaced by ''oss''.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē haus vort giklurrt.
| phrase = Dē bom iss ef kra solls dē haus.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈhaʊ̯s ˈvoːrt ɣiˈklʏrːt/
| gloss = DEF tree be equally big as DEF house
| morphemes = Dē haus vort gi-klurr-t.
| translation = The tree is as tall as the house
| gloss = The house become PERF-paint-PERF.
| translation = The house is being painted.
}}
}}


The perfect tenses are made as normally, though the participle of ''vort'' may be left out.
Comparisons of inequality always use ''oss''.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē haus iss giklurrt (givirtē).
| phrase = Ig iss auterr oss emm.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈhaʊ̯s ˈɪsː ɣiˈklʏrːt (ɣiˈviːrtɛ)/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ be old-COMP than 3SG.OBJ
| morphemes = Dē haus iss gi-klurr-t (gi-vort-ē)
| translation = I am older than him.
| gloss = The house be.PRES PERF-paint-PERF (PERF-become-PERF)
| translation = The house has been painted.
}}
}}


===Pronouns===
{{Gloss
====Personal and possessive pronouns====
| phrase = Dē missē iss minnig snell oss dē katt.
| gloss = DEF mouse.PL be less fast than DEF cat
| translation = The mice are not as fast as the cat.
}}
 
==Pronouns==
===Personal and possessive pronouns===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! Number
! colspan="2" |
! Person
! Subject
! Subject
! Object/Reflexive
! Object
! Possessive
! Possessive
|-
|-
! rowspan="5" | Singular
! colspan="2" | 1sg
! 1st
| ig
| ig
| mi
| mi
| miess
| miess
|-
|-
! 2nd
! colspan="2" | 2sg
| ji
| ji /jɪ/
| ji
| ji /jɪ/
| jiess
| jiess
|-
|-
! 3rd masculine
! rowspan="3" | 3sg
! Masculine
| hi
| hi
| emm, zigg
| emm, zigg
| hiess
| hiess
|-
|-
! 3rd feminine
! Feminine
| zē
| zē
| zy, zigg
| zy, zigg
| zess
| zess
|-
|-
! 3rd neuter
! Neuter
| dē
| dē
| dē, zigg
| dē, zigg
| dess
| dess
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural
! colspan="2" | 1pl
! 1st
| wi
| wi
| oss
| oss
| oss
| oss
|-
|-
! 2nd
! colspan="2" | 2pl
| jis
| jis
| jis
| jis
| jisiss
| jisiss
|-
|-
! 3rd
! rowspan="2" | 3pl
! Human
| zess
| hʉn, zess, zy
| hʉness, zess
|-
! Non-human
| zess
| zess, zy
| zess
| zess
| hunn, zess, zy
| hʉn
|}
|}
''Hunn'' may only be used when referring to people, whereas ''zess'' may always be used.
''Zigg'' and ''zy'' are singular and plural reflexive pronouns respectively. ''Hʉn'' and ''hʉness'' are mainly used for emphasis, and tend to be replaced by ''zess'' in other contexts.


''Zigg'' and ''zy'' are reflexive pronouns for the singular and plural respectively.
The gender distinction in the third person singular is based purely on natural gender. Children and animals of unknown gender may be referred to by ''dē'', but for teenagers and adults of unknown gender it is more common to use ''hi'' as a gender-neutral pronoun.


====Relative pronouns====
===Relative pronouns===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! Referent
!  
! Without preposition
! Without preposition
! With preposition
! With preposition
Line 486: Line 732:
! Thing
! Thing
| dē
| dē
| rowspan="3" | dy
| dy
|-
|-
! Several things
! Several things
| di
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" | dy
|-
|-
! Entire sentence
! Sentence
| dy
|-
! "that which"
|}
|}
Note that there are no specific relative pronouns for places, instead one says ''inn dy'', which literally means "in which".


====Other pronouns====
===Other pronouns===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!  
!  
! Which?
! Which
! This
! This
! That
! That
! Every/all
! All
! Some
! Some
! None
! None
|-
|-
! Adjective
! Determiner
| willg
| willg
| ditt, dē<sup>1</sup>
| rowspan="2" | ditt, dē
| di, dē<sup>1</sup>
| rowspan="2" | di, dē
| all, any
| all, anē
| somm
| somm, imig, itig
| gyn
| gyn
|-
! Person
| wi?
| colspan="2" | ''use personal pronoun, see the above section''
| anymann
| imant, imants<sup>2</sup>
| nimant
|-
|-
! Thing
! Thing
| wass?
| wass
| ditt, dē<sup>1</sup>
| all, alltingiss
| di, dē<sup>1</sup>
| all, alltingiss<sup>3</sup>
| itiss
| itiss
| nikktitiss, nititiss, nitiss<sup>4</sup>
| nikktitiss, nytitiss, nitiss
|-
! Person
| wi
| colspan="2" | hi, zē, zess
| anmann, all
| imann, imē
| nimē, nytimē
|-
|-
! Place
! Place
| warr?
| warr
| hirr
| hirr
| dirr
| dirr
| allpig
| oss allpē
| irgiss
| irgiss
| nytirgiss
| nytirgiss, nirgiss
|-
|-
! Time
! Time
| wann?
| wann
| nu
| nu
| tann
| tann
| alltyt
| alltyt
| ojjit
| oss ojjē
| nojjit, nauter<sup>3</sup>
| nauter
|-
|-
! Reason
! Reason
| werrmē?
| werrmē
| colspan="2" | darross
| colspan="2" | darross, derrmē
| style="background:#CCCCCC" colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#DDDDDD" |  
|-
|-
! Manner
! Manner
| hu?
| hu, hulyk
| colspan="2" | zoss
| colspan="2" | zoss, solls dē
|}
|}


Notes:
''Ditt'' and ''di'' are used less often than "this" and "that" in English.
# ''Ditt'' and ''di'' are normally only used for emphasis. ''Dē'' can be used where English would use "that".
 
# ''Imants'' can be used to stress that it's about more than one person. However, it isn't necessary.
The determiners ''all'' and ''somm'' cannot be followed by a singular countable noun; they have to be followed by either a plural noun or an uncountable one. ''Anē'', ''imig'' and ''itig'' on the other hand can only be followed by a singular noun. ''Imig'' is only used before nouns referring to people, whereas ''itig'' is only used before other nouns.
# Archaic.
# Colloquial.


===Articles===
''Alltingiss'' is an emphatic variant of ''all'' in the sense of "everything".
There are two articles, the definite article ''dē'' and the indefinite article ''a''.


===Numerals===
''All'' in the sense of "everyone" is dialectal and tends to be avoided in formal speech and writing.
 
The short forms ''nitiss'' and ''nirgiss'' of the negative pronouns are colloquial, and in many situations the full forms are preferred. By contrast, the short form ''nimē'' is generally preferred to the somewhat archaic ''nytimē''.
 
''solls dē'' generally refers to something more concrete than ''zoss''.
 
==Numerals==
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!
! x
! 10x
! Ordinal
|-
! 1
! 1
| a
| a
| tinn
| astē, atiss
|-
|-
! 2
! 2
| to
| to
| totē
| tostē
|-
|-
! 3
! 3
| tri
| tri
| tritē
| tristē
|-
|-
! 4
! 4
| forr
| forr
| forrtē
| forrstē
|-
|-
! 5
! 5
| vy
| vy
| vytē
| vystē
|-
|-
! 6
! 6
| zett
| zett
| zetttē
| zettstē
|-
|-
! 7
! 7
| safē
| safē
| saftē
| safstē
|-
|-
! 8
! 8
| ottjo
| ottjo
| otttē
| ottstē
|-
|-
! 9
! 9
| nippē
| nippē
| nipptē
| nippstē
|-
|-
! 10
! 10
| tinn
| tinn
|-
! 11
| atinn
|-
! 12
| totinn
|-
! 20
| totē
|-
! 21
| atotē
|-
! 30
| tritē
|-
! 40
| forrtē
|-
! 50
| vytē
|-
! 60
| zetttē
|-
! 70
| saftē
|-
! 80
| otttē
|-
! 90
| nipptē
|-
! 100
| horrt
| horrt
|-
| tinnstē
! 1000
| dass
|}
|}
Note: ''otttē'' derives from an earlier ''ottjotē''.
Words for higher numbers are ''dass'' "thousand" and ''millē'' "million".


Ordinal numbers are made by adding -stē. If a number ends in -ē, that -ē is dropped, so "first" is "astē" and "seventh" is "safstē". The -ē is however not left out in "zetttēstē", as it otherwise would sound the same as "zettstē".
Numbers from 11-99 are expressed as units-tens. Multiples of hundred and thousand are expressed as compounds, but ''millē'' behaves as a noun and needs to be pluralised when making multiples of it. Numbers above 100 are formed by placing the parts of it after each other, starting with the largest number.


==Derivational morphology==
*''toforrtē'' 42
===Derivational affixes===
*''horrt atotē'' 121
* '''-ig''' is a general adjectiviser:
*''nippēdass nippēhorrt nippēnipptē'' 9999
** ''attoll'' "nobility" -> ''attlig'' "noble"
*''to milless'' 2,000,000
** ''statt'' "city" -> ''stattig'' "urban"
*''zetttinn milless vyhorrtnippētinndass trihorrt safēnipptē'' 16,519,397
** ''durr'' "door" -> ''durrig'' "door-ish"
* '''-ing''' is used to nominalise verbs:
** ''sgryf'' "write" -> ''sgryfing'' "writing"
** ''et'' "eat" -> ''eting'' "food"
* '''-hyt''' is used to nominalise adjectives:
** ''bly'' "happy" -> ''blyhyt'' "happiness"
** ''kunnig'' "possible" -> ''kunnighyt'' "possibility"
* '''nit-''' gives the word (which tends to be an adjective or a nominalisation thereof) the opposite meaning:
** ''yntig'' "finite" -> ''nityntig'' "infinite"
* '''-ness''' forms a collective agent noun of a verb. It's quite obvious that it's a pluralised participle, and there is indeed also a past form with the gi-t circumfix:
** ''won'' "to live" -> ''wonness'' "population".
** ''burr'' "to happen" -> ''giburrtness'' "history"
* '''-er''' forms the "normal" (i.e. non-collective) agent noun of a verb:
** ''pratt'' "to speak" -> ''pratter'' "speaker"
** ''jaggt'' "to hunt" -> ''jaggter'' "hunter"
* '''-ē'''  forms the agent noun of an adjective:
** ''graut'' "great" -> ''grautē'' "great one"
** ''stirgiss'' "strongest" -> ''dē stirgissē'' "the strongest one"


===Compounding===
Ordinals are formed by adding -stē to the last part: ''forrhorrt tonipptēstē'' "492nd".
 
Non-final ē in numerals is usually pronounced as /ə/.
 
==Compounding==
Compounds can be made freely and are always head-last. There are several types:
Compounds can be made freely and are always head-last. There are several types:
* Noun-noun:
* Noun-noun:
Line 675: Line 894:
* In an adjective-noun-noun compound, the adjective refers to the first noun only, whereas when the adjective is used as a separate word, it refers to the entire compound.
* In an adjective-noun-noun compound, the adjective refers to the first noun only, whereas when the adjective is used as a separate word, it refers to the entire compound.


==Syntax==
==Word order==
===Word order===
===Sentence===
Bearlandic normally has a SVO word order, but questions have a VSO order. Any constituent can be placed in front of the verb to add emphasis, but there can only be one constituent (which includes subordinate clauses) before the verb, which means that the subject is moved to after the verb when another constituent, or a subclause, is placed before the verb.
Bearlandic normally has SVO and V2 word order, but questions have a VSO order. Any constituent can be placed in front of the verb to add emphasis, but because of the V2 word order, the subject will have to be moved to directly after the verb.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss a sgiter.
| phrase = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss a sgiter.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin ɔsː a ˈsxiːtər/
| gloss = The hunter shoot the rabbit with a gun
| gloss = The hunter shoot the rabbit with a gun.
| translation = The hunter shoots the rabbit with a gun.
| translation = The hunter shoots the rabbit with a gun.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Oss a sgiter sgit dē jaggter dē konin.
| phrase = Oss a sgiter sgit dē jaggter dē konin.
| IPA = /ɔsː a ˈsxiːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ˈkoːnin/
| gloss = With a gun shoot the hunter the rabbit.
| gloss = With a gun shoot the hunter the rabbit.
| translation = With a gun, the hunter shoots the rabbit.
| translation = With a gun, the hunter shoots the rabbit.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = Oss dē a konin zyt sgit dē jaggter dē oss a sgiter.
| IPA = /ɔsː dɛ a ˈkoːnin ˈzɛɪ̯t ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ɔsː a sxiːtər/
| gloss = If 3SG be.BYF a rabbit shoot the hunter 3SG with a gun.
| translation = If there is a rabbit, the hunter shoots it with a gun.
}}
}}


The object is rarely fronted. Instead the passive is used, although an OVS structure with a somewhat different intonation is possible as well:
The object is usually not fronted; instead the passive is usually used. However, since pronouns distinguish between subject and object forms, if either the subject or the object (or both) is a pronoun, an OVS construction will be used.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē konin vort oss dē jaggter oss a sgiter gisgit.
| phrase = Dē konin vort oss dē jaggter gisgit.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈvoːrt ɔsː dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ɔsː a ˈsxiːtər ɣiˈsxiːt/
| gloss = The rabbit become by the hunter PERF-shoot-PERF.
| gloss = The rabbit PASS by the hunter with a gun PERF-shoot.
| translation = The rabbit is shot by the hunter with a gun.
| translation = The rabbit is shot by the hunter with a gun.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē konin sgit dē jaggter oss a sgiter.
| phrase = Dē konin sgit ig.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈkóːnin ˈsxìːt dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ɔsː a ˈsxiːtər/
| gloss = The rabbit shoot I.
| gloss = The rabbit shoot the hunter with a gun.
| translation = The rabbit I shoot.
| translation = The rabbit is shot by the hunter with a gun.
}}
}}


If there is more than one verb in the sentence, there are two possibile constructions: one with an SVVO and one with an SVOV order.
===Noun phrase===
Within the noun phrase the word order is determiner - number - adjective(s) - noun - modifying phrase, where the modifying phrase may be either a relative clause or a prepositional phrase. A single noun phrase may contain several adjectives, though all other elements can appear only once.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter will sgit dē konin.
| phrase = dē tri klyn witt hissē inn dē tarrp
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjaxːtər ˈʋɪlː ˈsxiːt dɛ koːnin/
| gloss = the three small white house.PL in the village
| gloss = The hunter want shoot the rabbit.
| translation = the three small white houses in the village
| translation = The hunter wants to shoot the rabbit.
}}
}}


{{Gloss
==Complex sentences==
| phrase = Dē jaggter will dē konin sgitē.
===Subordinate clauses===
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjaxːtər ˈʋɪlː dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈsxiːtɛ/
Subordinate clauses always begin with a subordinating word, which, depending on the type of clause, is either a conjunction or a relative pronoun, and can be preceded by a preposition. Just like modal verbs, subordinate clauses distinguish between definite, uncertain and optative moods.
| gloss = The hunter want the rabbit shoot-BYF.
| translation = The hunter wants to shoot the rabbit.
}}
 
Note the use of a ''byform'' in the second sentence.  


===Subordinate clauses===
====Complement clauses====
In subordinate clauses the verb can generally be placed either directly after the first constituent or at the end. When it's at the end, the byform is used.
Complement clauses begin with the conjunction ''dass'', which becomes ''dy'' after prepositions. Unlike in English, the conjunction cannot be left out. Usually the definite mood is used in complement clauses.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet dass dē jaggter sgit dē konin.
| phrase = Ig wet dass hi a yzēpart hypē.
| IPA = /ix ˈʋeːt dɑsː dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ know that 3SG.M.SUBJ INDEF car have.INF
| gloss = I know that the hunter shoot the rabbit.
| translation = I know (that) he has a car.
| translation = I know that the hunter shoots the rabbit.
}}
}}


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet dass dē jaggter dē konin sgitē.
| phrase = Ig iss zykrig oss dy ji dē wytē.
| IPA = /ix ˈʋeːt dɑsː dɛ ˈjaxːtər dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈsxiːtɛ/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ be certain PREP that 2SG 3SG.N know.INF
| gloss = I know that the hunter the rabbit shoot-BYF
| translation = I am certain that you know that.
| translation = I know that the hunter shoots the rabbit.
}}
}}


When there is more than one verb in the subordinate clause there are three different possible word orders: one in which the verbs are placed direclty after the first constituent, and two in which the verbs are placed at the end.
====Indirect questions====
Indirect yes-no questions are introduced by ''oss dy''.
 
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet dass dē jaggter will sgit dē konin.
| phrase = Ig wet nikkt oss dy dē a prʉlē zyt.
| IPA = /ix ˈʋeːt dɑsː dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈʋɪlː ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ know not PREP that 3SG.N INDEF problem be.DEF
| gloss = I know that the hunter want shoot the rabbit.
| translation = I don't know if that's a problem.
| translation = I know that the hunter wants to shoot the rabbit.
}}
}}
Indirect open questions can be formed in two ways:
* ''oss dy'' + interrogative pronoun
* interrogative pronoun + ''dy''


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet dass dē jaggter dē konin will sgitē.
| phrase = Hi frigti oss mi warr dy dē pispott dē zyti.
| IPA = /ix ˈʋeːt dɑsː dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈʋɪlː ˈsxiːtɛ/
| gloss = 3SG.M.SUBJ ask.PST PREP 1SG.OBJ where that DEF toilet PT exist-PST
| gloss = I know that the hunter the rabbit want shoot-BYF.
| translation = He asked me where the toilet was.
| translation = I know that the hunter wants to shoot the rabbit.
}}
}}
====Relative clauses====
Relative clauses start with a [[#Relative pronouns|relative pronoun]]. The pronoun is followed by the subject of the clause (if it isn't the same as the antecedent), which in turn is followed by the verb.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet dass dē jaggter dē konin sgitē willē.
| phrase = Dē mann wē plʉkti dē fiss iss stoppig.
| IPA = /ix ʋeːt dɑsː dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈsxiːtɛ ˈʋɪlːɛ/
| gloss = DEF man REL.HUM catch-PST DEF fish be stupid
| gloss = I know that the hunter the rabbit shoot-BYF want-BYF.
| translation = The man who caught the fish is stupid.
| translation = I know that the hunter wants to shoot the rabbit.
}}
}}
An SVO construction may imply a somewhat more hypothetical meaning than an SOV construction, which may imply some sort of obviousness. This difference is mostly relevant in clauses with ''oss''. Compare:
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss dē iss hiess verking.
| phrase = Hi heppt dē fiss dē hi plʉkti giotē.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin ɔsː dɛ ˈɪsː ˈhiːɛsː veːrkiŋ/
| gloss = 3SG.M.SUBJ have DEF fish REL.NHUM 3SG.M.SUBJ catch-PST eat.PERF
| gloss = The hunter shoot the rabbit if it be his job.
| translation = He has eaten the fish he caught.
| translation = The hunter shoots the rabbit if it's his job.
}}
}}
Since the position of the verb within a relative clause is determined by strict rules, so is the choice of the verb form. In the present tense, an ē-form is used if the verb is the last word in the clause, while otherwise the ordinary present is used.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss dē hiess verking zyt.
| phrase = Ig tú dy ig willē.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin ɔsː dɛ ˈhiːɛsː ˈveːrkiŋ ˈzɛɪ̯t/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ do that.which 1SG.SUBJ want-INF
| gloss = The hunter shoot the rabbit because it his job be.BYF.
| translation = I do what I want.
| translation = The hunter shoots the rabbit because it's his job.
}}
}}


In the former of these two sentences, the fact that it's the hunter's job to shoot the rabbit is not necessarily true, so it's not clear whether the rabbit is shot or not. It the latter sentence however that definitely is the hunter's job, so it's rather obvious that he is going to shoot the rabbit.
====Conditional and causal clauses====
 
Conditional and causal clauses both start with the conjunction ''oss'', but are distinguished from one another by the choice of moods.
====Relative clauses====
A special type of subordinate clauses are relative clauses. Relative clauses always begin with a [[#Relative pronouns|relative pronoun]], or a combination of a preposition and a relative pronoun. The place of the verb within the clause depends on which function the pronoun has:


* If the pronoun functions as a subject in the relative clause, the verb comes directly after it.
===Participial phrases===
* If not, the subject comes after the pronoun, and the verb comes after that.
A participial phrase consists of the preposition ''oss'' and a participle and functions as a kind of temporal or adverbial clause. A subject may be specified, in which case it comes between ''oss'' and the participle. If no subject is specified, the subject of the participial phrase is taken to be the same as the sentence's subject.


Just like in normal subordinate clauses, a ''byform'' is used clause-finally.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Oss zangnē lopti wi nass haus.
| gloss = PREP sing-PTC walk-PST 1PL.SUBJ to house
| translation = While singing, we walked home.
}}


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = dē mann wē et a fiss
| phrase = Oss mi zangnē lopti wi nass haus.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈmɑnː ʋɛ ˈeːt a ˈfɪsː/
| gloss = PREP 1SG.OBJ sing-PTC walk-PST 1PL.SUBJ to house
| gloss = DEF man REL eat INDEF fish
| translation = While I was singing, we walked home.
| translation = the man who eats a fish.
}}
}}
Participial phrases can also have objects and adverbial phrases, both of which follow the participle. Having multiple modifiers within a single participial phrase is considered awkward and is best avoided.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = dē fiss dē dē mann ytē
| phrase = Hi zitti oss dirr oss lesnē a bʉk.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈfɪsː dɛ dɛ ˈmɑnː ˈɛɪ̯tɛ/
| gloss = 3SG.SUBJ sit-PST PREP there PREP read-PTC INDEF book
| gloss = DEF fish REL DEF man eat.BYF
| translation = He sat there, reading a book.
| translation = the fish (that) the man eats
}}
}}


===Separable verbs===
===Independent infinitives===
Separable verbs are separated in independent clauses without auxiliary verbs and conjoined in subordinate clauses. When separated from the root, the separable particle comes directly after the object.
Infinitives can be used as nouns. Just like participial phrases, independent infinitives can be followed by objects and adverbs, though they cannot have a subject.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig frag emm aus.
| phrase = Ytē gʉmless iss gut oss dē zaning.
| IPA = /ix ˈfraːx ɛmː aʊ̯s/
| gloss = eat.INF fruit-PL be good for DEF health
| gloss = I ask him out
| translation = Eating fruit is good for your health.
| translation = I answer him.
}}
}}
==Negation==
Sentences are negated by means of a variety of negative words. The most basic negator is the adverb ''nikkt'' "not", which is usually placed after the object, or after the verb if there is no object.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = ... dass ig emm ausfragē.
| phrase = Hi ziti dē mann nikkt.
| IPA = /dɑsː ix ɛmː ˈaʊ̯sfraːɣɛ/
| gloss = 3SG.SUBJ see-PST DEF man not
| gloss = that I him out-ask-BYF
| translation = He didn't see the man.
| translation = ... that I answer him.
}}
}}


In main clauses with auxiliary verbs it's slightly more complicated. As mentioned in the [[#Word order|word order section]], both an SVVO and an SVOV word order can be used. This remains true when the main verb is separable, but with one extra addition: in the SVVO construction, the verb is separated, but not in the SVOV construction.
Sentences with indefinite objects, however, are negated with ''gyn'' "no, none" instead.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig kuss frag emm aus.
| phrase = Miess brútē lif gyn vyn.
| IPA = /ix kʏsː ˈfraːx ɛmː aʊ̯s/
| gloss = 1SG.POSS brother like no wine
| gloss = I can ask him out
| translation = My brother doesn't like wine.
| translation = I can answer him.
}}
}}
When a negative pronoun is used, no other negator has to be used.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig kuss emm ausfragē.
| phrase = Ig wet nikktitiss oss dē talllirring.
| IPA = /ix kʏsː ɛmː ˈaʊ̯sfraːɣɛ/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ know nothing about DEF linguistics.
| gloss = I can him out-ask-BYF
| translation = I know nothing about linguistics.
| translation = I can answer him.
}}
}}


===Questions===
==Questions==
Yes-no questions are made by inverting the subject and the verb and raising the tone:
Yes-no questions are made by inverting the subject and the verb and raising the tone:


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Sgit dē jaggter dē konin?
| phrase = Pratt ji dē Bʉrnlannts?
| IPA = /ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ˈkóːnin/
| gloss = speak 2SG DEF Bearlandic
| gloss = Shoot the hunter the rabbit?
| translation = Do you speak Bearlandic?
| translation = Does the hunter shoot the rabbit?
}}
}}


Line 856: Line 1,063:


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Wi sgiti dē konin?
| phrase = Wass tú ji?
| IPA = /ˈʋi ˈsxiːti dɛ ˈkóːnin/
| gloss = what do 2SG
| gloss = Who shoot-PAST the rabbit?
| translation = What are you doing?
| translation = Who shot the rabbit?
}}
}}


As interrogative pronouns don't distinguish subject and object forms, this question could also be translated as "Whom did the rabbit shoot?". This is however rare; the latter would normally be expressed using a passive: "Wi virti oss dē konin gisgit?".
In questions, ''iss'', ''kuss'' and ''will'' usually appear in their optative forms ''yē'', ''kynē'' and ''wylē''. The latter two are used to make polite requests or offers.
 
===Noun phrases===
The word order in noun phrases is preposition-determiner-number-adjective(s)-noun-modifying phrase. The modifying phrase can be either a prepositional phrase or a relative clause. There can be multiple adjectives within a single noun phrase, but the other elements can all only appear once.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = inn miess to aut klyn grys hausen inn dē tarrp
| phrase = Yē dē a maktall?
| IPA = /ɪnːˈ miːɛsː toː aʊ̯t klɛɪ̯n ɣrɛɪ̯s ˈhaʊ̯sən ɪnː dɛ tɑrːp/
| gloss = be.OPT 3SG.N INDEF conlang
| gloss = in my two old small grey house-PL in the village
| translation = Is that a conlang?
| translation = in my two old small grey houses in the village
}}
}}
===Existentials===
Existentials use the phrase ''dē zyt'':


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē zyt a haus.
| phrase = Kynē ji mi hellfē?
| IPA = /dɛ ˈzɛɪ̯t a ˈhaʊ̯s/
| gloss = can.OPT 2SG 1SG.OBJ help-INF
| gloss = 3SG.N be.BYF a house
| translation = Could you help me?
| translation = There is a house.
}}
}}
The past is ''dē zyti''. This is the only case where a past byform is used.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē zyti a haus.
| phrase = Wylē ji itiss oss ytē?
| IPA = /dɛ ˈzɛɪ̯ti a ˈhaʊ̯s/
| gloss = want.OPT 2SG something PREP eat-INF
| gloss = 3SG.N be.BYF-PST a house
| translation = Would you like something to eat?
| translation = There was a house.
}}
}}


When existentials occur in subclauses, they always use the byform, even if the verb isn't placed at the end of the clause and a present would normally be used.
The particle ''nyē'' can be placed at the end of a sentence to form a tag question.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = ... dass dē zyt a haus.
| phrase = Ji pratt gyn Kunyziess, nyē?
| IPA = /dɑsː dɛ ˈzɛɪ̯t a ˈhaʊ̯s/
| gloss = 2SG speak none Kunesian Q
| gloss = that 3SG.N be.BYF a house
| translation = You don't speak Kunesian, do you?
| translation = ... that there is a house.
}}
}}


Using a present here would change the meaning: "dass dē ''iss'' a haus" would mean "that ''it'' is a house" rather than "that ''there'' is a house.
==''Dē zyt''==
 
The phrase ''dē zyt'' "there is, exist" behaves a bit oddly syntactically. The word ''dē'' is treated as the subject, while the thing that exists behaves as an object.
Sometimes, mostly in formal writing, a similar construction with other verbs can be used.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē ytē imant a appoll.
| phrase = Dē zyt a haus.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈɛɪ̯tɛ ˈimant a ˈɑpːɔlː/
| gloss = PT exist a house.
| gloss = 3SG.N eat.BYF someone an apple
| translation = there is a house.
| translation = There is someone eating an apple. = Someone is eating an apple.
}}
}}
Unlike with the normal existentials, the past of this construction uses a normal past.
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē ati imant a appoll.
| phrase = Mi zyt dē.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈati ˈimant a ˈɑpːɔlː/
| gloss = 1SG.OBJ exist PT
| gloss = 3SG.N eat.PST someone an apple
| translation = I exist.
| translation = There was someone eating an apple. = Someone was eating an apple.
}}
}}


Line 961: Line 1,149:
The well-known man repaired my old and quite beautiful boat after a stupid girl's uncle by accident had damaged it with an old black sword.
The well-known man repaired my old and quite beautiful boat after a stupid girl's uncle by accident had damaged it with an old black sword.


[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Languages]]
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