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{{privatelang}} {{construction}}


A grammar sketch of the Haššûl, common language of the Yar-Beššel and The Riverlands.
{{Infobox language
|image=
|imagesize= 250px
|name=''Haššûl''
|nativename='' ''
|pronunciation=/ħɐ.'ʃ:u:l/
|-
|creator=[[User:Nicolasstraccia|Nicolás Straccia]]
|setting=''Yrḳuti'' conworlding project
|-
|states=The Yar-Beššel (Kingdom of Yar-Beššel and vassal counties) and The Riverlands
<!--|speakers=
<nowiki>|</nowiki> <big>𐌹𐌺𐍂𐍉𐌽𐌿𐍂𐌿𐌼</big>
|date=-->
|familycolor=Tai-Kadai
|fam1=
<!--
|ancestor=Proto-Northern
|ancestor2=[...]
|ancestor3=Ancient IK
|ancestor4=Old IK
|ancestor5=Early Middle I Kronurum
-->
|script=[[w:Latin script|Latin]], native
|iso3=
|-
|notice=IPA
}}
 
The language known as '''Haššûl''' is a conlang being created and developed by [[User:Nicolasstraccia|Nicolás Straccia]]. It is part of the [[Yrḳuti]] conworlding project.


==INTRODUCTION==
==INTRODUCTION==


The language known as the Haššûl [ħɐ.'ʃ:u:l] is the common language of The Yar-Beššel (name given to the Kingdom of Yar-Beššel proper and its neighboring vassal counties), as well as of the nearby region known as The Riverlands (organized in a --comparatively-- looser adjunction of fiefdoms and acting as a federation, with a politically and economically friendly relationship with the Kingdom). There are many different languages being spoken in The Riverlands, some more related to each other than others, but all riverlanders speak the Haššûl as well. On the contrary, being it the principal language of the Kingdom, most of its inhabitants are native speakers of the Haššûl while they know little, if anything, of the indigenous languages of the neighboring Riverlands. For outsiders, there is a certain impression of linguistic and cultural homogeneity in the region, since the Haššûl is the language they would expect everyone to be able to speak anywhere near the Yar-Beššel and The Riverlands, and to which they would refer to as the "local tongue".  
The language known as the Haššûl /ħɐ.'ʃ:u:l/ is the common language of The Yar-Beššel (name given to the Kingdom of Yar-Beššel proper and its neighboring vassal counties), as well as of the nearby region known as The Riverlands (organized in a --comparatively-- looser adjunction of fiefdoms and acting as a federation, with a politically and economically friendly relationship with the Kingdom). There are many different languages being spoken in The Riverlands, some more related to each other than others, but all riverlanders speak the Haššûl as well. On the contrary, being it the principal language of the Kingdom, most of its inhabitants are native speakers of the Haššûl while they know little, if anything, of the indigenous languages of the neighboring Riverlands. For outsiders, there is a certain impression of linguistic and cultural homogeneity in the region, since the Haššûl is the language they would expect everyone to be able to speak anywhere near the Yar-Beššel and The Riverlands, and to which they would refer to as the "local tongue".  


=PHONOLOGY=
=PHONOLOGY=
Line 10: Line 40:
===VOWEL INVENTORY===
===VOWEL INVENTORY===


Front Mid Back
{| class="nounderlines" cellspacing="0px" cellpadding=0 style="text-align:center; background:transparent; float:right;"
High i î u û
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;"
e ê
||
Low o ô
| style="width:60px;" | '''Front'''
a â
| style="width:60px;" | '''Near-front'''
| style="width:60px;" | '''Central'''
| style="width:60px;" | '''Near-back'''
| style="width:60px;" | '''Back'''
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Close'''
| style="height:210px;" colspan=5 rowspan=7 | <div style="position:relative;width:300px;height:210px;">[[Image:Blank vowel trapezoid.svg|300px]]<div style="background:transparent; position:absolute; top:0px; left:0px;">
{| style="position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:transparent;"
|-
| style="width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:transparent;" |
<!-- CLOSE VOWELS -->
<div style="position:absolute; left:5%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">i</div>
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:13%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">y</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:40%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɨ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:50%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ʉ</div>
-->
<div style="position:absolute; left:88%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">u</div>
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:79%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɯ</div>
-->
<!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS -->
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:20%; width:2.33em; top:16%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɪ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:28%; width:2.33em; top:16%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ʏ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:73%; width:2.33em; top:16%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ʊ</div>
-->
<!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS -->
<div style="position:absolute; left:13%; width:2em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">e</div>
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:22%; width:2em; top:29%;height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ø</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:46%; width:2.66em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɘ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:55%; width:2.66em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɵ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:79%; width:2em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɤ</div>
-->
<div style="position:absolute; left:88%; width:2em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">o</div>
<!-- MID VOWELS -->
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:53%; width:2em; top:42%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ə</div>
-->
<!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS -->
<!---
<div style="position:absolute; left:24%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɛ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:33%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">œ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:51%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɜ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:60%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɞ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:79%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ʌ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:88%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɔ</div>
-->
<!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS -->
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:30%; width:2.66em; top:73%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">æ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:60%; width:2.66em; top:73%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɐ</div>
-->
<!-- OPEN VOWELS -->
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:39%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">a</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:48%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɶ</div>
-->
<div style="position:absolute; left:62%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ä</div>
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:79%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɑ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:88%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɒ</div>
-->
|}
</div></div>
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Near‑close'''
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Close‑mid'''
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Mid'''
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Open‑mid'''
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Near‑open'''
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Open'''
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! || colspan=2| Front || colspan=2| Mid || colspan=2| Back
|-
| rowspan=2| High || i || î || || || u || û  
|-
| e || ê || || || ||
|-
| rowspan=2| Low || || || || || o || ô  
|-
| || || a || â || ||
|-
|}




===CONSONANT INVENTORY===
===CONSONANT INVENTORY===


h [ħ] š [ʃ] l [l] b [b] r [r] y [j] n [n] x [X] m [m] p [p] k [k] z [z] w [w]
h [ħ] š [ʃ] l [l] b [b] r [r/ɾ] y [j] n [n] x [χ] m [m] p [p] k [k] z [z] w [w]


<!--
<!--
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! rowspan="2" style="background:white"|  
! rowspan="2" style="background:white"|  
! colspan="4" | Labial
! colspan="4" | Labial
! colspan="6" | Coronal
! colspan="8" | Coronal
! colspan="6" | Dorsal
! colspan="6" | Dorsal
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Labiovelar
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Labiovelar
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! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Alveolar
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Alveolar
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Palatoalveolar
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Palatoalveolar
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Retroflex
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Palatal
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Palatal
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Velar
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Velar
Line 51: Line 174:
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʈ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ɖ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| k
| k
| g
| g
| q
| ɢ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʔ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
|-
|-
! style="text-align:left"|Nasal
! style="text-align:left"|Nasal
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ɳ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ɲ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ŋ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ŋʷ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
|-
|-
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| r
| r
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ɾ
| ɾ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
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|-
|-
! style="text-align:left"|Fricative
! style="text-align:left"|Fricative
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ɸ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| β
| f
| f
| v
| v
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| θ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ð
| s
| s
| z
| z
| ʃ
| ʃ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʒ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʂ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʐ
| ç
| ʝ
| x
| x
| ɣ
| ɣ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| xʷ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| h
| h
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʦ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʣ
| ʧ
| ʤ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ɹ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| l
| l
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
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(C1)V(C2)
(C1)V(C2)
C1:  plosive, continuant (nasal, lateral, rhotic, fricative)
C1:  plosive, continuant (nasal, lateral, rhotic, fricative)
C2: continuant (nasal, lateral, rhotic, fricative)
C2: continuant (nasal, lateral, rhotic, fricative)


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'''''· Slot 0: root and infixes'''''
'''''· Slot 0: root and infixes'''''
Infixes


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! Infix || Marker || Notes
|-
|-
| Stative form || -na- || After the first vowel. See ''Stative forms'' below.
| Stative form || -na- || After the first vowel. See ''Stative forms'' below.
|-
|-
| .
| . || ||
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! || Indeterminate || Determinate || colspan=2|  
! || Indeterminate || Determinate || colspan=2|  
|-
|-
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| i) Number marking by prefix || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot -n ||
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| i) Number marking by prefix || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot -n
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || Ø- || ak- || ||  
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || Ø- || ak- || ||  
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| style="text-align:left"| Plural || l(e)- || har- || ||  
| style="text-align:left"| Plural || l(e)- || har- || ||  
|-
|-
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| ii) Number marking by suffix || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot n ||
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| ii) Number marking by suffix || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot n
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || -eš || -eš=ûr || || style="text-align:left"| Etymologicaly related to ''êš'', "one".
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || -eš || -eš=ûr || || style="text-align:left"| Etymologicaly related to ''êš'', "one".
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| style="text-align:left"| Plural || -n=zûr || ||  
| style="text-align:left"| Plural || -n=zûr || ||  
|-
|-
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| iii) Number marking by infix: <br> mainly collective nouns and ''pluralia tanta'' || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot 0 ||
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| iii) Number marking by infix: <br> mainly collective nouns and ''pluralia tanta'' || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot 0
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || colspan=2; style="text-align:center"| -VyV- || style="text-align:left"| V<sub>1</sub>CCV<sub>2</sub> → V<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>1</sub>yV<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>2</sub> || style="text-align:left"| Singulative form of a collective noun or ''plurale tantum''; an individualisation or instance thereof.
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || colspan=2; style="text-align:center"| -VyV- || style="text-align:left"| V<sub>1</sub>CCV<sub>2</sub> → V<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>1</sub>yV<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>2</sub> || style="text-align:left"| Singulative form of a collective noun or ''plurale tantum''; an individualisation or instance thereof.
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| style="text-align:left"| Plural || -VhtV- || ||  
| style="text-align:left"| Plural || -VhtV- || ||  
|-
|-
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| iv) Number marking by combination of the above || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| {variable: S=PA: 0, n; PL: -n, n}||
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| iv) Number marking by combination of the above || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| {variable: S=PA: 0, n; PL: -n, n}
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || -VrV-...-em || Ø-...-s=ûr || ||  
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || -VrV-...-em || Ø-...-s=ûr || ||  
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| style="text-align:left"| Plural || colspan=2| u'-...-kûr || ||  
| style="text-align:left"| Plural || colspan=2| u'-...-kûr || ||  
|-
|-
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| v) Number marking by reduplication || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot -n ||
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| v) Number marking by reduplication || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot -n
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || Ø || itV1(t)- || ||  
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || Ø || itV1(t)- || ||  
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| style="text-align:left"| Paucal || C1a- || C1... -> C1aC1... || ||  
| style="text-align:left"| Paucal || C1a- || C1... -> C1aC1... || ||  
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left"| Plural || colspan=2| VCVC- || || ||  
| style="text-align:left"| Plural || colspan=2| VCVC- || ||
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Stative forms====
====Stative forms====
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:{|
:{|
|-
|-
| ''pešš-'', tea plant, ''penašš-''
| ''pešš-'', "tea plant" → ''penašš-''
|-
|-
| <nowiki>{pe<na>šš-eš}</nowiki>
| <nowiki>{pe<na>šš-eš}</nowiki>
|-
|-
| <nowiki>[tea.plant<STAT>-SG], "to be a teaplant";</nowiki>
| [tea.plant<{{sc|stat}}>-{{sc|sg}}], "to be a teaplant";
|-
|-
| <nowiki>{tea.plant<STAT>-SG DEM.SG.PROX.SP}</nowiki>
| {tea.plant<{{sc|stat}}>-{{sc|sg}} {{sc|dem.sg.prox.sp}}}
|-
|-
| ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>penaššeš telêš<nowiki>'</nowiki> ''''', "this is a teaplant";
| ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>penaššeš telêš<nowiki>'</nowiki> ''''', "this is a teaplant";
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| <nowiki>{pe<na>šš-a-telê-eš}</nowiki>
| <nowiki>{pe<na>šš-a-telê-eš}</nowiki>
|-
|-
| <nowiki>[tea.plant<STAT>-A-DEM.SG.PROX.SP-SG]</nowiki>
| [tea.plant<{{sc|stat}}>-{{sc|a}}-{{sc|dem.sg.prox.sp}}-{{sc|sg}}]
|-
|-
| ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>penaššatelêš<nowiki>'</nowiki> '''''
| ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>penaššatelêš<nowiki>'</nowiki> '''''
Line 358: Line 496:


is also valid.
is also valid.


====Incorporation====
====Incorporation====
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Whenever a genitive pronoun in its long form is used in a clause, case marking is dropped from the arguments and the roles are marked by their syntactic relation with the pronoun (e.g. possessed-gen-possessor; see ''Possession'' below).
Whenever a genitive pronoun in its long form is used in a clause, case marking is dropped from the arguments and the roles are marked by their syntactic relation with the pronoun (e.g. possessed-gen-possessor; see ''Possession'' below).


- Free pronouns:
''''' · Free pronouns:'''''


:{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
:{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
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- Reflexive pronouns:
'''''· Reflexive pronouns:'''''


:Reflexive pronouns are formed by prefixal and infixal reduplication of the long form of the free pronouns and have only a long form. The prefixal element ''V-'' applies to CV<sub>1</sub>C- forms, which become V<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>1</sub>C-. The infixal element ''-CC-'' applies to both CVC- and VCV- forms, which geminate the first and second consonant, respectively, of the free form of the pronoun. This lengthening of the consonant compensatorily shortens any subsequent long vowels and drives the elision of  final vowels. Regular phonological processes also apply.
:Reflexive pronouns are formed by prefixal and infixal reduplication of the long form of the free pronouns and have only a long form. The prefixal element ''V-'' applies to CV<sub>1</sub>C- forms, which become V<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>1</sub>C-. The infixal element ''-CC-'' applies to both CVC- and VCV- forms, which geminate the first and second consonant, respectively, of the free form of the pronoun. This lengthening of the consonant compensatorily shortens any subsequent long vowels and drives the elision of  final vowels. Regular phonological processes also apply.
Line 428: Line 565:




- Genitive pronouns:
'''''· Genitive pronouns:'''''


:These pronouns are etymologically related to the root ''*wēr'', to belong", being reconstructed as an adpositional compound of ''*PREP+wer''. E.g. :
:These pronouns are etymologically related to the root ''*wēr'', "to belong", being reconstructed as an adpositional compound of ''*PREP+wer''. E.g. :


:{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
:{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
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- Negative pronouns:
'''''· Negative pronouns:'''''


:{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
:{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
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====Slot population====
====Slot population====


Slot -2: Pronominal marking on the verb
'''''· Slot -2: Pronominal marking on the verb'''''


Verbal roots are prefixed with the enclitical form of the personal pronouns (see Pronouns above).
Verbal roots are prefixed with the enclitical form of the personal pronouns (see ''Pronouns'' above).
Not marking with a pronominal form lets the agent unspecified, which conveys a grammatical aspect of the gnomic and habitual types. E.g. if the actor is mentioned (be it through the use of a proper name or the use of a long pronominal form), then a verb without pronominal marking would convey the meaning of a certain gnomicity/habituality of that doing by said overtly stated actor.
Slot -1: Referent anaphora


Same referent -Ø-
Not marking with a pronominal form lets the agent unspecified, which conveys a grammatical aspect of the ''gnomic'' and ''habitual'' types. E.g. if the actor is mentioned (be it through the use of a ''proper name'' or the use of a ''long pronominal form''), then a verb without pronominal marking would convey the meaning of a certain gnomicity/habituality of that doing by said overtly stated actor.
Another (mentioned) -i-
Another (not mentioned) -šku-


the same vs. anoher mentioned vs. anoter not mentioned (begs for introduction)
Slot 0: Stem and infixes


.
'''''· Slot -1: Referent anaphora'''''
Compositional genitive -šnV- V=reduplication of the root vowel as short vowel regardless of original length; the verb receives a noun in genitive compound; akin to a construct state marking, but in the verb.


Slot 1: Tense/Aspect
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! Referent || Marker || Notes
|-
| Same referent || -Ø- ||
|-
| Another (mentioned) || -i- ||
|-
| Another (not mentioned) || -šku- ||  Begs for subsequent introduction
|-
|}


Anterior tense -xtu-
Past tense/perfectve aspect -kše-
Relative present tense/gnomic aspect -Ø-
Present-future/imperfective aspect -ra=
Posterior tense -šar-


Slot 2: Inverse marking
'''''· Slot 0: Stem and infixes'''''
Animacy hierarchy: 1 > 2 > 3; S > PA > P; INCL > EXCL
Direct -Ø-
Inverse -n-


Slot 3: Object number marking
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! Infix || Marker || Notes
|-
| Compositional genitive || -šnV- || V= reduplication of the root vowel as short vowel regardless of original length; the verb receives a noun in genitive compound; akin to a construct state marking, but in the verb.
|-
| . || ||
|-
|}


Transitive verbs can be marked to agree wirh the number of the object argument. The marking is for singular, dual, paucal and plural, using the words for one, two, some and many.
Singular (one) -êš-
Dual (two) --
Paucal (some) --
Plural (many) --
None -t(a)- Etymologically related to the root *tə, "without".
Unspecified -Ø-


Slot 4: Aspect
'''''· Slot 1: Tense/Aspect'''''


-ô-
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
-ta-
|-
-û-
! Tense/Aspect || Marker || Notes
-î-
|-
-ne-
| Anterior tense || -xtu- ||
Tense/aspect -Ø- Unmarked aspect in Slot 4 points towards the tense/aspect marking in Slot 1
|-
| Past tense/perfectve aspect || -kše- ||
|-
| Relative present tense/gnomic aspect || -Ø- ||
|-
| Present-future/imperfective aspect || -ra= ||
|-
| Posterior tense || -šar- ||
|-
|}
 
 
'''''· Slot 2: Inverse marking'''''
 
The animacy hierarchy, from most to least animated, is as follows: 1 > 2 > 3; S > PA > P; INCL > EXCL. This can be seen, from top to bottom, in the following table:
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Person || Number || Clusivity
|-
| rowspan=5| 1 || colspan=2| S
|-
| rowspan=2| PA || INC
|-
| EXC
|-
| rowspan=2| PL || INC
|-
| EXC
|-
| rowspan=3| 2 || colspan=2| S
|-
| colspan=2| PA
|-
| colspan=2| PL
|-
| rowspan=3| 3 || colspan=2| S
|-
| colspan=2| PA
|-
| colspan=2| PL
|-
|}
 
This is marked as follows:
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! Marking || colspan=2| Marker || Notes
|-
| Direct || colspan=2| -Ø- || The agent role of a transitive construction is taken by an argument in a higher hierarchical level than that of the argument taking on the patient role.
|-
| Inverse || colspan=2| -n- || The agent role of a transitive construction is taken by an argument in a lower hierarchical level than that of the argument taking on the patient role.
|-
| Same || -C- || Repeats the first consonant of the marker in Slot 1; if said slot is "empty" (unmarked), || The agent role of a transitive construction is taken by an argument in the same hierarchical level than that of the argument taking on the patient role.


Slot 5: Mood
This is not strictly a traditional direct-inverse marker, but rather the functional equivalent which marks verbs for reflexivity using the same slot, but nevertheless also owing to the same hierarchical logic, thus being analized as part of the same system.
|-
|}


Indicative -š-
Interrogative -n-
Negative -r- It is combined with the other mood markers to form their negative counterparts: -rš- NEG.IND, -rn- NEG.INT, -rl- NEG.COND/NEG.SUBJ, -rx- NEG.POT/NEG.OPT, -r(V)hh(V)- NEG.VOL
Subj./Cond. -l- The conditional form is formed with the affix =tu-, "if", following this marker. For the different voices (marked in the next slot) regular sandhi rules yield the following forms:
-l=tu-Ø > -ltu ; -l=tu-i > -ltwi ; -l=tu-u > -ltû ; -l=tu-k > -ltuk
Potential/Optative -x-
Volitive -hh(V)- +(V) before a consonant in the following slot; it repeats the preceding vowel, always short regardless of its original length.


Slot 6: Voice
'''''· Slot 3: Object number marking'''''


Transitive verbs can be marked to agree with the number of the object argument. The marking is for singular, dual, paucal and plural, using markers derived from the words for ''one'', ''two'', ''some'' and ''many''. The object itself is then mostly left unmarked for number.


Active -Ø
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
Anticausative -i
|-
Middle -u
! Number || Marker || Notes
Applicative -k ; also marking of unergative past participles as nominal modifiers with active meaning
|-
Unergative -t
| Singular (one) || -heš- || (< h-êš, one)
|-
| Dual (two) || -xu- || (< h-ku, two)
|-
| Paucal (some) || -fal- || (< h-bâl, some)
|-
| Plural (many) || -- || (< h- )
|-
| None || -ht(a)- || (< h-ta, "_", <*tə, "without").
|-
| Unspecified || -Ø- || Unspecified number of the object; also used with proper names.
|-
|}
 
 
'''''· Slot 4: Aspect'''''
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! Aspect || Marker || Notes
|-
| Imperfective/Atelic {{sc|ipf}} || -ô- ||
|-
| Perfective/Telic {{sc|perf}} || -ta- ||
|-
| {{sc|}} || -û- ||
|-
| Progressive/Continuous {{sc|prog}}/{{sc|cont}} || -î- ||
|-
| Resultative {{sc|res}} || -ne- ||
|-
| Tense/aspect || -Ø- || Unmarked aspect in Slot 4 points towards the tense/aspect marking in Slot 1 (aspects: perfective, gnomic, imperfective); a gnomic/habitual aspect is also convenient by leaving the agent pronoun in Slot -2 unmarked.
|-
|}
 
 
'''''· Slot 5: Location of the action's performance as relative to the place of utterance'''''
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! Location || Marker || Notes
|-
| Unspecified {{sc|unsp}} || -Ø- || Unmarked for a specific location relative to the place of utterance. The location has either already been mentioned in the same clause (outside of the verb or via a proper name), or it is meant to be identical with the place of utterance.
|-
| Not here {{sc|not.here}} || -rta- || The action either takes/will take/etc. place somewhere else than at the place of utterance, or one will go somewhere else to perform the action/for the action to be performed.
|-
| Here {{sc|here}} || -nke- || The action either takes/will take/etc. place at the place of utterance, or one will come to the place of utterance to perform the action/for the action to be performed.
|-
| Arriving there {{sc|arriving.there}} || -llu- || The action will take place upon arrival somewhere else than at the place of utterance.
|-
| Arriving here {{sc|arriving.here}} || -šti- || The action will take place upon arrival at the place of utterance.
|-
|}
 
 
'''''· Slot 6: Mood'''''
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! Mood || Marker || Notes
|-
| Indicative {{sc|ind}} || -š- ||
|-
| Interrogative {{sc|int}} || -n- || Marks the verb as a question regarding wether the assertion made by the verbal construction is true (reality compliant) or not.
|-
| Negative {{sc|neg}} || -r- || It is combined with the other mood markers to form their negative counterparts:
 
''-rš-'' {{sc|neg.ind}}, ''-rn-'' {{sc|neg.int}}, ''-rl-'' {{sc|neg.cont/neg.subj}}, ''-rx-'' {{sc|neg.pot/neg.opt}}, ''-r(V)hh(V)-'' {{sc|neg.vol}}
|-
| Subjunctive/ Conditional {{sc|subj/cond}} || -l- || The conditional form is formed with the affix =tu-, "if", following this marker. For the different voices (marked in the next slot) regular sandhi rules yield the following forms:
 
-l=tu-Ø > ''-ltu'' ; -l=tu-i > ''-ltwi'' ; -l=tu-u > ''-ltû'' ; -l=tu-k > ''-ltuk''
|-
| Potential/Optative {{sc|pot/opt}} || -x- || The "then"-verbal clause following an "if"-marked verb is characterized by this mood.
|-
| Volitive {{sc|vol}} || -hh(V)- || +(V) before a consonant in the following slot; it repeats the preceding vowel, always short regardless of its original length.
|-
|}
 
 
'''''· Slot 7: Voice'''''
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! Voice || Marker || Notes
|-
| Active {{sc|act}} || -Ø ||
|-
| Anticausative {{sc|antic}} || -i ||
|-
| Middle {{sc|mid}} || -u ||
|-
| Applicative {{sc|app}} || -k || ; also marking of unergative past participles as nominal modifiers with active meaning
|-
| Unergative {{sc|unerg}} || -t ||
|-
|}


-Syntactic argument marking-
-Syntactic argument marking-
~Unaccusative
~Unaccusative
~~Anticausative
~~Anticausative
~Unergative
~Unergative


Line 558: Line 838:


====Verbal marking====
====Verbal marking====
:{|
|-
| Subject pronoun: free pronoun, short form
|-
| Referent anaphora: the same vs. anoher mentioned vs. anoter not mentioned (begs for introduction)
|-
| Stem - Infixes
|-
| Tense: [anterior] vs. [past/perfective] vs. [relative present tense] vs. [present-future/imperfective] vs. [posterior]
|-
| Inverse: I/O
|-
| Object number (transitive verbs)
|-
| Aspect:
|-
| Mood:
|-
| Voice: indicative vs. interrogative vs. negative vs. subjunctive/conditional vs. potential/optative
|-
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"
|-
! colspan=2| -2 || -1 || colspan=2| 0 || colspan=2| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6
|-
! colspan=2| Subj.Pron (free pr. short form) || Ref.Anaph || Stem || <nowiki><infixes></nowiki> || colspan=2| Tense || Inverse || Obj.Nr || Aspect || Mood || Voice
|-
| e=n- || S>P/n_ (ej. h>k) || -Ø- || -happ=a- || <nowiki><šnV></nowiki><sup>1</sup> || -ra=z- || =z/_V[-high] || -n- || -- || -ô- || -r- || -i
|-
| e=y- || -a/_C [plosive] || -i- || -happ=š- || || -ra=x- || =x/_t, d || -Ø- || -- || -ta- || -n- || -u
|-
| || || -šku- || -haptu-* || || -ra=n- || =n/_V[+high], n || || -- || -û- || -š- || -Ø
|-
| || || || || || colspan=2| -Ø- || -C- || -- || -î- || -l- || -k
|-
| || || || || || -ša=r- || =r/_n || || -Ø- || -ne- || -x- || -t
|-
| || || || || || -ša=k- || =k/_t || || || || ||
|-
| || || || || || -ša=s- || =s/ || || || || ||
|-
| || || || || || -xtu- || || || || || ||
|-
| || || || || || -kše- || || || || || ||
|-
|}
<sup>1</sup> the verb receives an incorporated noun in genitive compound; akin to a construct state marking in the verb.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"
|-
! -2 || -1 || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6
|-
! Subj.Pron || Ref.Anaph || Root || Tense || Inverse || Obj.Nr || Aspect || Mood || Voice
|-
| 1S.NOM || SAME || to.bread.cook || PRES || DIRECT || UNSP || UNSP || ACT
|-
| wâ[N]- || -Ø- || -hanaptu-kkû- || -Ø- || -Ø- || -Ø- || -Ø- || -š- || -Ø
|-
| colspan=9| wâ[N]-Ø-hanaptu-kkû-Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-š-Ø}
|-
| colspan=9| ''wânkanaptukkûš''
|-
| colspan=9| "it is a common occurrence that I bake bread"
|-
|}
*  haptu- < happ=ttu-


==DEICTICS==
==DEICTICS==
Line 563: Line 912:
===Demonstrative pronouns===
===Demonstrative pronouns===


Haššûl spatial deictics correlate in proximity with first exclusive (proximal), second (medial), and third person (distal) pronouns. The short form of the genitive pronouns is affixed wih the following locative markers (LOC) depending on relative positions: -le 'speaker', -nê 'addressee' and -la 'both'. This gives us the following combinations:
Haššûl spatial deictics correlate in proximity with first exclusive (proximal), second (medial), and third person (distal) pronouns. The short form of the genitive pronouns is affixed wih the following locative markers ({{sc|loc}}) depending on relative positions: ''-le'' 'speaker', ''-nê'' 'addressee' and ''-la'' 'both'. This gives us the following combinations:


Singular:
====Singular:====
Personal pronoun and correlative proximity
first exclusive  (proximal) second (medial) third (distal)
têk- en- ey-


LOC 'speaker' -le têk-le- > têkle- > telê- en-le- > elne- > êlle- ey-le > eyye > êye-
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"  style="text-align:center"
'addressee' -nê têk-nê- > têknê- > tekne- en-nê- > ennê- > êne- ey-nê > enyê > enye-
|-
'both' -la têk-la- > têkla- > telâ- en-la- > elna- > êlla- ey-la > eyya > êya-
! rowspan=3 colspan=3| || colspan=6| Personal pronoun and correlative proximity
|-
! colspan=2| first exclusive (proximal) || colspan=2| second (medial) || colspan=2| third (distal)
|-
! colspan=2| ''têk-'' || colspan=2| ''en-'' || colspan=2| ''ey-''
|-
| rowspan=3 style="background:lightsteelblue"| {{sc|loc}} || style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'speaker' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-le'' || têk-le- > têkle- > || ''telê-'' || en-le- > elne- > || ''êlle-'' || ey-le- > eyye- > || ''êye-''
|-
| style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'addressee' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-nê'' || têk-nê- > têknê- > || ''tekne-'' || en-nê- > ennê- > || ''êne-'' || ey-nê- > enyê- > || ''enye-''
|-
| style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'both' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-la'' || têk-la- > têkla- > || ''telâ-'' || en-la- > elna- > || ''êlla-'' || ey-la- > eyya- > || ''êya-''
|-
|}


Paucal/Plural:
====Paucal/Plural:====
Personal pronoun and correlative proximity
first exclusive (proximal) second (medial) third (distal)
tâl- aš(š)- nâm-


LOC 'speaker' -le tâl-le- > tâlle- > tale- aš(š)-le- > ašle- > ašše- nâm-le- > nâlme- > nâlle-
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"  style="text-align:center"
'addressee' -nê tâl-nê- > tânlê- > tanne- aš(š)-nê- > ašne- > ašnê- nâm-nê- > nâmne- > nâmme-
|-
'both' -la tâl-la- > tâlla- > tala- aš(š)-la- > ašla- > ašša- nâm-la- > nâlma- > nâlla-
! rowspan=3 colspan=3| || colspan=6| Personal pronoun and correlative proximity
|-
! colspan=2| first exclusive (proximal) || colspan=2| second (medial) || colspan=2| third (distal)
|-
! colspan=2| ''tâl-'' || colspan=2| ''aš(š)-'' || colspan=2| ''nâm-''
|-
| rowspan=3 style="background:lightsteelblue"| {{sc|loc}} || style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'speaker' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-le'' || tâl-le- > tâlle- > || ''tale-'' || aš(š)-le- > ašle- > || ''ašše-'' || nâm-le- > nâlme- > || ''nâlle-''
|-
| style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'addressee' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-nê'' || tâl-nê- > tânlê- > || ''tanne-'' || aš(š)-nê- > ašne- > || ''ašnê-'' || nâm-nê- > nâmne- > || ''nâmme-''
|-
| style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'both' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-la'' || tâl-la- > tâlla- > || ''tala-'' || aš(š)-la- > ašla- > || ''ašša-'' || nâm-la- > nâlma- > || ''nâlla-''
|-
|}


Deictics may occur either in place of nouns or postposed to nouns, as in ??hanô lene??  'that house'.
Deictics may occur either in place of nouns or postposed to nouns, as in ??hanô lene??  'that house'.
Verbal forms of the demonstrative pronouns can be derived with the verbalizer =š- for intransitive verbs, with the meaning to.be/stay/remain/be.present-LOC, e.g. {ašša=š-} 'aššaš' "they just stay there"
 
Verbal forms of the demonstrative pronouns can be derived with the verbalizer ''=š-'' for intransitive verbs, with the meaning ''to.be/stay/remain/be.present-{{sc|loc}}''. E.g. {ašša=š-} ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>aššaš<nowiki>'</nowiki> ''''' "they just stay there"


==POSSESSION==
==POSSESSION==


Posession can be marked with the enclitic form of either a genitive or a negative pronoun, indicating respectively posession or non-posession by the marked-for person.
Possession can be marked with the enclitic form of either a ''genitive'' or a ''negative pronoun'', indicating respectively ''possession'' or ''non-possession'' by the marked-for person.
Genitive possessive
 
The possession of a noun is marked with the enclitic form of the genitive pronouns, bearing the same person and number (1S.GEN = 1S.POS, "my", etc).
===Genitive possessive===
Whenever a genitive pronoun in its long form is used in a clause (e.g. when the posessor is explicitly mentioned), posession marking is dropped from the arguments and the roles are marked by their syntactic relation with the pronoun (e.g. possessed-gen-possessor). For instance, in the sentence "Manxên eyer Rûl" ("a man's she-dog"), the posessor is mentioned (Rûl, a.man), and therefore the long version of the third person singular genitive pronoun (eyer) is used; the form **eyManxên eyer Rûl would be incorrect.
 
Negative possessive
The possession of a noun is marked with the enclitic form of the genitive pronouns, bearing the same person and number ({{sc|1s.gen}}={{sc|1s.pos}}, ''"my"'', etc).
The enclitic form of the negative pronouns is used in the same way as that of the genitive pronouns, likewise bearing the same person and number (1S.NEG = 1S.NEG.POS, "not.my", etc, to indicate a non-belonging relationship. E.g. "rexlanneš", {re=x-lann-eš} 1S.NEG.POS-house-SG 'not.my.house'.
 
Whenever a genitive pronoun in its long form is used in a clause (e.g. when the possessor is explicitly mentioned), possession marking is dropped from the arguments and the roles are marked by their syntactic relation with the pronoun (order ''possessed-{{sc|gen}}-possessor'').
For instance, in the sentence ''"Manxên eyer Rûl"'' (''"a man's she-dog"''), the possessor is mentioned (''rûl'', 'a.man'), and therefore the long version of the third person singular genitive pronoun (''eyer'') is used. The form ''**eyManxên eyer Rûl'' ({{sc|1s.pos}}-she.dog {{sc|1s.gen}} man), using the short form of the third person singular genitive pronoun (''ey-''), would be incorrect.
 
===Negative possessive===
 
The enclitic form of the negative pronouns is used in the same way as that of the genitive pronouns, likewise bearing the same person and number ({{sc|1s.neg}}={{sc|1s.neg.pos}}, ''"not.my"'', etc.), to indicate a non-belonging relationship. E.g. '''''<nowiki>'</nowiki>rexlanneš<nowiki>'</nowiki>''''', {re=x-lann-eš} {{sc|1s.neg.pos}}-house-{{sc|sg}}, ''<nowiki>'</nowiki>not.my.house<nowiki>'</nowiki>''.


==DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY==
==DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY==
Line 599: Line 973:
===Derivation of adjectives===
===Derivation of adjectives===


Every lexical root, be it nominal or verbal, can be turned into an adjective with the adjectivizer suffix ADJZ -(t)ilir.
Every lexical root, be it nominal or verbal, can be turned into an adjective with the adjectivizer suffix {{sc|adjz}} ''-(t)ilir''.


In the case of nominal roots, it takes on the role of a semblative case, with the general predicate form "x is [noun]-like".  
In the case of nominal roots, it takes on the role of a semblative case, with the general predicate form '' "x is [noun]-like" ''.  


In the case of verbal roots, it can be defined as a deverbal form, taking over adjectival functions, by which definition it could be called an adverb, with the general predicate form "(x-is) in the manner of [verb]-ing".
In the case of verbal roots, it can be defined as a deverbal form, taking over adjectival functions, by which definition it could be called an adverb, with the general predicate form "(x-is) in the manner of [verb]-ing". In the context of a restrictive relative clause, it takes on the role of a deverbal form about which can be predicated of as a noun, by which definition it can be called a participle, with the general predicate form '' "x, which is like [verb]-ing" '' (in English both forms would be represented by the infinitive, and are thus rendered as such in the translation).


In the context of a restrictive relative clause, it takes on the role of a deverbal form about which can be predicated of as a noun, by which definition it can be called a participle, with the general predicate form "x, which is like [verb]-ing" (in English both forms woul be represented by the infinitive, and are thus rendered as such in the translation).
For example:


:{|
:{|
|-
|-
| "[nominal root]-adjz [inflected noun]"
| {{cardo|hanaptilir hanaptupepšeš}}
|-
|-
| {hanap-(t)ilir hanaptupepšeš} > "hanaptilir hanaptupepšeš"
| {hanap-(t)ilir hanaptupepšeš}
|-
|-
| "firelike teabrew" (e.g. said of a spicy teabrew)
| [nominal root]-adjz [inflected noun]
|-
| "a fire-like tea-brew" (e.g. said of a spicy teabrew)
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 619: Line 995:
:{|
:{|
|-
|-
| "[verbal root]-ADJZ [inflected noun]"
| {{cardo|happ(at)ilir hanaptweš}}
|-
|-
| {happ=a-(t)ilir ha<na>p=tu-eš}
| <nowiki>{happ=a-(t)ilir ha<na>p=tu-eš}</nowiki>
|-
|-
| "happ(at)ilir hanaptweš"
| [verbal root]-ADJZ [inflected noun]
|-
|-
| "a X which is like burning" (e.g. "a burning-like cooking", <happatilir hanaptweš>)
| "a burning-like cooking" (< "an X [the cooking], which is like burning"; as is characteristic of some barbecuing styles)
|-
|-
|}
|}


===Derivation from nouns===
===Denominal verbs===


Noun to verb
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! style="text-align:left"| Marking || style="text-align:left"| Marker || style="text-align:left"| Notes || style="text-align:left"| Example
|-
| Verbalizer 1 {{sc|vlz1}} || -Ca- || Transitive verb associated with the noun's nature. || ''happ-'' (< ''*haff-''), "fire"; ''=Ca-'' {{sc|vlz1}}


Marker Notes
→ {happ=a-} ''happa-'', "to.burn" (tr.)
vlz1 -Ca- Transitive verb associated wih the noun's nature E.g.
|-
happ- < *haff-, fire ; =Ca- vlz1
| Verbalizer 2 {{sc|vlz2}} || -ttu- || Transitive verb meaning '' "to transform X (={{sc|obj}}) through [the use of] Y (=noun+{{sc|vlz2}})" '': an action performed by the modified noun {{sc|mn}} transforms the object of the verb in some way associated with the noun's nature. || {{sc|mn}}: ''happ-'', "fire"; ''-ttu-'' {{sc|vlz2}}
happ=a- > happa- to.burn (tr.)
vlz2 -ttu- To transform the object through the verb
In transitive verbs derived from a noun. For example, the verbal affix -ttu- marks that an action which is performed through the modified noun transforms the object in some way. E.g.
happ-, fire ; -ttu-, vlz2
happ-ttu- > haptu- to.cook
"to.transform.using.fire"
vlz3 -š- Intransitive verb E.g.
happ- < *haff-, fire ; =š- vlz3
happ=š- > happš- to.burn (int.)


===Derivation from verbs===
→ {happ-ttu-} ''haptu-'', "to.transform.using.fire", "to.cook".
|-
| Verbalizer 3 {{sc|vlz3}} || -š- || Intransitive verb || ''happ-'' "fire" ; ''=š-'' {{sc|vlz3}}


Verb to noun
→ {happ=š-} ''happš-'', "to.burn" (int.)
|-
|}


Marker Notes
 
===Deverbal nouns===
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! style="text-align:left"| Marking || style="text-align:left"| Marker || style="text-align:left"| Notes
|-
| Nominalizer 1 {{sc|nlz1}} || || Place where the actions of the verb takes place
|-
| Nominalizer 2 {{sc|nlz2}} || || Person that does the action of the verb
|-
| Nominalizer 3 {{sc|nlz3}} || || Person who has a characteristic of the first word
|-
| Nominalizer 4 {{sc|nlz4}} || || That which is done by the verb
|-
|}


==SYNTAX==
==SYNTAX==
Line 657: Line 1,046:
===Word order===
===Word order===


DECLARATIVE Transitive Monotransitive
====Constituent order per sentence type====
Ditransitive
Intransitive
IMPERATIVE
QUESTION [topic]=Q [encl.pron]=[NO.OBJECT]-to.ask{tr}


A/N
{| class="wikitable"
possessed/gen/possessor
|-
| rowspan=3| DECLARATIVE || rowspan=2| Transitive || Monotransitive||
|-
| Ditransitive ||
|-
| colspan=2| Intransitive ||
|-
| colspan=3| IMPERATIVE ||
|-
| colspan=3| QUESTION || [topic]=Q [encl.pron]=[NO.OBJECT]-to.ask{tr}
|-
|}


 
====Other====
enkapprazôr
e=n-happ=a-ra=z-Ø-Ø-ô-r-Ø
e=n- -happ=a- -ra=z- -Ø- -Ø- -ô- -r- -Ø
2S.GEN to.burn=TR PRES.FUT.IPF DIR UNSPEC NEG IND
<>, ""


-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
A/N
Subj.Pron Ref.Anaph Root Tense Inverse Obj.Nr Aspect Mood Voice
1S.NOM SAME to.bread.cook PRES DIRECT UNSP UNSP ACT
wâ[N]- -Ø- -hanaptu-kkû- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø- -š- -Ø
wâ[N]-Ø-hanaptu-kkû-Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-š-Ø}
wânkanaptukkûš
"it is a common occurrence that I bake bread"
 
 
 
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
subject pronoun
(free pr. short form) Referent anaphora Stem <infixes> Tense Inv Obj. Asp. Mo Voi.
e=n- S>P/n_ (ej. h>k) -Ø- -happ=a- <šnV>1 -ra=z- =z/_V[-high] -n- -- -ô- -r- -i
e=y- -a/_C [plosive] -i- -happ=š- -ra=x- =x/_t, d -Ø- -- -ta- -n- -u
-šku- -haptu-* -ra=n- =n/_V[+high], n -- -û- -š- -Ø
-Ø- -- -î- -l- -k
-ša=r- =r/_n -Ø- -ne- -x- -t
-ša=k- =k/_t
-ša=s- =s/
*  haptu- < happ=ttu-
1 the verb receives an incorporated noun in genitive compound; akin to a construct state marking in the verb.
1) eyyapparaxtani, e=y-happ=a-ra=x-ta-n-i
2) happarazôn, Ø-happ=a-ra=z-ô-n-Ø
3) {happ-}, happarazôr
 
Subject pronoun: free pronoun, short form
Referent anaphora: the same vs. anoher mentioned vs. anoter not mentioned (begs for introduction)
Stem - Infixes
Tense: [anterior] vs. [past/perfective] vs. [relative present tense] vs. [present-future/imperfective] vs. [posterior]
Inverse: I/O
Object number (transitive verbs)
Aspect:
Mood:
Voice: indicative vs. interrogative vs. negative vs. subjunctive/conditional vs. potential/optative


possessed/gen/possessor (see ''Possession'' above)


=LEXICON=
=LEXICON=


Nouns (n): animate (an), inanimate (in), derivated from verbs (dev).
{|
Verbs (v): transitive (tr), intransitive (int), incorporated (inc)
|-
Particles (p): verbal (ver), nominal (nom), suprasegmental (sup)
| Nouns (n): || animate (an), inanimate (in), deverbal (dev).
Numerals (nu)
|-
| Verbs (v): || transitive (tr), intransitive (int), incorporated (inc)
|-
| Particles (p): || verbal (ver), nominal (nom), suprasegmental (sup)
|-
| Numerals (nu) ||
|-
|}


<> // Nr.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:left"
hanapp- n an ii fire -na- (infix); stative (nominal form)
|-
happ=š- v int to.burn.(down) happ- < *haff-, fire ; =š- VLZ3
! colspan=7| Wordlist
happ=a- v tr to.burn happ- < *haff-, fire ; =Ca- VLZ1
|-
haptu- v tr "to.transform.using.fire": to.cook (a meal, clay, etc), to.evaporate (water, etc), some (al-)chemical reactions happ- < *haff-, fire ; =ttu- VLZ2
! <> || // || colspan=2| POS || Nr. || Meaning || Notes
happ-ttu- to.transform.using.fire
|-
hanaptu- n dev (a) cooking
| hanapp- || ˈhä.nä.pː͜  || n || an || ii || fire || -na- (infix); stative (nominal form)
hašnapturûl- n an ii a cook "a man of cooking", ha<šnV>ptu-rûl-
|-
hašnaptukkûrûl- n an ii a baker
| happ=š- || ˈhä.pːʃ͜  || v || int || || to.burn.(down) || ''happ-'' (< *haff-), "fire"; ''=š-'' {{sc|vlz3}}
akkwaku- n in ii a meal reduplication of "bread", akku-akku-
|-
akku-, -kkû- n in ii bread
| happ=a- || ˈhä.pːä. || v || tr || || to.burn || ''happ-'' (< *haff-), "fire"; ''=Ca-'' {{sc|vlz1}}
haptukkû- v inc to.bread-cook, to.bake.bread
|-
manne n an ii animal similar to a dog
| haptu- || ˈhäp.tu. || v || tr || || "to.transform.using.fire": to.cook (a meal, clay, etc), to.evaporate (water, etc), some (al-)chemical reactions || ''happ-'' (< *haff-), "fire"; ''=ttu-'' {{sc|vlz2}}
rûl n an ii man
→ ''happ-ttu-'', "to.transform.using.fire"
kên n an ii female (of an animal)
|-
êrš- v int to.belong *wēr=š- (to.belong=VLZ3)
| hanaptu- || ˈhä.näp.tu. || n || dev || || (a) cooking ||
ertu- v tr to.adhere, to.make.be.with *wêr=ttu- (to.belong=VLZ2)
|-
etna-, -(e)tn(a)- without *tə
| hašnapturûl- || ˈhäʃ.näp.tu.ɾuːl. || n || an || ii || a cook || "a man of cooking", ''<nowiki>ha<šnV>ptu-rûl-</nowiki>''
tə-na- > ət-na- > etna-/atna-
|-
-reš-, -raš- p nom noun modifier in respect of a verbal root
| hašnaptukkûrûl- || ˈhäʃ.näp.tu.kːu.ɾuːl. || n || an || ii || a baker ||
an action is applied to a noun; being subject to that action characterizes the noun.
|-
happ=a-[] a-rûl-reš-[]
| akkwaku- || ˈä.kːwä.ku. || n || in || ii || a meal || reduplication of "bread", ''akku-akku-''
to.burn-
|-
"the.burning.man"
| akku-, -kkû- || ˈä.kːu {{pipe}} .kːuː. || n || in || ii || bread ||
adjectivization through gerundives?
|-
pešš-, -pepš- n an ii tea plant, tea leaf: tea infusion
| haptukkû- || ˈhäp.tu.kːuː. || v || inc || || to.bread-cook, to.bake.bread ||
haptupepš- v tr to.brew.tea
|-
hanaptupepš- n dev (a) teabrew(ing)
| manne- || ˈmä.nːe. || n || an || ii || animal similar to a dog ||
-šnV- p ver (infix) -šnV- (V=reduplication of the root vowel as short vowel regardless of original length); the verb receives a noun in genitive compound; akin to a construct state marking in the verb.
|-
lann-, -lan- n in ii house, shelter
| rûl- || ˈɾuːl. || n || an || ii || man ||
-eš p nom singular indefinite; etymologically related to he word for "one" êš < *weš, form which resurfaces when after a vowel (e.g.
|-
| kên- || ˈkeːn. || n || an || ii || female (of an animal) ||
|-
| êrš- || ˈeːɾʃ͜  || v || int || || to.belong || (< ''*wēr=š-'', to.belong={{sc|vlz3}})
|-
| ertu- || ˈeɾ.tu. || v || tr || || to.adhere, to.make.be.with || (< ''*wêr=ttu-'', to.belong={{sc|vlz2}})
|-
| etna-, -(e)tn(a)- || ˈet.nä. || || || || without || ''*tə'' > ''tə-na-'' > ''ət-na-'' > ''etna-/atna-''
|-
| -reš-, -raš- || .ɾeʃ. {{pipe}} .ɾäʃ. || p || nom || || || noun modifier in respect of a verbal root; an action is applied to a noun; being subject to that action characterizes the noun: {happ=a-[] a-rûl-reš-[]} to.burn- "the.burning.man" - adjectivization through gerundives?
|-
| pešš-, -pepš- || ˈpe.ʃː͜  {{pipe}} .pe.pʃ͜  || n || an || ii || tea plant, tea leaf: tea infusion ||
|-
| haptupepš- || ˈhäp.tu.pepš͜  || v || tr || || to.brew.tea ||
|-
| hanaptupepš- || || n || dev || || (a) tea-brew(ing) ||
|-
| -šnV- || || p || ver || || || (infix) ''-šnV-'' (V=reduplication of the root vowel as short vowel regardless of original length); the verb receives a noun in genitive compound; akin to a construct state marking in the verb.
|-
| lann-, -lan- || || n || in || ii || house, shelter ||
|-
| -eš || || p || nom || || singular indefinite || etymologically related to he word for "one" ''êš'' < ''*weš'', form which resurfaces when after a vowel (e.g.
-a-*weš > -aweš; -u-*weš > -ubeš)
-a-*weš > -aweš; -u-*weš > -ubeš)
-Vkti p sup -Vkti (suffix); it marks the topic of a question
|-
xapr=aš-
| -Vkti || || p || sup || || || ''-Vkti'' (suffix); it marks the topic of a question
aqqe-, -qqe- n in ii clay
|-
êš nu one *weš
| xapr=aš- || || || || || ||
haptuqqe- v inc to.cook.clay
|-
elaš-, -elš- n in ii place, room *welaš
| aqqe-, -qqe- || || n || in || ii || clay ||
haptubelaš- n in ii oven < *haff-ettu-welaš-
|-
xakš-, -akš- n in ii milk
| êš || || nu || || || one || (< ''*weš'')
-(a)lu(l)- p "with [an]", "containing [in]" commitative (an); subject demoting particle while incorporating
|-
hanaptupepšlulakš- n inc "a teabrewing with milk"
| haptuqqe- || || v || inc || || to.cook.clay ||
bâl-, -bâl- n in ii knife
|-
bâldu- v tr "to.transform.using.a.knife", to.chop.up bâl=ttu-  
| elaš-, -elš- || || n || in || ii || place, room || (< ''*welaš'')
ošša n an ii woman
|-
hûr- v to.sing
| haptubelaš- || || n || in || ii || oven || (< ''*haff-ettu-welaš-'')
zâš-, -zaš- n an ii onion
|-
luh-
| xakš-, -akš- || || n || in || ii || milk ||
bâltuzaš- v inc "to.onion-up.chop" The lenited -tt- (> -d-) of the VLZ2 resurfaces as -t- before the sibilant-vowel-sibilant sequence  
|-
| -(a)lu(l)- || || p || || || "with [an]", "containing [in]" || commitative (an); subject demoting particle while incorporating
|-
| hanaptupepšlulakš- || || n || inc || || "a teabrewing with milk" ||
|-
| bâl-, -bâl- || || n || in || ii || knife ||
|-
| bâldu- || || v || tr|| || "to.transform.using.a.knife", to.chop.up || (< ''*bâl=ttu-'')
|-
| ošša- || || n || an || ii || woman ||
|-
| hûr- || || v || || || to.sing ||
|-
| zâš-, -zaš- || || n || an || ii || onion||
|-
| luh- || || || || || ||
|-
| bâltuzaš- || || v || inc || || "to.onion-up.chop" || The lenited ''-tt-'' (> ''-d-'') of the {{sc|vlz2}} resurfaces as ''-t-'' before the [sibilant-vowel-sibilant] sequence
|}


=SAMPLES=
=SAMPLES=
Line 775: Line 1,175:
:{|
:{|
|-
|-
| ‹''Manxên eye'Rûl''›
| {{cardo|Manxên eye'Rûl}}
|-
|-
| /män.ˈχeːn e.je.ˈɾuːl/
| /män.ˈχeːn e.je.ˈɾuːl/
Line 789: Line 1,189:
:{|
:{|
|-
|-
| ‹''wânelššappš-''›
| {{cardo|wânelššappš-}}
|-
|-
| /wäː.nel.ʃːä.pːʃ-/
| /wäː.nel.ʃːä.pːʃ-/
Line 803: Line 1,203:
:{|
:{|
|-
|-
| ‹''aššašakti''›
| {{cardo|aššašakti}}
|-
|-
| /ä.ʃːä.ˈʃäk.ti/
| /ä.ʃːä.ˈʃäk.ti/
Line 812: Line 1,212:
|-
|-
| "to.be.there-?", "do they just stay there?"
| "to.be.there-?", "do they just stay there?"
|-
|}
----
{|
|-
| 1) eyyapparaxtani, e=y-happ=a-ra=x-ta-n-i
|-
| 2) happarazôn, Ø-happ=a-ra=z-ô-n-Ø
|-
| 3) {happ-}, happarazôr
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
| colspan=8| ''enkapprazôr''
|-
| colspan=8| e=n-happ=a-ra=z-Ø-Ø-ô-r-Ø
|-
| e=n- || -happ=a- || -ra=z- || -Ø- || -Ø- || -ô- || -r- || -Ø
|-
| {{sc|2s.gen}} || to.burn={{sc|tr}} || {{sc|pres.fut.ipf}} || {{sc|dir}} || {{sc|unspec}} || {{sc|ipf}} || {{sc|neg}} || {{sc|ind}}
|-
| colspan=8| ‹›, ""
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 829: Line 1,256:
|-
|-
|}
|}
--!>
-->


=HISTORICAL NOTES=
=HISTORICAL NOTES=
Line 835: Line 1,262:
The accent shifted from first to last syllable over time, which garnered some of the most distinctive sound changes in the evolution of the language.
The accent shifted from first to last syllable over time, which garnered some of the most distinctive sound changes in the evolution of the language.


*yek-wer- > yekwer > yekker > ekker
{|
*tə yek-wer- > têkwer > têkker > tekêr
|-
*wag_G-wer- > wakwer > akuer > akler
| *yek-wer- || > yekwer || > yekker || > ekker || ← ''Haššûl''
|-
| || > yekwer || > yekuər || > ikûr || ← ''Katzôr''
|-
| || || > yikuər || > çiɣʷâr/ʃiɣwâ || ← ''Hečjûr''
|-
|
|-
| *tə yek-wer- || > têkwer || > têkker || > tekêr || ← ''Haššûl''
|-
| || > tyekwer || > tyekuər || > tikûr || ← ''Katzôr''
|-
| || || > dyikuər || > diɣʷâr/diɣwâ || ← ''Hečjûr''
|-
|
|-
| *wagˠ-wer- || > wakwer || > akuer || > akler || ← ''Haššûl''
|-
| || > wakwer || > wakuər || > wakûr || ← ''Katzôr''
|-
| || || > ləkuər || > elkʷâr/elkwâ || ← ''Hečjûr''
|-
| || || || > elkûr || ← '' ''
|}




 
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