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===VOWEL INVENTORY===
===VOWEL INVENTORY===


Front Mid Back
{| class="nounderlines" cellspacing="0px" cellpadding=0 style="text-align:center; background:transparent; float:right;"
High i î u û
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;"
e ê
||
Low o ô
| style="width:60px;" | '''Front'''
a â
| style="width:60px;" | '''Near-front'''
| style="width:60px;" | '''Central'''
| style="width:60px;" | '''Near-back'''
| style="width:60px;" | '''Back'''
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Close'''
| style="height:210px;" colspan=5 rowspan=7 | <div style="position:relative;width:300px;height:210px;">[[Image:Blank vowel trapezoid.svg|300px]]<div style="background:transparent; position:absolute; top:0px; left:0px;">
{| style="position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:transparent;"
|-
| style="width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:transparent;" |
<!-- CLOSE VOWELS -->
<div style="position:absolute; left:5%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">i</div>
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:13%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">y</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:40%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɨ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:50%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ʉ</div>
-->
<div style="position:absolute; left:88%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">u</div>
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:79%; width:2em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɯ</div>
-->
<!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS -->
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:20%; width:2.33em; top:16%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɪ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:28%; width:2.33em; top:16%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ʏ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:73%; width:2.33em; top:16%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ʊ</div>
-->
<!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS -->
<div style="position:absolute; left:13%; width:2em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">e</div>
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:22%; width:2em; top:29%;height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ø</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:46%; width:2.66em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɘ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:55%; width:2.66em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɵ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:79%; width:2em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɤ</div>
-->
<div style="position:absolute; left:88%; width:2em; top:29%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">o</div>
<!-- MID VOWELS -->
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:53%; width:2em; top:42%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ə</div>
-->
<!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS -->
<!---
<div style="position:absolute; left:24%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɛ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:33%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">œ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:51%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɜ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:60%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɞ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:79%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ʌ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:88%; width:2.66em; top:56%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɔ</div>
-->
<!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS -->
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:30%; width:2.66em; top:73%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">æ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:60%; width:2.66em; top:73%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɐ</div>
-->
<!-- OPEN VOWELS -->
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:39%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">a</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:48%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɶ</div>
-->
<div style="position:absolute; left:62%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ä</div>
<!--
<div style="position:absolute; left:79%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɑ</div>
<div style="position:absolute; left:88%; width:2.66em; top:85%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;">ɒ</div>
-->
|}
</div></div>
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Near‑close'''
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Close‑mid'''
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Mid'''
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Open‑mid'''
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Near‑open'''
|-
| style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;" | '''Open'''
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! || colspan=2| Front || colspan=2| Mid || colspan=2| Back
|-
| rowspan=2| High || i || î || || || u || û  
|-
| e || ê || || || ||
|-
| rowspan=2| Low || || || || || o || ô  
|-
| || || a || â || ||
|-
|}




===CONSONANT INVENTORY===
===CONSONANT INVENTORY===


h [ħ] š [ʃ] l [l] b [b] r [r] y [j] n [n] x [X] m [m] p [p] k [k] z [z] w [w]
h [ħ] š [ʃ] l [l] b [b] r [r/ɾ] y [j] n [n] x [χ] m [m] p [p] k [k] z [z] w [w]


<!--
<!--
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! rowspan="2" style="background:white"|  
! rowspan="2" style="background:white"|  
! colspan="4" | Labial
! colspan="4" | Labial
! colspan="6" | Coronal
! colspan="8" | Coronal
! colspan="6" | Dorsal
! colspan="6" | Dorsal
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Labiovelar
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Labiovelar
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! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Alveolar
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Alveolar
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Palatoalveolar
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Palatoalveolar
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Retroflex
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Palatal
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Palatal
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Velar
! colspan="2" style="background:LightSteelBlue"| Velar
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʈ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ɖ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| k
| k
| g
| g
| q
| ɢ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʔ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
|-
|-
! style="text-align:left"|Nasal
! style="text-align:left"|Nasal
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ɳ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ɲ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ŋ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ŋʷ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
|-
|-
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| r
| r
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ɾ
| ɾ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
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|-
|-
! style="text-align:left"|Fricative
! style="text-align:left"|Fricative
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ɸ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| β
| f
| f
| v
| v
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| θ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ð
| s
| s
| z
| z
| ʃ
| ʃ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʒ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʂ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʐ
| ç
| ʝ
| x
| x
| ɣ
| ɣ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| xʷ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| h
| h
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʦ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ʣ
| ʧ
| ʤ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| ɹ
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
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| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| l
| l
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
| style="background: darkgray;"|
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:{|
:{|
|-
|-
| ''pešš-'', tea plant, ''penašš-''
| ''pešš-'', "tea plant" → ''penašš-''
|-
|-
| <nowiki>{pe<na>šš-eš}</nowiki>
| <nowiki>{pe<na>šš-eš}</nowiki>
|-
|-
| <nowiki>[tea.plant<STAT>-SG], "to be a teaplant";</nowiki>
| [tea.plant<{{sc|stat}}>-{{sc|sg}}], "to be a teaplant";
|-
|-
| <nowiki>{tea.plant<STAT>-SG DEM.SG.PROX.SP}</nowiki>
| {tea.plant<{{sc|stat}}>-{{sc|sg}} {{sc|dem.sg.prox.sp}}}
|-
|-
| ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>penaššeš telêš<nowiki>'</nowiki> ''''', "this is a teaplant";
| ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>penaššeš telêš<nowiki>'</nowiki> ''''', "this is a teaplant";
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| <nowiki>{pe<na>šš-a-telê-eš}</nowiki>
| <nowiki>{pe<na>šš-a-telê-eš}</nowiki>
|-
|-
| <nowiki>[tea.plant<STAT>-A-DEM.SG.PROX.SP-SG]</nowiki>
| [tea.plant<{{sc|stat}}>-{{sc|a}}-{{sc|dem.sg.prox.sp}}-{{sc|sg}}]
|-
|-
| ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>penaššatelêš<nowiki>'</nowiki> '''''
| ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>penaššatelêš<nowiki>'</nowiki> '''''
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is also valid.
is also valid.


====Incorporation====
====Incorporation====
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! Aspect || Marker || Notes
! Aspect || Marker || Notes
|-
|-
| {{sc|}} || -ô- ||  
| Imperfective/Atelic {{sc|ipf}} || -ô- ||  
|-
|-
| {{sc|}} || -ta- ||  
| Perfective/Telic {{sc|perf}} || -ta- ||  
|-
|-
| {{sc|}} || -û- ||  
| {{sc|}} || -û- ||  
|-
|-
| {{sc|}} || -î- ||  
| Progressive/Continuous {{sc|prog}}/{{sc|cont}} || -î- ||  
|-
|-
| {{sc|}} || -ne- ||  
| Resultative {{sc|res}} || -ne- ||  
|-
|-
| Tense/aspect || -Ø- || Unmarked aspect in Slot 4 points towards the tense/aspect marking in Slot 1 (aspects: perfective, gnomic, imperfective); a gnomic/habitual aspect is also convenient by leaving the agent pronoun in Slot -2 unmarked.
| Tense/aspect || -Ø- || Unmarked aspect in Slot 4 points towards the tense/aspect marking in Slot 1 (aspects: perfective, gnomic, imperfective); a gnomic/habitual aspect is also convenient by leaving the agent pronoun in Slot -2 unmarked.
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====Verbal marking====
====Verbal marking====
:{|
|-
| Subject pronoun: free pronoun, short form
|-
| Referent anaphora: the same vs. anoher mentioned vs. anoter not mentioned (begs for introduction)
|-
| Stem - Infixes
|-
| Tense: [anterior] vs. [past/perfective] vs. [relative present tense] vs. [present-future/imperfective] vs. [posterior]
|-
| Inverse: I/O
|-
| Object number (transitive verbs)
|-
| Aspect:
|-
| Mood:
|-
| Voice: indicative vs. interrogative vs. negative vs. subjunctive/conditional vs. potential/optative
|-
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"
|-
! colspan=2| -2 || -1 || colspan=2| 0 || colspan=2| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6
|-
! colspan=2| Subj.Pron (free pr. short form) || Ref.Anaph || Stem || <nowiki><infixes></nowiki> || colspan=2| Tense || Inverse || Obj.Nr || Aspect || Mood || Voice
|-
| e=n- || S>P/n_ (ej. h>k) || -Ø- || -happ=a- || <nowiki><šnV></nowiki><sup>1</sup> || -ra=z- || =z/_V[-high] || -n- || -- || -ô- || -r- || -i
|-
| e=y- || -a/_C [plosive] || -i- || -happ=š- || || -ra=x- || =x/_t, d || -Ø- || -- || -ta- || -n- || -u
|-
| || || -šku- || -haptu-* || || -ra=n- || =n/_V[+high], n || || -- || -û- || -š- || -Ø
|-
| || || || || || colspan=2| -Ø- || -C- || -- || -î- || -l- || -k
|-
| || || || || || -ša=r- || =r/_n || || -Ø- || -ne- || -x- || -t
|-
| || || || || || -ša=k- || =k/_t || || || || ||
|-
| || || || || || -ša=s- || =s/ || || || || ||
|-
| || || || || || -xtu- || || || || || ||
|-
| || || || || || -kše- || || || || || ||
|-
|}
<sup>1</sup> the verb receives an incorporated noun in genitive compound; akin to a construct state marking in the verb.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"
|-
! -2 || -1 || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6
|-
! Subj.Pron || Ref.Anaph || Root || Tense || Inverse || Obj.Nr || Aspect || Mood || Voice
|-
| 1S.NOM || SAME || to.bread.cook || PRES || DIRECT || UNSP || UNSP || ACT
|-
| wâ[N]- || -Ø- || -hanaptu-kkû- || -Ø- || -Ø- || -Ø- || -Ø- || -š- || -Ø
|-
| colspan=9| wâ[N]-Ø-hanaptu-kkû-Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-š-Ø}
|-
| colspan=9| ''wânkanaptukkûš''
|-
| colspan=9| "it is a common occurrence that I bake bread"
|-
|}
*  haptu- < happ=ttu-


==DEICTICS==
==DEICTICS==
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===Demonstrative pronouns===
===Demonstrative pronouns===


Haššûl spatial deictics correlate in proximity with first exclusive (proximal), second (medial), and third person (distal) pronouns. The short form of the genitive pronouns is affixed wih the following locative markers (LOC) depending on relative positions: -le 'speaker', -nê 'addressee' and -la 'both'. This gives us the following combinations:
Haššûl spatial deictics correlate in proximity with first exclusive (proximal), second (medial), and third person (distal) pronouns. The short form of the genitive pronouns is affixed wih the following locative markers ({{sc|loc}}) depending on relative positions: ''-le'' 'speaker', ''-nê'' 'addressee' and ''-la'' 'both'. This gives us the following combinations:


Singular:
====Singular:====
Personal pronoun and correlative proximity
first exclusive  (proximal) second (medial) third (distal)
têk- en- ey-


LOC 'speaker' -le têk-le- > têkle- > telê- en-le- > elne- > êlle- ey-le > eyye > êye-
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"  style="text-align:center"
'addressee' -nê têk-nê- > têknê- > tekne- en-nê- > ennê- > êne- ey-nê > enyê > enye-
|-
'both' -la têk-la- > têkla- > telâ- en-la- > elna- > êlla- ey-la > eyya > êya-
! rowspan=3 colspan=3| || colspan=6| Personal pronoun and correlative proximity
|-
! colspan=2| first exclusive (proximal) || colspan=2| second (medial) || colspan=2| third (distal)
|-
! colspan=2| ''têk-'' || colspan=2| ''en-'' || colspan=2| ''ey-''
|-
| rowspan=3 style="background:lightsteelblue"| {{sc|loc}} || style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'speaker' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-le'' || têk-le- > têkle- > || ''telê-'' || en-le- > elne- > || ''êlle-'' || ey-le- > eyye- > || ''êye-''
|-
| style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'addressee' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-nê'' || têk-nê- > têknê- > || ''tekne-'' || en-nê- > ennê- > || ''êne-'' || ey-nê- > enyê- > || ''enye-''
|-
| style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'both' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-la'' || têk-la- > têkla- > || ''telâ-'' || en-la- > elna- > || ''êlla-'' || ey-la- > eyya- > || ''êya-''
|-
|}


Paucal/Plural:
====Paucal/Plural:====
Personal pronoun and correlative proximity
first exclusive (proximal) second (medial) third (distal)
tâl- aš(š)- nâm-


LOC 'speaker' -le tâl-le- > tâlle- > tale- aš(š)-le- > ašle- > ašše- nâm-le- > nâlme- > nâlle-
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"  style="text-align:center"
'addressee' -nê tâl-nê- > tânlê- > tanne- aš(š)-nê- > ašne- > ašnê- nâm-nê- > nâmne- > nâmme-
|-
'both' -la tâl-la- > tâlla- > tala- aš(š)-la- > ašla- > ašša- nâm-la- > nâlma- > nâlla-
! rowspan=3 colspan=3| || colspan=6| Personal pronoun and correlative proximity
|-
! colspan=2| first exclusive (proximal) || colspan=2| second (medial) || colspan=2| third (distal)
|-
! colspan=2| ''tâl-'' || colspan=2| ''aš(š)-'' || colspan=2| ''nâm-''
|-
| rowspan=3 style="background:lightsteelblue"| {{sc|loc}} || style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'speaker' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-le'' || tâl-le- > tâlle- > || ''tale-'' || aš(š)-le- > ašle- > || ''ašše-'' || nâm-le- > nâlme- > || ''nâlle-''
|-
| style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'addressee' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-nê'' || tâl-nê- > tânlê- > || ''tanne-'' || aš(š)-nê- > ašne- > || ''ašnê-'' || nâm-nê- > nâmne- > || ''nâmme-''
|-
| style="background:lightsteelblue"| 'both' || style="background:lightsteelblue"| ''-la'' || tâl-la- > tâlla- > || ''tala-'' || aš(š)-la- > ašla- > || ''ašša-'' || nâm-la- > nâlma- > || ''nâlla-''
|-
|}


Deictics may occur either in place of nouns or postposed to nouns, as in ??hanô lene??  'that house'.
Deictics may occur either in place of nouns or postposed to nouns, as in ??hanô lene??  'that house'.
Verbal forms of the demonstrative pronouns can be derived with the verbalizer =š- for intransitive verbs, with the meaning to.be/stay/remain/be.present-LOC, e.g. {ašša=š-} 'aššaš' "they just stay there"
 
Verbal forms of the demonstrative pronouns can be derived with the verbalizer ''=š-'' for intransitive verbs, with the meaning ''to.be/stay/remain/be.present-{{sc|loc}}''. E.g. {ašša=š-} ''''' <nowiki>'</nowiki>aššaš<nowiki>'</nowiki> ''''' "they just stay there"


==POSSESSION==
==POSSESSION==


Posession can be marked with the enclitic form of either a genitive or a negative pronoun, indicating respectively posession or non-posession by the marked-for person.
Possession can be marked with the enclitic form of either a ''genitive'' or a ''negative pronoun'', indicating respectively ''possession'' or ''non-possession'' by the marked-for person.
Genitive possessive
 
The possession of a noun is marked with the enclitic form of the genitive pronouns, bearing the same person and number (1S.GEN = 1S.POS, "my", etc).
===Genitive possessive===
Whenever a genitive pronoun in its long form is used in a clause (e.g. when the posessor is explicitly mentioned), posession marking is dropped from the arguments and the roles are marked by their syntactic relation with the pronoun (e.g. possessed-gen-possessor). For instance, in the sentence "Manxên eyer Rûl" ("a man's she-dog"), the posessor is mentioned (Rûl, a.man), and therefore the long version of the third person singular genitive pronoun (eyer) is used; the form **eyManxên eyer Rûl would be incorrect.
 
Negative possessive
The possession of a noun is marked with the enclitic form of the genitive pronouns, bearing the same person and number ({{sc|1s.gen}}={{sc|1s.pos}}, ''"my"'', etc).
The enclitic form of the negative pronouns is used in the same way as that of the genitive pronouns, likewise bearing the same person and number (1S.NEG = 1S.NEG.POS, "not.my", etc, to indicate a non-belonging relationship. E.g. "rexlanneš", {re=x-lann-eš} 1S.NEG.POS-house-SG 'not.my.house'.
 
Whenever a genitive pronoun in its long form is used in a clause (e.g. when the possessor is explicitly mentioned), possession marking is dropped from the arguments and the roles are marked by their syntactic relation with the pronoun (order ''possessed-{{sc|gen}}-possessor'').
For instance, in the sentence ''"Manxên eyer Rûl"'' (''"a man's she-dog"''), the possessor is mentioned (''rûl'', 'a.man'), and therefore the long version of the third person singular genitive pronoun (''eyer'') is used. The form ''**eyManxên eyer Rûl'' ({{sc|1s.pos}}-she.dog {{sc|1s.gen}} man), using the short form of the third person singular genitive pronoun (''ey-''), would be incorrect.
 
===Negative possessive===
 
The enclitic form of the negative pronouns is used in the same way as that of the genitive pronouns, likewise bearing the same person and number ({{sc|1s.neg}}={{sc|1s.neg.pos}}, ''"not.my"'', etc.), to indicate a non-belonging relationship. E.g. '''''<nowiki>'</nowiki>rexlanneš<nowiki>'</nowiki>''''', {re=x-lann-eš} {{sc|1s.neg.pos}}-house-{{sc|sg}}, ''<nowiki>'</nowiki>not.my.house<nowiki>'</nowiki>''.


==DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY==
==DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY==
Line 773: Line 973:
===Derivation of adjectives===
===Derivation of adjectives===


Every lexical root, be it nominal or verbal, can be turned into an adjective with the adjectivizer suffix ADJZ -(t)ilir.
Every lexical root, be it nominal or verbal, can be turned into an adjective with the adjectivizer suffix {{sc|adjz}} ''-(t)ilir''.


In the case of nominal roots, it takes on the role of a semblative case, with the general predicate form "x is [noun]-like".  
In the case of nominal roots, it takes on the role of a semblative case, with the general predicate form '' "x is [noun]-like" ''.  


In the case of verbal roots, it can be defined as a deverbal form, taking over adjectival functions, by which definition it could be called an adverb, with the general predicate form "(x-is) in the manner of [verb]-ing".
In the case of verbal roots, it can be defined as a deverbal form, taking over adjectival functions, by which definition it could be called an adverb, with the general predicate form "(x-is) in the manner of [verb]-ing". In the context of a restrictive relative clause, it takes on the role of a deverbal form about which can be predicated of as a noun, by which definition it can be called a participle, with the general predicate form '' "x, which is like [verb]-ing" '' (in English both forms would be represented by the infinitive, and are thus rendered as such in the translation).


In the context of a restrictive relative clause, it takes on the role of a deverbal form about which can be predicated of as a noun, by which definition it can be called a participle, with the general predicate form "x, which is like [verb]-ing" (in English both forms woul be represented by the infinitive, and are thus rendered as such in the translation).
For example:


:{|
:{|
|-
|-
| "[nominal root]-adjz [inflected noun]"
| {{cardo|hanaptilir hanaptupepšeš}}
|-
| {hanap-(t)ilir hanaptupepšeš}
|-
|-
| {hanap-(t)ilir hanaptupepšeš} > "hanaptilir hanaptupepšeš"
| [nominal root]-adjz [inflected noun]
|-
|-
| "firelike teabrew" (e.g. said of a spicy teabrew)
| "a fire-like tea-brew" (e.g. said of a spicy teabrew)
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 793: Line 995:
:{|
:{|
|-
|-
| "[verbal root]-ADJZ [inflected noun]"
| {{cardo|happ(at)ilir hanaptweš}}
|-
|-
| {happ=a-(t)ilir ha<na>p=tu-eš}
| <nowiki>{happ=a-(t)ilir ha<na>p=tu-eš}</nowiki>
|-
|-
| "happ(at)ilir hanaptweš"
| [verbal root]-ADJZ [inflected noun]
|-
|-
| "a X which is like burning" (e.g. "a burning-like cooking", <happatilir hanaptweš>)
| "a burning-like cooking" (< "an X [the cooking], which is like burning"; as is characteristic of some barbecuing styles)
|-
|-
|}
|}


===Derivation from nouns===
===Denominal verbs===


Noun to verb
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! style="text-align:left"| Marking || style="text-align:left"| Marker || style="text-align:left"| Notes || style="text-align:left"| Example
|-
| Verbalizer 1 {{sc|vlz1}} || -Ca- || Transitive verb associated with the noun's nature. || ''happ-'' (< ''*haff-''), "fire"; ''=Ca-'' {{sc|vlz1}}


Marker Notes
→ {happ=a-} ''happa-'', "to.burn" (tr.)
vlz1 -Ca- Transitive verb associated wih the noun's nature E.g.
|-
happ- < *haff-, fire ; =Ca- vlz1
| Verbalizer 2 {{sc|vlz2}} || -ttu- || Transitive verb meaning '' "to transform X (={{sc|obj}}) through [the use of] Y (=noun+{{sc|vlz2}})" '': an action performed by the modified noun {{sc|mn}} transforms the object of the verb in some way associated with the noun's nature. || {{sc|mn}}: ''happ-'', "fire"; ''-ttu-'' {{sc|vlz2}}
happ=a- > happa- to.burn (tr.)
vlz2 -ttu- To transform the object through the verb
In transitive verbs derived from a noun. For example, the verbal affix -ttu- marks that an action which is performed through the modified noun transforms the object in some way. E.g.
happ-, fire ; -ttu-, vlz2
happ-ttu- > haptu- to.cook
"to.transform.using.fire"
vlz3 -š- Intransitive verb E.g.
happ- < *haff-, fire ; =š- vlz3
happ=š- > happš- to.burn (int.)


===Derivation from verbs===
→ {happ-ttu-} ''haptu-'', "to.transform.using.fire", "to.cook".
|-
| Verbalizer 3 {{sc|vlz3}} || -š- || Intransitive verb || ''happ-'' "fire" ; ''=š-'' {{sc|vlz3}}


Verb to noun
→ {happ=š-} ''happš-'', "to.burn" (int.)
|-
|}


Marker Notes
 
===Deverbal nouns===
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! style="text-align:left"| Marking || style="text-align:left"| Marker || style="text-align:left"| Notes
|-
| Nominalizer 1 {{sc|nlz1}} || || Place where the actions of the verb takes place
|-
| Nominalizer 2 {{sc|nlz2}} || || Person that does the action of the verb
|-
| Nominalizer 3 {{sc|nlz3}} || || Person who has a characteristic of the first word
|-
| Nominalizer 4 {{sc|nlz4}} || || That which is done by the verb
|-
|}


==SYNTAX==
==SYNTAX==
Line 831: Line 1,046:
===Word order===
===Word order===


DECLARATIVE Transitive Monotransitive
====Constituent order per sentence type====
Ditransitive
Intransitive
IMPERATIVE
QUESTION [topic]=Q [encl.pron]=[NO.OBJECT]-to.ask{tr}


A/N
{| class="wikitable"
possessed/gen/possessor
|-
| rowspan=3| DECLARATIVE || rowspan=2| Transitive || Monotransitive||
|-
| Ditransitive ||
|-
| colspan=2| Intransitive ||
|-
| colspan=3| IMPERATIVE ||
|-
| colspan=3| QUESTION || [topic]=Q [encl.pron]=[NO.OBJECT]-to.ask{tr}
|-
|}


 
====Other====
enkapprazôr
e=n-happ=a-ra=z-Ø-Ø-ô-r-Ø
e=n- -happ=a- -ra=z- -Ø- -Ø- -ô- -r- -Ø
2S.GEN to.burn=TR PRES.FUT.IPF DIR UNSPEC NEG IND
<>, ""


-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
A/N
Subj.Pron Ref.Anaph Root Tense Inverse Obj.Nr Aspect Mood Voice
1S.NOM SAME to.bread.cook PRES DIRECT UNSP UNSP ACT
wâ[N]- -Ø- -hanaptu-kkû- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø- -š- -Ø
wâ[N]-Ø-hanaptu-kkû-Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-š-Ø}
wânkanaptukkûš
"it is a common occurrence that I bake bread"
 
 
 
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
subject pronoun
(free pr. short form) Referent anaphora Stem <infixes> Tense Inv Obj. Asp. Mo Voi.
e=n- S>P/n_ (ej. h>k) -Ø- -happ=a- <šnV>1 -ra=z- =z/_V[-high] -n- -- -ô- -r- -i
e=y- -a/_C [plosive] -i- -happ=š- -ra=x- =x/_t, d -Ø- -- -ta- -n- -u
-šku- -haptu-* -ra=n- =n/_V[+high], n -- -û- -š- -Ø
-Ø- -- -î- -l- -k
-ša=r- =r/_n -Ø- -ne- -x- -t
-ša=k- =k/_t
-ša=s- =s/
*  haptu- < happ=ttu-
1 the verb receives an incorporated noun in genitive compound; akin to a construct state marking in the verb.
1) eyyapparaxtani, e=y-happ=a-ra=x-ta-n-i
2) happarazôn, Ø-happ=a-ra=z-ô-n-Ø
3) {happ-}, happarazôr
 
Subject pronoun: free pronoun, short form
Referent anaphora: the same vs. anoher mentioned vs. anoter not mentioned (begs for introduction)
Stem - Infixes
Tense: [anterior] vs. [past/perfective] vs. [relative present tense] vs. [present-future/imperfective] vs. [posterior]
Inverse: I/O
Object number (transitive verbs)
Aspect:
Mood:
Voice: indicative vs. interrogative vs. negative vs. subjunctive/conditional vs. potential/optative


possessed/gen/possessor (see ''Possession'' above)


=LEXICON=
=LEXICON=


Nouns (n): animate (an), inanimate (in), derivated from verbs (dev).
{|
Verbs (v): transitive (tr), intransitive (int), incorporated (inc)
|-
Particles (p): verbal (ver), nominal (nom), suprasegmental (sup)
| Nouns (n): || animate (an), inanimate (in), deverbal (dev).
Numerals (nu)
|-
| Verbs (v): || transitive (tr), intransitive (int), incorporated (inc)
|-
| Particles (p): || verbal (ver), nominal (nom), suprasegmental (sup)
|-
| Numerals (nu) ||
|-
|}


<> // Nr.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:left"
hanapp- n an ii fire -na- (infix); stative (nominal form)
|-
happ=š- v int to.burn.(down) happ- < *haff-, fire ; =š- VLZ3
! colspan=7| Wordlist
happ=a- v tr to.burn happ- < *haff-, fire ; =Ca- VLZ1
|-
haptu- v tr "to.transform.using.fire": to.cook (a meal, clay, etc), to.evaporate (water, etc), some (al-)chemical reactions happ- < *haff-, fire ; =ttu- VLZ2
! <> || // || colspan=2| POS || Nr. || Meaning || Notes
happ-ttu- to.transform.using.fire
|-
hanaptu- n dev (a) cooking
| hanapp- || ˈhä.nä.pː͜  || n || an || ii || fire || -na- (infix); stative (nominal form)
hašnapturûl- n an ii a cook "a man of cooking", ha<šnV>ptu-rûl-
|-
hašnaptukkûrûl- n an ii a baker
| happ=š- || ˈhä.pːʃ͜  || v || int || || to.burn.(down) || ''happ-'' (< *haff-), "fire"; ''=š-'' {{sc|vlz3}}
akkwaku- n in ii a meal reduplication of "bread", akku-akku-
|-
akku-, -kkû- n in ii bread
| happ=a- || ˈhä.pːä. || v || tr || || to.burn || ''happ-'' (< *haff-), "fire"; ''=Ca-'' {{sc|vlz1}}
haptukkû- v inc to.bread-cook, to.bake.bread
|-
manne n an ii animal similar to a dog
| haptu- || ˈhäp.tu. || v || tr || || "to.transform.using.fire": to.cook (a meal, clay, etc), to.evaporate (water, etc), some (al-)chemical reactions || ''happ-'' (< *haff-), "fire"; ''=ttu-'' {{sc|vlz2}}
rûl n an ii man
→ ''happ-ttu-'', "to.transform.using.fire"
kên n an ii female (of an animal)
|-
êrš- v int to.belong *wēr=š- (to.belong=VLZ3)
| hanaptu- || ˈhä.näp.tu. || n || dev || || (a) cooking ||
ertu- v tr to.adhere, to.make.be.with *wêr=ttu- (to.belong=VLZ2)
|-
etna-, -(e)tn(a)- without *tə
| hašnapturûl- || ˈhäʃ.näp.tu.ɾuːl. || n || an || ii || a cook || "a man of cooking", ''<nowiki>ha<šnV>ptu-rûl-</nowiki>''
tə-na- > ət-na- > etna-/atna-
|-
-reš-, -raš- p nom noun modifier in respect of a verbal root
| hašnaptukkûrûl- || ˈhäʃ.näp.tu.kːu.ɾuːl. || n || an || ii || a baker ||
an action is applied to a noun; being subject to that action characterizes the noun.
|-
happ=a-[] a-rûl-reš-[]
| akkwaku- || ˈä.kːwä.ku. || n || in || ii || a meal || reduplication of "bread", ''akku-akku-''
to.burn-
|-
"the.burning.man"
| akku-, -kkû- || ˈä.kːu {{pipe}} .kːuː. || n || in || ii || bread ||
adjectivization through gerundives?
|-
pešš-, -pepš- n an ii tea plant, tea leaf: tea infusion
| haptukkû- || ˈhäp.tu.kːuː. || v || inc || || to.bread-cook, to.bake.bread ||
haptupepš- v tr to.brew.tea
|-
hanaptupepš- n dev (a) teabrew(ing)
| manne- || ˈmä.nːe. || n || an || ii || animal similar to a dog ||
-šnV- p ver (infix) -šnV- (V=reduplication of the root vowel as short vowel regardless of original length); the verb receives a noun in genitive compound; akin to a construct state marking in the verb.
|-
lann-, -lan- n in ii house, shelter
| rûl- || ˈɾuːl. || n || an || ii || man ||
-eš p nom singular indefinite; etymologically related to he word for "one" êš < *weš, form which resurfaces when after a vowel (e.g.
|-
| kên- || ˈkeːn. || n || an || ii || female (of an animal) ||
|-
| êrš- || ˈeːɾʃ͜  || v || int || || to.belong || (< ''*wēr=š-'', to.belong={{sc|vlz3}})
|-
| ertu- || ˈeɾ.tu. || v || tr || || to.adhere, to.make.be.with || (< ''*wêr=ttu-'', to.belong={{sc|vlz2}})
|-
| etna-, -(e)tn(a)- || ˈet.nä. || || || || without || ''*tə'' > ''tə-na-'' > ''ət-na-'' > ''etna-/atna-''
|-
| -reš-, -raš- || .ɾeʃ. {{pipe}} .ɾäʃ. || p || nom || || || noun modifier in respect of a verbal root; an action is applied to a noun; being subject to that action characterizes the noun: {happ=a-[] a-rûl-reš-[]} to.burn- "the.burning.man" - adjectivization through gerundives?
|-
| pešš-, -pepš- || ˈpe.ʃː͜  {{pipe}} .pe.pʃ͜  || n || an || ii || tea plant, tea leaf: tea infusion ||
|-
| haptupepš- || ˈhäp.tu.pepš͜  || v || tr || || to.brew.tea ||
|-
| hanaptupepš- || || n || dev || || (a) tea-brew(ing) ||
|-
| -šnV- || || p || ver || || || (infix) ''-šnV-'' (V=reduplication of the root vowel as short vowel regardless of original length); the verb receives a noun in genitive compound; akin to a construct state marking in the verb.
|-
| lann-, -lan- || || n || in || ii || house, shelter ||
|-
| -eš || || p || nom || || singular indefinite || etymologically related to he word for "one" ''êš'' < ''*weš'', form which resurfaces when after a vowel (e.g.
-a-*weš > -aweš; -u-*weš > -ubeš)
-a-*weš > -aweš; -u-*weš > -ubeš)
-Vkti p sup -Vkti (suffix); it marks the topic of a question
|-
xapr=aš-
| -Vkti || || p || sup || || || ''-Vkti'' (suffix); it marks the topic of a question
aqqe-, -qqe- n in ii clay
|-
êš nu one *weš
| xapr=aš- || || || || || ||
haptuqqe- v inc to.cook.clay
|-
elaš-, -elš- n in ii place, room *welaš
| aqqe-, -qqe- || || n || in || ii || clay ||
haptubelaš- n in ii oven < *haff-ettu-welaš-
|-
xakš-, -akš- n in ii milk
| êš || || nu || || || one || (< ''*weš'')
-(a)lu(l)- p "with [an]", "containing [in]" commitative (an); subject demoting particle while incorporating
|-
hanaptupepšlulakš- n inc "a teabrewing with milk"
| haptuqqe- || || v || inc || || to.cook.clay ||
bâl-, -bâl- n in ii knife
|-
bâldu- v tr "to.transform.using.a.knife", to.chop.up bâl=ttu-  
| elaš-, -elš- || || n || in || ii || place, room || (< ''*welaš'')
ošša n an ii woman
|-
hûr- v to.sing
| haptubelaš- || || n || in || ii || oven || (< ''*haff-ettu-welaš-'')
zâš-, -zaš- n an ii onion
|-
luh-
| xakš-, -akš- || || n || in || ii || milk ||
bâltuzaš- v inc "to.onion-up.chop" The lenited -tt- (> -d-) of the VLZ2 resurfaces as -t- before the sibilant-vowel-sibilant sequence  
|-
| -(a)lu(l)- || || p || || || "with [an]", "containing [in]" || commitative (an); subject demoting particle while incorporating
|-
| hanaptupepšlulakš- || || n || inc || || "a teabrewing with milk" ||
|-
| bâl-, -bâl- || || n || in || ii || knife ||
|-
| bâldu- || || v || tr|| || "to.transform.using.a.knife", to.chop.up || (< ''*bâl=ttu-'')
|-
| ošša- || || n || an || ii || woman ||
|-
| hûr- || || v || || || to.sing ||
|-
| zâš-, -zaš- || || n || an || ii || onion||
|-
| luh- || || || || || ||
|-
| bâltuzaš- || || v || inc || || "to.onion-up.chop" || The lenited ''-tt-'' (> ''-d-'') of the {{sc|vlz2}} resurfaces as ''-t-'' before the [sibilant-vowel-sibilant] sequence
|}


=SAMPLES=
=SAMPLES=
Line 949: Line 1,175:
:{|
:{|
|-
|-
| ‹''Manxên eye'Rûl''›
| {{cardo|Manxên eye'Rûl}}
|-
|-
| /män.ˈχeːn e.je.ˈɾuːl/
| /män.ˈχeːn e.je.ˈɾuːl/
Line 963: Line 1,189:
:{|
:{|
|-
|-
| ‹''wânelššappš-''›
| {{cardo|wânelššappš-}}
|-
|-
| /wäː.nel.ʃːä.pːʃ-/
| /wäː.nel.ʃːä.pːʃ-/
Line 977: Line 1,203:
:{|
:{|
|-
|-
| ‹''aššašakti''›
| {{cardo|aššašakti}}
|-
|-
| /ä.ʃːä.ˈʃäk.ti/
| /ä.ʃːä.ˈʃäk.ti/
Line 986: Line 1,212:
|-
|-
| "to.be.there-?", "do they just stay there?"
| "to.be.there-?", "do they just stay there?"
|-
|}
----
{|
|-
| 1) eyyapparaxtani, e=y-happ=a-ra=x-ta-n-i
|-
| 2) happarazôn, Ø-happ=a-ra=z-ô-n-Ø
|-
| 3) {happ-}, happarazôr
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
| colspan=8| ''enkapprazôr''
|-
| colspan=8| e=n-happ=a-ra=z-Ø-Ø-ô-r-Ø
|-
| e=n- || -happ=a- || -ra=z- || -Ø- || -Ø- || -ô- || -r- || -Ø
|-
| {{sc|2s.gen}} || to.burn={{sc|tr}} || {{sc|pres.fut.ipf}} || {{sc|dir}} || {{sc|unspec}} || {{sc|ipf}} || {{sc|neg}} || {{sc|ind}}
|-
| colspan=8| ‹›, ""
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 1,003: Line 1,256:
|-
|-
|}
|}
--!>
-->


=HISTORICAL NOTES=
=HISTORICAL NOTES=
Line 1,009: Line 1,262:
The accent shifted from first to last syllable over time, which garnered some of the most distinctive sound changes in the evolution of the language.
The accent shifted from first to last syllable over time, which garnered some of the most distinctive sound changes in the evolution of the language.


*yek-wer- > yekwer > yekker > ekker
{|
*tə yek-wer- > têkwer > têkker > tekêr
|-
*wag_G-wer- > wakwer > akuer > akler
| *yek-wer- || > yekwer || > yekker || > ekker || ← ''Haššûl''
|-
| || > yekwer || > yekuər || > ikûr || ← ''Katzôr''
|-
| || || > yikuər || > çiɣʷâr/ʃiɣwâ || ← ''Hečjûr''
|-
|
|-
| *tə yek-wer- || > têkwer || > têkker || > tekêr || ← ''Haššûl''
|-
| || > tyekwer || > tyekuər || > tikûr || ← ''Katzôr''
|-
| || || > dyikuər || > diɣʷâr/diɣwâ || ← ''Hečjûr''
|-
|
|-
| *wagˠ-wer- || > wakwer || > akuer || > akler || ← ''Haššûl''
|-
| || > wakwer || > wakuər || > wakûr || ← ''Katzôr''
|-
| || || > ləkuər || > elkʷâr/elkwâ || ← ''Hečjûr''
|-
| || || || > elkûr || ← '' ''
|}




 
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