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Haššûl: Difference between revisions
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===VOWEL INVENTORY=== | ===VOWEL INVENTORY=== | ||
{| class="nounderlines" cellspacing="0px" cellpadding=0 style="text-align:center; background:transparent; float:right;" | |||
High i î | |- style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;" | ||
|| | |||
Low | | style="width:60px;" | '''Front''' | ||
| style="width:60px;" | '''Near-front''' | |||
| style="width:60px;" | '''Central''' | |||
| style="width:60px;" | '''Near-back''' | |||
| style="width:60px;" | '''Back''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Close''' | |||
| style="height:210px;" colspan=5 rowspan=7 | <div style="position:relative;width:300px;height:210px;">[[Image:Blank vowel trapezoid.svg|300px]]<div style="background:transparent; position:absolute; top:0px; left:0px;"> | |||
{| style="position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:transparent;" | |||
|- | |||
| style="width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:transparent;" | | |||
<!-- CLOSE VOWELS --> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:5%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">i</div> | |||
<!-- | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:13%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">y</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:40%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɨ</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:50%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ʉ</div> | |||
--> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:88%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">u</div> | |||
<!-- | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:79%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɯ</div> | |||
--> | |||
<!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS --> | |||
<!-- | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:20%; width:2.33em; top:16%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɪ</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:28%; width:2.33em; top:16%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ʏ</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:73%; width:2.33em; top:16%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ʊ</div> | |||
--> | |||
<!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS --> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:13%; width:2em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">e</div> | |||
<!-- | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:22%; width:2em; top:29%;height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ø</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:46%; width:2.66em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɘ</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:55%; width:2.66em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɵ</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:79%; width:2em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɤ</div> | |||
--> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:88%; width:2em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">o</div> | |||
<!-- MID VOWELS --> | |||
<!-- | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:53%; width:2em; top:42%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ə</div> | |||
--> | |||
<!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS --> | |||
<!--- | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:24%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɛ</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:33%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">œ</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:51%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɜ</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:60%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɞ</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:79%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ʌ</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:88%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɔ</div> | |||
--> | |||
<!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS --> | |||
<!-- | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:30%; width:2.66em; top:73%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">æ</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:60%; width:2.66em; top:73%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɐ</div> | |||
--> | |||
<!-- OPEN VOWELS --> | |||
<!-- | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:39%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">a</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:48%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɶ</div> | |||
--> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:62%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ä</div> | |||
<!-- | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:79%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɑ</div> | |||
<div style="position:absolute; left:88%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɒ</div> | |||
--> | |||
|} | |||
</div></div> | |||
|- | |||
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Near‑close''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Close‑mid''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Mid''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Open‑mid''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Near‑open''' | |||
|- | |||
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Open''' | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! || colspan=2| Front || colspan=2| Mid || colspan=2| Back | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan=2| High || i || î || || || u || û | |||
|- | |||
| e || ê || || || || | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan=2| Low || || || || || o || ô | |||
|- | |||
| || || a || â || || | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
===CONSONANT INVENTORY=== | ===CONSONANT INVENTORY=== | ||
h [ħ] š [ʃ] l [l] b [b] r [r] y [j] n [n] x [ | h [ħ] š [ʃ] l [l] b [b] r [r/ɾ] y [j] n [n] x [χ] m [m] p [p] k [k] z [z] w [w] | ||
<!-- | <!-- | ||
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! rowspan="2" style="background:white"| | ! rowspan="2" style="background:white"| | ||
! colspan="4" | Labial | ! colspan="4" | Labial | ||
! colspan=" | ! colspan="8" | Coronal | ||
! colspan="6" | Dorsal | ! colspan="6" | Dorsal | ||
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Labiovelar | ! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Labiovelar | ||
| Line 65: | Line 157: | ||
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Alveolar | ! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Alveolar | ||
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Palatoalveolar | ! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Palatoalveolar | ||
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Retroflex | |||
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Palatal | ! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Palatal | ||
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Velar | ! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Velar | ||
| Line 81: | Line 174: | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| | | ʈ | ||
| | | ɖ | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| k | | k | ||
| g | | g | ||
| q | |||
| ɢ | |||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| | | ʔ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="text-align:left"|Nasal | ! style="text-align:left"|Nasal | ||
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| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| ɳ | |||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| ɲ | |||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| ŋ | |||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| | | ŋʷ | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
|- | |- | ||
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| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| r | | r | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | |||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | |||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
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| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| ɾ | | ɾ | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | |||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | |||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! style="text-align:left"|Fricative | ! style="text-align:left"|Fricative | ||
| | | ɸ | ||
| | | β | ||
| f | | f | ||
| v | | v | ||
| | | θ | ||
| | | ð | ||
| s | | s | ||
| z | | z | ||
| ʃ | | ʃ | ||
| | | ʒ | ||
| | | ʂ | ||
| | | ʐ | ||
| ç | |||
| ʝ | |||
| x | | x | ||
| ɣ | | ɣ | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| | | xʷ | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| h | | h | ||
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| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| | | ʦ | ||
| | | ʣ | ||
| ʧ | |||
| ʤ | |||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
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| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | |||
| ɹ | |||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
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| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| l | | l | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | |||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | |||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
| style="background: darkgray;"| | | style="background: darkgray;"| | ||
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! || Indeterminate || Determinate || colspan=2| | ! || Indeterminate || Determinate || colspan=2| | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| i) Number marking by prefix || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot -n | ! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| i) Number marking by prefix || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot -n | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || Ø- || ak- || || | | style="text-align:left"| Singular || Ø- || ak- || || | ||
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| style="text-align:left"| Plural || l(e)- || har- || || | | style="text-align:left"| Plural || l(e)- || har- || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| ii) Number marking by suffix || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot n | ! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| ii) Number marking by suffix || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot n | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || -eš || -eš=ûr || || style="text-align:left"| Etymologicaly related to ''êš'', "one". | | style="text-align:left"| Singular || -eš || -eš=ûr || || style="text-align:left"| Etymologicaly related to ''êš'', "one". | ||
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| style="text-align:left"| Plural || -n=zûr || || | | style="text-align:left"| Plural || -n=zûr || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| iii) Number marking by infix: <br> mainly collective nouns and ''pluralia tanta'' || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot 0 | ! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| iii) Number marking by infix: <br> mainly collective nouns and ''pluralia tanta'' || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot 0 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || colspan=2; style="text-align:center"| -VyV- || style="text-align:left"| V<sub>1</sub>CCV<sub>2</sub> → V<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>1</sub>yV<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>2</sub> || style="text-align:left"| Singulative form of a collective noun or ''plurale tantum''; an individualisation or instance thereof. | | style="text-align:left"| Singular || colspan=2; style="text-align:center"| -VyV- || style="text-align:left"| V<sub>1</sub>CCV<sub>2</sub> → V<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>1</sub>yV<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>2</sub> || style="text-align:left"| Singulative form of a collective noun or ''plurale tantum''; an individualisation or instance thereof. | ||
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| style="text-align:left"| Plural || -VhtV- || || | | style="text-align:left"| Plural || -VhtV- || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| iv) Number marking by combination of the above || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| {variable: S=PA: 0, n; PL: -n, n} | ! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| iv) Number marking by combination of the above || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| {variable: S=PA: 0, n; PL: -n, n} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || -VrV-...-em || Ø-...-s=ûr || || | | style="text-align:left"| Singular || -VrV-...-em || Ø-...-s=ûr || || | ||
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| style="text-align:left"| Plural || colspan=2| u'-...-kûr || || | | style="text-align:left"| Plural || colspan=2| u'-...-kûr || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| v) Number marking by reduplication || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot -n | ! colspan=3; style="text-align:left"| v) Number marking by reduplication || colspan=2; style="text-align:left"| Slot -n | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left"| Singular || Ø || itV1(t)- || || | | style="text-align:left"| Singular || Ø || itV1(t)- || || | ||
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| style="text-align:left"| Paucal || C1a- || C1... -> C1aC1... || || | | style="text-align:left"| Paucal || C1a- || C1... -> C1aC1... || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left"| Plural || colspan=2| VCVC- | | style="text-align:left"| Plural || colspan=2| VCVC- || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Stative forms==== | ====Stative forms==== | ||
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:{| | :{| | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''pešš-'', tea plant | | ''pešš-'', "tea plant" → ''penašš-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| <nowiki>{pe<na>šš-eš}</nowiki> | | <nowiki>{pe<na>šš-eš}</nowiki> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | [tea.plant<{{sc|stat}}>-{{sc|sg}}], "to be a teaplant"; | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | {tea.plant<{{sc|stat}}>-{{sc|sg}} {{sc|dem.sg.prox.sp}}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>penaššeš telêš<nowiki>'</nowiki> ''''', "this is a teaplant"; | | ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>penaššeš telêš<nowiki>'</nowiki> ''''', "this is a teaplant"; | ||
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| <nowiki>{pe<na>šš-a-telê-eš}</nowiki> | | <nowiki>{pe<na>šš-a-telê-eš}</nowiki> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | [tea.plant<{{sc|stat}}>-{{sc|a}}-{{sc|dem.sg.prox.sp}}-{{sc|sg}}] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>penaššatelêš<nowiki>'</nowiki> ''''' | | ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>penaššatelêš<nowiki>'</nowiki> ''''' | ||
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is also valid. | is also valid. | ||
====Incorporation==== | ====Incorporation==== | ||
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Whenever a genitive pronoun in its long form is used in a clause, case marking is dropped from the arguments and the roles are marked by their syntactic relation with the pronoun (e.g. possessed-gen-possessor; see ''Possession'' below). | Whenever a genitive pronoun in its long form is used in a clause, case marking is dropped from the arguments and the roles are marked by their syntactic relation with the pronoun (e.g. possessed-gen-possessor; see ''Possession'' below). | ||
''''' · Free pronouns:''''' | |||
:{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | :{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
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'''''· Reflexive pronouns:''''' | |||
:Reflexive pronouns are formed by prefixal and infixal reduplication of the long form of the free pronouns and have only a long form. The prefixal element ''V-'' applies to CV<sub>1</sub>C- forms, which become V<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>1</sub>C-. The infixal element ''-CC-'' applies to both CVC- and VCV- forms, which geminate the first and second consonant, respectively, of the free form of the pronoun. This lengthening of the consonant compensatorily shortens any subsequent long vowels and drives the elision of final vowels. Regular phonological processes also apply. | :Reflexive pronouns are formed by prefixal and infixal reduplication of the long form of the free pronouns and have only a long form. The prefixal element ''V-'' applies to CV<sub>1</sub>C- forms, which become V<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>1</sub>C-. The infixal element ''-CC-'' applies to both CVC- and VCV- forms, which geminate the first and second consonant, respectively, of the free form of the pronoun. This lengthening of the consonant compensatorily shortens any subsequent long vowels and drives the elision of final vowels. Regular phonological processes also apply. | ||
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'''''· Genitive pronouns:''''' | |||
:These pronouns are etymologically related to the root ''*wēr'', to belong", being reconstructed as an adpositional compound of ''*PREP+wer''. E.g. : | :These pronouns are etymologically related to the root ''*wēr'', "to belong", being reconstructed as an adpositional compound of ''*PREP+wer''. E.g. : | ||
:{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | :{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
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'''''· Negative pronouns:''''' | |||
:{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | :{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
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| Another (mentioned) || -i- || | | Another (mentioned) || -i- || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Another (not mentioned) || -šku- || | | Another (not mentioned) || -šku- || Begs for subsequent introduction | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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'''''· Slot 2: Inverse marking''''' | '''''· Slot 2: Inverse marking''''' | ||
The animacy hierarchy, from most to least animated, is as follows: 1 > 2 > 3; S > PA > P; INCL > EXCL. This can be seen, from top to bottom, in the following table: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible collapsed" | |||
|- | |||
! Person || Number || Clusivity | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan=5| 1 || colspan=2| S | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan=2| PA || INC | |||
|- | |||
| EXC | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan=2| PL || INC | |||
|- | |||
| EXC | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan=3| 2 || colspan=2| S | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=2| PA | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=2| PL | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan=3| 3 || colspan=2| S | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=2| PA | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=2| PL | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
This is marked as follows: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
- | |- | ||
! Marking || colspan=2| Marker || Notes | |||
|- | |||
| Direct || colspan=2| -Ø- || The agent role of a transitive construction is taken by an argument in a higher hierarchical level than that of the argument taking on the patient role. | |||
|- | |||
| Inverse || colspan=2| -n- || The agent role of a transitive construction is taken by an argument in a lower hierarchical level than that of the argument taking on the patient role. | |||
|- | |||
| Same || -C- || Repeats the first consonant of the marker in Slot 1; if said slot is "empty" (unmarked), || The agent role of a transitive construction is taken by an argument in the same hierarchical level than that of the argument taking on the patient role. | |||
This is not strictly a traditional direct-inverse marker, but rather the functional equivalent which marks verbs for reflexivity using the same slot, but nevertheless also owing to the same hierarchical logic, thus being analized as part of the same system. | This is not strictly a traditional direct-inverse marker, but rather the functional equivalent which marks verbs for reflexivity using the same slot, but nevertheless also owing to the same hierarchical logic, thus being analized as part of the same system. | ||
|- | |||
|} | |||
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! Aspect || Marker || Notes | ! Aspect || Marker || Notes | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{sc|}} || -ô- || | | Imperfective/Atelic {{sc|ipf}} || -ô- || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{sc|}} || -ta- || | | Perfective/Telic {{sc|perf}} || -ta- || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{sc|}} || -û- || | | {{sc|}} || -û- || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{sc|}} || -î- || | | Progressive/Continuous {{sc|prog}}/{{sc|cont}} || -î- || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{sc|}} || -ne- || | | Resultative {{sc|res}} || -ne- || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Tense/aspect || -Ø- || Unmarked aspect in Slot 4 points towards the tense/aspect marking in Slot 1 (aspects: perfective, gnomic, imperfective); a gnomic/habitual aspect is also convenient by leaving the agent pronoun in Slot -2 unmarked. | | Tense/aspect || -Ø- || Unmarked aspect in Slot 4 points towards the tense/aspect marking in Slot 1 (aspects: perfective, gnomic, imperfective); a gnomic/habitual aspect is also convenient by leaving the agent pronoun in Slot -2 unmarked. | ||
| Line 710: | Line 838: | ||
====Verbal marking==== | ====Verbal marking==== | ||
:{| | |||
|- | |||
| Subject pronoun: free pronoun, short form | |||
|- | |||
| Referent anaphora: the same vs. anoher mentioned vs. anoter not mentioned (begs for introduction) | |||
|- | |||
| Stem - Infixes | |||
|- | |||
| Tense: [anterior] vs. [past/perfective] vs. [relative present tense] vs. [present-future/imperfective] vs. [posterior] | |||
|- | |||
| Inverse: I/O | |||
|- | |||
| Object number (transitive verbs) | |||
|- | |||
| Aspect: | |||
|- | |||
| Mood: | |||
|- | |||
| Voice: indicative vs. interrogative vs. negative vs. subjunctive/conditional vs. potential/optative | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center" | |||
|- | |||
! colspan=2| -2 || -1 || colspan=2| 0 || colspan=2| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 | |||
|- | |||
! colspan=2| Subj.Pron (free pr. short form) || Ref.Anaph || Stem || <nowiki><infixes></nowiki> || colspan=2| Tense || Inverse || Obj.Nr || Aspect || Mood || Voice | |||
|- | |||
| e=n- || S>P/n_ (ej. h>k) || -Ø- || -happ=a- || <nowiki><šnV></nowiki><sup>1</sup> || -ra=z- || =z/_V[-high] || -n- || -- || -ô- || -r- || -i | |||
|- | |||
| e=y- || -a/_C [plosive] || -i- || -happ=š- || || -ra=x- || =x/_t, d || -Ø- || -- || -ta- || -n- || -u | |||
|- | |||
| || || -šku- || -haptu-* || || -ra=n- || =n/_V[+high], n || || -- || -û- || -š- || -Ø | |||
|- | |||
| || || || || || colspan=2| -Ø- || -C- || -- || -î- || -l- || -k | |||
|- | |||
| || || || || || -ša=r- || =r/_n || || -Ø- || -ne- || -x- || -t | |||
|- | |||
| || || || || || -ša=k- || =k/_t || || || || || | |||
|- | |||
| || || || || || -ša=s- || =s/ || || || || || | |||
|- | |||
| || || || || || -xtu- || || || || || || | |||
|- | |||
| || || || || || -kše- || || || || || || | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
<sup>1</sup> the verb receives an incorporated noun in genitive compound; akin to a construct state marking in the verb. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center" | |||
|- | |||
! -2 || -1 || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 | |||
|- | |||
! Subj.Pron || Ref.Anaph || Root || Tense || Inverse || Obj.Nr || Aspect || Mood || Voice | |||
|- | |||
| 1S.NOM || SAME || to.bread.cook || PRES || DIRECT || UNSP || UNSP || ACT | |||
|- | |||
| wâ[N]- || -Ø- || -hanaptu-kkû- || -Ø- || -Ø- || -Ø- || -Ø- || -š- || -Ø | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=9| wâ[N]-Ø-hanaptu-kkû-Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-š-Ø} | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=9| ''wânkanaptukkûš'' | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=9| "it is a common occurrence that I bake bread" | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
* haptu- < happ=ttu- | |||
==DEICTICS== | ==DEICTICS== | ||
| Line 715: | Line 912: | ||
===Demonstrative pronouns=== | ===Demonstrative pronouns=== | ||
Haššûl spatial deictics correlate in proximity with first exclusive (proximal), second (medial), and third person (distal) pronouns. The short form of the genitive pronouns is affixed wih the following locative markers ( | Haššûl spatial deictics correlate in proximity with first exclusive (proximal), second (medial), and third person (distal) pronouns. The short form of the genitive pronouns is affixed wih the following locative markers ({{sc|loc}}) depending on relative positions: ''-le'' 'speaker', ''-nê'' 'addressee' and ''-la'' 'both'. This gives us the following combinations: | ||
Singular: | ====Singular:==== | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center" | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=3 colspan=3| || colspan=6| Personal pronoun and correlative proximity | |||
|- | |||
! colspan=2| first exclusive (proximal) || colspan=2| second (medial) || colspan=2| third (distal) | |||
|- | |||
! colspan=2| ''têk-'' || colspan=2| ''en-'' || colspan=2| ''ey-'' | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan=3 style="background:lightsteelblue"| {{sc|loc}} || style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'speaker' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-le'' || têk-le- > têkle- > || ''telê-'' || en-le- > elne- > || ''êlle-'' || ey-le- > eyye- > || ''êye-'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'addressee' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-nê'' || têk-nê- > têknê- > || ''tekne-'' || en-nê- > ennê- > || ''êne-'' || ey-nê- > enyê- > || ''enye-'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'both' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-la'' || têk-la- > têkla- > || ''telâ-'' || en-la- > elna- > || ''êlla-'' || ey-la- > eyya- > || ''êya-'' | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
Paucal/Plural: | ====Paucal/Plural:==== | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center" | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=3 colspan=3| || colspan=6| Personal pronoun and correlative proximity | |||
|- | |||
! colspan=2| first exclusive (proximal) || colspan=2| second (medial) || colspan=2| third (distal) | |||
|- | |||
! colspan=2| ''tâl-'' || colspan=2| ''aš(š)-'' || colspan=2| ''nâm-'' | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan=3 style="background:lightsteelblue"| {{sc|loc}} || style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'speaker' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-le'' || tâl-le- > tâlle- > || ''tale-'' || aš(š)-le- > ašle- > || ''ašše-'' || nâm-le- > nâlme- > || ''nâlle-'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'addressee' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-nê'' || tâl-nê- > tânlê- > || ''tanne-'' || aš(š)-nê- > ašne- > || ''ašnê-'' || nâm-nê- > nâmne- > || ''nâmme-'' | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'both' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-la'' || tâl-la- > tâlla- > || ''tala-'' || aš(š)-la- > ašla- > || ''ašša-'' || nâm-la- > nâlma- > || ''nâlla-'' | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
Deictics may occur either in place of nouns or postposed to nouns, as in ??hanô lene?? 'that house'. | Deictics may occur either in place of nouns or postposed to nouns, as in ??hanô lene?? 'that house'. | ||
Verbal forms of the demonstrative pronouns can be derived with the verbalizer =š- for intransitive verbs, with the meaning to.be/stay/remain/be.present- | |||
Verbal forms of the demonstrative pronouns can be derived with the verbalizer ''=š-'' for intransitive verbs, with the meaning ''to.be/stay/remain/be.present-{{sc|loc}}''. E.g. {ašša=š-} ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>aššaš<nowiki>'</nowiki> ''''' "they just stay there" | |||
==POSSESSION== | ==POSSESSION== | ||
Possession can be marked with the enclitic form of either a ''genitive'' or a ''negative pronoun'', indicating respectively ''possession'' or ''non-possession'' by the marked-for person. | |||
Genitive possessive | |||
The possession of a noun is marked with the enclitic form of the genitive pronouns, bearing the same person and number ( | ===Genitive possessive=== | ||
Whenever a genitive pronoun in its long form is used in a clause (e.g. when the | |||
Negative possessive | The possession of a noun is marked with the enclitic form of the genitive pronouns, bearing the same person and number ({{sc|1s.gen}}={{sc|1s.pos}}, ''"my"'', etc). | ||
The enclitic form of the negative pronouns is used in the same way as that of the genitive pronouns, likewise | |||
Whenever a genitive pronoun in its long form is used in a clause (e.g. when the possessor is explicitly mentioned), possession marking is dropped from the arguments and the roles are marked by their syntactic relation with the pronoun (order ''possessed-{{sc|gen}}-possessor''). | |||
For instance, in the sentence ''"Manxên eyer Rûl"'' (''"a man's she-dog"''), the possessor is mentioned (''rûl'', 'a.man'), and therefore the long version of the third person singular genitive pronoun (''eyer'') is used. The form ''**eyManxên eyer Rûl'' ({{sc|1s.pos}}-she.dog {{sc|1s.gen}} man), using the short form of the third person singular genitive pronoun (''ey-''), would be incorrect. | |||
===Negative possessive=== | |||
The enclitic form of the negative pronouns is used in the same way as that of the genitive pronouns, likewise bearing the same person and number ({{sc|1s.neg}}={{sc|1s.neg.pos}}, ''"not.my"'', etc.), to indicate a non-belonging relationship. E.g. '''''<nowiki>'</nowiki>rexlanneš<nowiki>'</nowiki>''''', {re=x-lann-eš} {{sc|1s.neg.pos}}-house-{{sc|sg}}, ''<nowiki>'</nowiki>not.my.house<nowiki>'</nowiki>''. | |||
==DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY== | ==DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY== | ||
| Line 751: | Line 973: | ||
===Derivation of adjectives=== | ===Derivation of adjectives=== | ||
Every lexical root, be it nominal or verbal, can be turned into an adjective with the adjectivizer suffix | Every lexical root, be it nominal or verbal, can be turned into an adjective with the adjectivizer suffix {{sc|adjz}} ''-(t)ilir''. | ||
In the case of nominal roots, it takes on the role of a semblative case, with the general predicate form "x is [noun]-like". | In the case of nominal roots, it takes on the role of a semblative case, with the general predicate form '' "x is [noun]-like" ''. | ||
In the case of verbal roots, it can be defined as a deverbal form, taking over adjectival functions, by which definition it could be called an adverb, with the general predicate form "(x-is) in the manner of [verb]-ing". | In the case of verbal roots, it can be defined as a deverbal form, taking over adjectival functions, by which definition it could be called an adverb, with the general predicate form "(x-is) in the manner of [verb]-ing". In the context of a restrictive relative clause, it takes on the role of a deverbal form about which can be predicated of as a noun, by which definition it can be called a participle, with the general predicate form '' "x, which is like [verb]-ing" '' (in English both forms would be represented by the infinitive, and are thus rendered as such in the translation). | ||
For example: | |||
:{| | :{| | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | {{cardo|hanaptilir hanaptupepšeš}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {hanap-(t)ilir hanaptupepšeš} | | {hanap-(t)ilir hanaptupepšeš} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| " | | [nominal root]-adjz [inflected noun] | ||
|- | |||
| "a fire-like tea-brew" (e.g. said of a spicy teabrew) | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
| Line 771: | Line 995: | ||
:{| | :{| | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | {{cardo|happ(at)ilir hanaptweš}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {happ=a-(t)ilir ha<na>p=tu-eš} | | <nowiki>{happ=a-(t)ilir ha<na>p=tu-eš}</nowiki> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | [verbal root]-ADJZ [inflected noun] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| "a X which is like burning" | | "a burning-like cooking" (< "an X [the cooking], which is like burning"; as is characteristic of some barbecuing styles) | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
=== | ===Denominal verbs=== | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| Marking || style="text-align:left"| Marker || style="text-align:left"| Notes || style="text-align:left"| Example | |||
|- | |||
| Verbalizer 1 {{sc|vlz1}} || -Ca- || Transitive verb associated with the noun's nature. || ''happ-'' (< ''*haff-''), "fire"; ''=Ca-'' {{sc|vlz1}} | |||
→ {happ=a-} ''happa-'', "to.burn" (tr.) | |||
|- | |||
| Verbalizer 2 {{sc|vlz2}} || -ttu- || Transitive verb meaning '' "to transform X (={{sc|obj}}) through [the use of] Y (=noun+{{sc|vlz2}})" '': an action performed by the modified noun {{sc|mn}} transforms the object of the verb in some way associated with the noun's nature. || {{sc|mn}}: ''happ-'', "fire"; ''-ttu-'' {{sc|vlz2}} | |||
→ {happ-ttu-} ''haptu-'', "to.transform.using.fire", "to.cook". | |||
|- | |||
| Verbalizer 3 {{sc|vlz3}} || -š- || Intransitive verb || ''happ-'' "fire" ; ''=š-'' {{sc|vlz3}} | |||
→ {happ=š-} ''happš-'', "to.burn" (int.) | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
happ= | |||
"to. | |||
===Deverbal nouns=== | |||
Marker Notes | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| Marking || style="text-align:left"| Marker || style="text-align:left"| Notes | |||
|- | |||
| Nominalizer 1 {{sc|nlz1}} || || Place where the actions of the verb takes place | |||
|- | |||
| Nominalizer 2 {{sc|nlz2}} || || Person that does the action of the verb | |||
|- | |||
| Nominalizer 3 {{sc|nlz3}} || || Person who has a characteristic of the first word | |||
|- | |||
| Nominalizer 4 {{sc|nlz4}} || || That which is done by the verb | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
==SYNTAX== | ==SYNTAX== | ||
| Line 809: | Line 1,046: | ||
===Word order=== | ===Word order=== | ||
====Constituent order per sentence type==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan=3| DECLARATIVE || rowspan=2| Transitive || Monotransitive|| | |||
|- | |||
| Ditransitive || | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=2| Intransitive || | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=3| IMPERATIVE || | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=3| QUESTION || [topic]=Q [encl.pron]=[NO.OBJECT]-to.ask{tr} | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====Other==== | |||
A/N | |||
possessed/gen/possessor (see ''Possession'' above) | |||
=LEXICON= | =LEXICON= | ||
Nouns (n): animate (an), inanimate (in), | {| | ||
Verbs (v): transitive (tr), intransitive (int), incorporated (inc) | |- | ||
Particles (p): verbal (ver), nominal (nom), suprasegmental (sup) | | Nouns (n): || animate (an), inanimate (in), deverbal (dev). | ||
Numerals (nu) | |- | ||
| Verbs (v): || transitive (tr), intransitive (int), incorporated (inc) | |||
|- | |||
| Particles (p): || verbal (ver), nominal (nom), suprasegmental (sup) | |||
|- | |||
| Numerals (nu) || | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
<> // | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:left" | ||
hanapp- | |- | ||
happ=š- | ! colspan=7| Wordlist | ||
happ=a- | |- | ||
haptu- | ! <> || // || colspan=2| POS || Nr. || Meaning || Notes | ||
happ-ttu- to.transform.using.fire | |- | ||
hanaptu- | | hanapp- || ˈhä.nä.pː͜ || n || an || ii || fire || -na- (infix); stative (nominal form) | ||
hašnapturûl- | |- | ||
hašnaptukkûrûl- | | happ=š- || ˈhä.pːʃ͜ || v || int || || to.burn.(down) || ''happ-'' (< *haff-), "fire"; ''=š-'' {{sc|vlz3}} | ||
akkwaku- | |- | ||
akku-, -kkû- | | happ=a- || ˈhä.pːä. || v || tr || || to.burn || ''happ-'' (< *haff-), "fire"; ''=Ca-'' {{sc|vlz1}} | ||
haptukkû- | |- | ||
manne | | haptu- || ˈhäp.tu. || v || tr || || "to.transform.using.fire": to.cook (a meal, clay, etc), to.evaporate (water, etc), some (al-)chemical reactions || ''happ-'' (< *haff-), "fire"; ''=ttu-'' {{sc|vlz2}} | ||
rûl | → ''happ-ttu-'', "to.transform.using.fire" | ||
kên | |- | ||
êrš- | | hanaptu- || ˈhä.näp.tu. || n || dev || || (a) cooking || | ||
ertu- | |- | ||
etna-, -(e)tn(a)- | | hašnapturûl- || ˈhäʃ.näp.tu.ɾuːl. || n || an || ii || a cook || "a man of cooking", ''<nowiki>ha<šnV>ptu-rûl-</nowiki>'' | ||
tə-na- > ət-na- > etna-/atna- | |- | ||
-reš-, -raš- | | hašnaptukkûrûl- || ˈhäʃ.näp.tu.kːu.ɾuːl. || n || an || ii || a baker || | ||
an action is applied to a noun; being subject to that action characterizes the noun | |- | ||
happ=a-[] a-rûl-reš-[] | | akkwaku- || ˈä.kːwä.ku. || n || in || ii || a meal || reduplication of "bread", ''akku-akku-'' | ||
to.burn- | |- | ||
"the.burning.man" | | akku-, -kkû- || ˈä.kːu {{pipe}} .kːuː. || n || in || ii || bread || | ||
adjectivization through gerundives? | |- | ||
pešš-, -pepš- | | haptukkû- || ˈhäp.tu.kːuː. || v || inc || || to.bread-cook, to.bake.bread || | ||
haptupepš- | |- | ||
hanaptupepš- | | manne- || ˈmä.nːe. || n || an || ii || animal similar to a dog || | ||
-šnV- | |- | ||
lann-, -lan- | | rûl- || ˈɾuːl. || n || an || ii || man || | ||
-eš | |- | ||
| kên- || ˈkeːn. || n || an || ii || female (of an animal) || | |||
|- | |||
| êrš- || ˈeːɾʃ͜ || v || int || || to.belong || (< ''*wēr=š-'', to.belong={{sc|vlz3}}) | |||
|- | |||
| ertu- || ˈeɾ.tu. || v || tr || || to.adhere, to.make.be.with || (< ''*wêr=ttu-'', to.belong={{sc|vlz2}}) | |||
|- | |||
| etna-, -(e)tn(a)- || ˈet.nä. || || || || without || ''*tə'' > ''tə-na-'' > ''ət-na-'' > ''etna-/atna-'' | |||
|- | |||
| -reš-, -raš- || .ɾeʃ. {{pipe}} .ɾäʃ. || p || nom || || || noun modifier in respect of a verbal root; an action is applied to a noun; being subject to that action characterizes the noun: {happ=a-[] a-rûl-reš-[]} to.burn- "the.burning.man" - adjectivization through gerundives? | |||
|- | |||
| pešš-, -pepš- || ˈpe.ʃː͜ {{pipe}} .pe.pʃ͜ || n || an || ii || tea plant, tea leaf: tea infusion || | |||
|- | |||
| haptupepš- || ˈhäp.tu.pepš͜ || v || tr || || to.brew.tea || | |||
|- | |||
| hanaptupepš- || || n || dev || || (a) tea-brew(ing) || | |||
|- | |||
| -šnV- || || p || ver || || || (infix) ''-šnV-'' (V=reduplication of the root vowel as short vowel regardless of original length); the verb receives a noun in genitive compound; akin to a construct state marking in the verb. | |||
|- | |||
| lann-, -lan- || || n || in || ii || house, shelter || | |||
|- | |||
| -eš || || p || nom || || singular indefinite || etymologically related to he word for "one" ''êš'' < ''*weš'', form which resurfaces when after a vowel (e.g. | |||
-a-*weš > -aweš; -u-*weš > -ubeš) | -a-*weš > -aweš; -u-*weš > -ubeš) | ||
-Vkti | |- | ||
xapr=aš- | | -Vkti || || p || sup || || || ''-Vkti'' (suffix); it marks the topic of a question | ||
aqqe-, -qqe- | |- | ||
êš | | xapr=aš- || || || || || || | ||
haptuqqe- | |- | ||
elaš-, -elš- | | aqqe-, -qqe- || || n || in || ii || clay || | ||
haptubelaš- | |- | ||
xakš-, -akš- | | êš || || nu || || || one || (< ''*weš'') | ||
-(a)lu(l)- | |- | ||
hanaptupepšlulakš- | | haptuqqe- || || v || inc || || to.cook.clay || | ||
bâl-, -bâl- | |- | ||
bâldu- | | elaš-, -elš- || || n || in || ii || place, room || (< ''*welaš'') | ||
ošša | |- | ||
hûr- | | haptubelaš- || || n || in || ii || oven || (< ''*haff-ettu-welaš-'') | ||
zâš-, -zaš- | |- | ||
luh- | | xakš-, -akš- || || n || in || ii || milk || | ||
bâltuzaš- | |- | ||
| -(a)lu(l)- || || p || || || "with [an]", "containing [in]" || commitative (an); subject demoting particle while incorporating | |||
|- | |||
| hanaptupepšlulakš- || || n || inc || || "a teabrewing with milk" || | |||
|- | |||
| bâl-, -bâl- || || n || in || ii || knife || | |||
|- | |||
| bâldu- || || v || tr|| || "to.transform.using.a.knife", to.chop.up || (< ''*bâl=ttu-'') | |||
|- | |||
| ošša- || || n || an || ii || woman || | |||
|- | |||
| hûr- || || v || || || to.sing || | |||
|- | |||
| zâš-, -zaš- || || n || an || ii || onion|| | |||
|- | |||
| luh- || || || || || || | |||
|- | |||
| bâltuzaš- || || v || inc || || "to.onion-up.chop" || The lenited ''-tt-'' (> ''-d-'') of the {{sc|vlz2}} resurfaces as ''-t-'' before the [sibilant-vowel-sibilant] sequence | |||
|} | |||
=SAMPLES= | =SAMPLES= | ||
| Line 927: | Line 1,175: | ||
:{| | :{| | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | {{cardo|Manxên eye'Rûl}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| /män.ˈχeːn e.je.ˈɾuːl/ | | /män.ˈχeːn e.je.ˈɾuːl/ | ||
| Line 941: | Line 1,189: | ||
:{| | :{| | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | {{cardo|wânelššappš-}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| /wäː.nel.ʃːä.pːʃ-/ | | /wäː.nel.ʃːä.pːʃ-/ | ||
| Line 955: | Line 1,203: | ||
:{| | :{| | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | {{cardo|aššašakti}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| /ä.ʃːä.ˈʃäk.ti/ | | /ä.ʃːä.ˈʃäk.ti/ | ||
| Line 964: | Line 1,212: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| "to.be.there-?", "do they just stay there?" | | "to.be.there-?", "do they just stay there?" | ||
|- | |||
|} | |||
---- | |||
{| | |||
|- | |||
| 1) eyyapparaxtani, e=y-happ=a-ra=x-ta-n-i | |||
|- | |||
| 2) happarazôn, Ø-happ=a-ra=z-ô-n-Ø | |||
|- | |||
| 3) {happ-}, happarazôr | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=8| ''enkapprazôr'' | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=8| e=n-happ=a-ra=z-Ø-Ø-ô-r-Ø | |||
|- | |||
| e=n- || -happ=a- || -ra=z- || -Ø- || -Ø- || -ô- || -r- || -Ø | |||
|- | |||
| {{sc|2s.gen}} || to.burn={{sc|tr}} || {{sc|pres.fut.ipf}} || {{sc|dir}} || {{sc|unspec}} || {{sc|ipf}} || {{sc|neg}} || {{sc|ind}} | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=8| ‹›, "" | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
| Line 981: | Line 1,256: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
-- | --> | ||
=HISTORICAL NOTES= | =HISTORICAL NOTES= | ||
| Line 987: | Line 1,262: | ||
The accent shifted from first to last syllable over time, which garnered some of the most distinctive sound changes in the evolution of the language. | The accent shifted from first to last syllable over time, which garnered some of the most distinctive sound changes in the evolution of the language. | ||
*yek-wer- > yekwer > yekker > ekker | {| | ||
*tə yek-wer- > têkwer > têkker > tekêr | |- | ||
* | | *yek-wer- || > yekwer || > yekker || > ekker || ← ''Haššûl'' | ||
|- | |||
| || > yekwer || > yekuər || > ikûr || ← ''Katzôr'' | |||
|- | |||
| || || > yikuər || > çiɣʷâr/ʃiɣwâ || ← ''Hečjûr'' | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| *tə yek-wer- || > têkwer || > têkker || > tekêr || ← ''Haššûl'' | |||
|- | |||
| || > tyekwer || > tyekuər || > tikûr || ← ''Katzôr'' | |||
|- | |||
| || || > dyikuər || > diɣʷâr/diɣwâ || ← ''Hečjûr'' | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| *wagˠ-wer- || > wakwer || > akuer || > akler || ← ''Haššûl'' | |||
|- | |||
| || > wakwer || > wakuər || > wakûr || ← ''Katzôr'' | |||
|- | |||
| || || > ləkuər || > elkʷâr/elkwâ || ← ''Hečjûr'' | |||
|- | |||
| || || || > elkûr || ← '' '' | |||
|} | |||
[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:A priori]] [[Category:Artlangs]] [[Category:User:Nicolasstraccia]] [[Category:Yrḳuti]] | |||