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Proto-Antarctican (view source)

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====Diphthongs====
====Diphthongs====
Proto-Antarctican also had 8 short diphthongs /ei ai oi ui iu eu au ou/ and 6 long diphthongs /eːi aːi oːi eːu aːu oː/.
Proto-Antarctican also had 8 short diphthongs /ei ai oi ui iu eu au ou/ and 6 long diphthongs /eːi aːi oːi eːu aːu oːu/.
 


====Nasal Vowels====
====Nasal Vowels====
All monophthongs and diphthongs in Proto-Antarctican had an phonemic contrast between oral vowels and nasal vowels.
All monophthongs and diphthongs in Proto-Antarctican had an phonemic contrast between oral vowels and nasal vowels. These are marked with a tilde e.g. /tẽc/ - weather.




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In general, the range of permitted syllable shapes was C V (O), where O is an obstruent (fricative or oral stop). However, the first syllable of a word could begin with up to two consonants i.e. the range of permitted syllable shapes here was (C) C V (O).
In general, the range of permitted syllable shapes was C V (O), where O is an obstruent (fricative or oral stop). However, the first syllable of a word could begin with up to two consonants i.e. the range of permitted syllable shapes here was (C) C V (O).


/t/ cannot come before /u/. If a process such as compounding would bring them together, an epenthetic /s/ is inserted.
/t/ cannot come before /u/. If a process such as compounding would bring them together, an epenthetic /s/ is inserted (this is an influence from Japanese).


There were also restrictions on consonant clusters. Not only did they have to be homorganic for voicing (i.e. clusters like /tb/ and /zk/ were not permitted, but /tp/, /db/, /zg/ and /sk/ were), but they also had to be homorganic for palatalisation (i.e. clusters like /spʲ/ were not permitted, but /sʲpʲ/ and /sp/ were).
There were also restrictions on consonant clusters. Not only did they have to be homorganic for voicing (i.e. clusters like /tb/ and /zk/ were not permitted, but /tp/, /db/, /zg/ and /sk/ were), but they also had to be homorganic for palatalisation (i.e. clusters like /spʲ/ were not permitted, but /sʲpʲ/ and /sp/ were).
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For the purposes of Proto-Antarctican phonology, pre-stopped nasals count as sonorants and not as obstruents. Hence they could not be part of consonant clusters or form the coda of the last syllable of a word.
For the purposes of Proto-Antarctican phonology, pre-stopped nasals count as sonorants and not as obstruents. Hence they could not be part of consonant clusters or form the coda of the last syllable of a word.


===Consonant Gemination===
===Consonant Gemination===
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Stress in Proto-Antarctican was predictable, falling on the first heavy syllable of a word (one followed by a geminated consonant or a pre-stopped nasal, or one containing a long vowel, a diphthong, a nasal vowel or a coda consonant). If a word contained no heavy syllables, then stress would fall on the second syllable.
Stress in Proto-Antarctican was predictable, falling on the first heavy syllable of a word (one followed by a geminated consonant or a pre-stopped nasal, or one containing a long vowel, a diphthong, a nasal vowel or a coda consonant). If a word contained no heavy syllables, then stress would fall on the second syllable.


==Grammar==
===Nouns===
Proto-Antarctican originally borrowed its noun morphology open slather from Japanese. It used postpositions to mark nominative case /ga/, accusative case /wo/ (a spelling pronunciation), topicalisation /wa/, comitative case /mo/, genitive case /no/, and dative case /nʲi/ etc. It did have one extra case, an alienable possessive case marked with the postposition /wei/ (/no/ was used exclusively for inalienable possession).
The language also had pronominal possessive particles, borrowed from English and Spanish, though these were marked for clusivity due to influence from Austronesian languages:
* /mi/ 1st person exclusive
* /jau/ 1st person inclusive
* /te/ 2nd person
* /su/ 3rd person
However, major changes occurred to the case system. Firstly, /no/ and /wei/ stopped being interpreted as postpositions attaching to the possessor noun, and instead became prepositions attaching to the possessed noun, occupying the same syntactic "slot" as pronominal possessive prefixes.
In addition, the topic particle /wa/ was lost everywhere. Henceforth, topicalisation was indicated solely by word order. The only exception was where it was reinterpreted as a possessive particle indicating that the noun was possessed by the topic. The particle /su/ was interpreted as indicating the noun was possessed by something other than the topic.
The accusative particle /wo/ was also lost, except when it was needed to distinguish direct from indirect objects.
Now, Proto-Antarctican was still a nominative-accusative language, but one that only marked the nominative. In intransitive sentences, this was redundant, and the postposition /ga/ was dropped. Now it only marked the subject of an intransitive sentence, and was hence an ergative case marker.
At this point, the language now used prepositions more than postpositions, which triggered a massive change in the syntax to become head-initial.
Eventually, the prepositions fused to the noun as prefixes. The ergative postposition /ga/ fused to the noun as a suffix. If the noun ended in a vowel, an epenthetic /u/ was inserted e.g. /bukː/ - book, absolutive -> /bukkuga/ - book, ergative. If the noun ended in a palatalised consonant, an epenthetic /i/ was inserted instead e.g. /tẽc/ - weather, absolutive -> /tẽciga/. And if the noun ended in /t/ or /d/, /o/ was inserted instead e.g. /ʔoiʎãd/ - island, absolutive -> /ʔoiʎãdoga/ - island, ergative.
===Verbs===
====Pronominal Objects====
These were originally marked by prefixes (a feature borrowed from Spanish). However, early in the development of Proto-Antarctican, they underwent metathesis to become infixes (which came immediately before the first vowel). There were two separate forms of the infix, one for words beginning with a palatalised consonant, and another for words beginning with a non-palatalised consonant. The consonants inside the infix must agree with the initial consonant in palatalisation:
*1st Person Exclusive: /imʲ/ ~ /em/ (from Spanish "mi")
*1st Person Inclusive: /asʲ/ ~ /as/ (from English "as")
*2nd Person: /əːsʲ/ ~ /əːs/ (from Spanish "vos")
*Reflexive: /iʎ/ ~ /eɫ/ (from Spanish "él" which underwent semantic shift)
*3rd Person Singular: /utʲ/ ~ /ut/ (from English "it", extended to cover both animate and inanimate objects).
*3rd Person Plural: /amʲ/ ~ /am/ (from English "them").
However, with the development of ergativity, the 3rd person pronominal infixes shifted in meaning to mark antipassive voice. The plural pronoun came to mean that the action happened multiple times, eventually turning into a portmanteau morpheme marking both antipassive voice and imperfective aspect. Similarly, the singular pronoun came to mark both antipassive voice and perfective aspect.
====Pronominal Subjects====
Subject pronouns also fused as affixes on the verb. However, since most of them were borrowed from English, which fused tense marking onto pronouns via contractions with an auxiliary verb (e.g. marking both 1st person singular subject and future tense by "I'll"), they also marked tense.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Past !! Present !! Future
|-
| 1PS Exclusive || ʔoi || ʔomʲi || ʔou
|-
| 1PS Inclusive || ci || we || wu
|-
| 2PS || nʲĩ || jo || ju
|-
| 3PS || zai || ze || zau
|-
| Who / What || wo || heu || ɫu
|}
Apart from this, tense and aspect were not marked on Proto-Antarctican verbs.
====Verbalisation====
To change a noun into a verb, the typical suffix was /z/ e.g.
/sʲəː/ - show
/sʲəːz/ - to perform
If the verb root already ended in a consonant, one of two things happened:
*If the consonant was a non-geminated voiced obstruent, the suffix was changed to /zu/ e.g. /doʎaːg/ - something being dragged -> /doʎaːgzu/ - to drag
*Otherwise, the suffix was changed to /iz/ after a palatalised consonant, and /uz/ otherwise e.g. /damas/ - a scam -> /damasuz/ - to scam or /sakːʲ/ - past event -> /sakːʲiz/ - to have already occurred some time ago.
Any noun could be verbalised to a verb meaning "to be ..." or "to become ..." by simply applying either this transformation e.g.
/zuɥa/ - boat
/zuɥaz/ - to be a boat
====Adverbs====
Nouns could also be changed into adverbs. This was originally done by suffixing them with /i/. However this underwent metathesis with the final vowel, and ended up as simple palatalisation of the final consonant if it was non-palatalised, and as an infix /iʔ/ if the last consonant of the word was already palatalised e.g.
/jĩtoɫəː/ - introduction
/jĩtoʎəː/ - as an introduction
/ʔumupo/ - seat
/ʔumupʲo/ - sitting down (used as an adverb)
/sʲəː/ - show
/sʲiʔəː/ - showing off (used as an adverb)


==Adaptations of Words from Present-Day Languages==
==Adaptations of Words from Present-Day Languages==
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*The vowel in "COURT" or "CAUGHT" has become /oː/.
*The vowel in "COURT" or "CAUGHT" has become /oː/.
*In some words, the vowel in English "TWO" became a diphthong /eu/ (and thus merging with "TELL"). This sound change did not happen consistently across the language. In some cases, the diphthong was lengthened, in other cases it was not, and in some cases the sound change did not happen at all, leaving the vowel as /uː/. Note that it was always blocked after /j/ or before liquid consonants.
*In some words, the vowel in English "TWO" became a diphthong /eu/ (and thus merging with "TELL"). This sound change did not happen consistently across the language. In some cases, the diphthong was lengthened, in other cases it was not, and in some cases the sound change did not happen at all, leaving the vowel as /uː/. Note that it was always blocked after /j/ or before liquid consonants.
*The diphthong in English "SEWER" was usually split into two syllables, becoming /u&#613a;/. However, this was not consistent across the language, sometimes becoming /uwa/, /uː/ or /oː/.
*The diphthong in English "SEWER" was usually split into two syllables, becoming /uɥa/. However, this was not consistent across the language, sometimes becoming /uwa/, /uː/ or /oː/.
 


====Consonants====
====Consonants====
*English clusters of fricative + nasal have become prestopped nasals, at the point of articulation of the nasal e.g. English "smart" -> P.A. /pmːt/.
*English clusters of fricative + nasal have become prestopped nasals, at the point of articulation of the nasal e.g. English "smart" -> P.A. /pmaːt/.
*English nasals at the end of syllables have usually disappeared, nasalising the preceding vowel. Sometimes /m/ has survived by acquiring an epenthetic /u/ after it, becoming /mu/. And sometimes /ŋ/ became /gu/ with nasalisation on the preceding vowel.
*English nasals at the end of syllables have usually disappeared, nasalising the preceding vowel. Sometimes /m/ has survived by acquiring an epenthetic /u/ after it, becoming /mu/. And sometimes /ŋ/ became /gu/ with nasalisation on the preceding vowel.
*English dental fricatives merged with their alveolar counterparts.
*English dental fricatives merged with their alveolar counterparts.
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*English /v/ merged into /b/ (or sometimes /w/), except for the cluster /vj/ (e.g. in "VIEW") which became /ɥ/.
*English /v/ merged into /b/ (or sometimes /w/), except for the cluster /vj/ (e.g. in "VIEW") which became /ɥ/.
*English /w/ (and sometimes /v/) became /ɥ/ before the "LAD" and "BAD" vowels e.g. English "wag" -> P.A. /ɥaːg/, English "vagabond" -> P.A. /ɥagːabõd/.
*English /w/ (and sometimes /v/) became /ɥ/ before the "LAD" and "BAD" vowels e.g. English "wag" -> P.A. /ɥaːg/, English "vagabond" -> P.A. /ɥagːabõd/.
*English /h/ became /x/, except for the cluster /hj/ (e.g. in "HUMAN") which became /ç/.
*English /h/ became /x/, except before /i/ or in the cluster /hj/ (e.g. in "HUMAN") which became /ç/.
*If an English stressed short monophthong was immediately followed by an obstruent (with no consonants intervening), and then either a word boundary or another vowel (which could be epenthetic) after that, then that obstruent tended to become geminated e.g. English "book" -> P.A. /bukː/, English "office" -> P.A. /ʔofːʲis/. However this sound change was not consistent across the language e.g. English "brother" -> P.A. /buɫaza/, not /buɫazːa/.
*If an English stressed short monophthong was immediately followed by an obstruent (with no consonants intervening), and then either a word boundary or another vowel (which could be epenthetic) after that, then that obstruent tended to become geminated e.g. English "book" -> P.A. /bukː/, English "office" -> P.A. /ʔofːʲis/. However this sound change was not consistent across the language e.g. English "brother" -> P.A. /buɫaza/, not /buɫazːa/.
*English /t/ and /dz/ became /ts/ and /z/ before /u/.
*English /t/ and /dz/ became /ts/ and /z/ before /u/.


===Japanese===
===Japanese===
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*Japanese short /i/ or /u/ (but not /ju/) were deleted at the end of a word, as long as they were not preceded by a consonant cluster e.g. Japanese /sakki/ - some time ago -> P.A. /sakːʲ/, Japanese /mazu/ - firstly -> P.A. /maz/.
*Japanese short /i/ or /u/ (but not /ju/) were deleted at the end of a word, as long as they were not preceded by a consonant cluster e.g. Japanese /sakki/ - some time ago -> P.A. /sakːʲ/, Japanese /mazu/ - firstly -> P.A. /maz/.
*Japanese /ɯ/ became /u/.
*Japanese /ɯ/ became /u/.
*Japanese /ts/ became /s/ after a long vowel or diphthong e.g. Japanese /koutsu/ - traffic -> P.A. /koːsu/.
*Japanese /tts/ became /tːos/, or /tos/ after a long vowel or diphthong.
*Japanese /tts/ became /tːos/, or /tos/ after a long vowel or diphthong.
*Japanese /r/ became /ɫ/, except before /i/ when it became /ʎ/.
*Japanese /r/ became /ɫ/, except before /i/ when it became /ʎ/.
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*Japanese word final /iru/, /eru/, /oru/ and /uru/ became /iu/, /eu/, /ou/ and /uː/ respectively e.g. Japanese /kanjiru/ - to feel -> P.A. /kãdʲiu/, Japanese /nagareru/ - to flow -> P.A. /nagaɫeu/, Japanese /shiboru/ - to squeeze -> P.A. /sʲibou/, Japanese /tsuru/ - to hang -> P.A. /tsuː/.
*Japanese word final /iru/, /eru/, /oru/ and /uru/ became /iu/, /eu/, /ou/ and /uː/ respectively e.g. Japanese /kanjiru/ - to feel -> P.A. /kãdʲiu/, Japanese /nagareru/ - to flow -> P.A. /nagaɫeu/, Japanese /shiboru/ - to squeeze -> P.A. /sʲibou/, Japanese /tsuru/ - to hang -> P.A. /tsuː/.
*If the preceding sound change would create a tripthong, it was broken up into two syllables by inserting a semivowel (/w/ if the first vowel was back, and /j/ otherwise) e.g. Japanese /kazoeru/ -> to count -> P.A. /kazoweu/, Japanese /naoru/ - to get better -> P.A. /najou/.
*If the preceding sound change would create a tripthong, it was broken up into two syllables by inserting a semivowel (/w/ if the first vowel was back, and /j/ otherwise) e.g. Japanese /kazoeru/ -> to count -> P.A. /kazoweu/, Japanese /naoru/ - to get better -> P.A. /najou/.


===Spanish===
===Spanish===
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*Spanish ñ became /nʲ/ e.g. Spanish mañana - morning -> P.A. /manʲana/.
*Spanish ñ became /nʲ/ e.g. Spanish mañana - morning -> P.A. /manʲana/.
*Obstruents immediately after a stressed vowel were geminated where possible e.g. Spanish cabeza - head -> P.A. /kabesːa/.
*Obstruents immediately after a stressed vowel were geminated where possible e.g. Spanish cabeza - head -> P.A. /kabesːa/.
*If Spanish r is not before a vowel, it is deleted with lengthening of the preceding vowel e.g. Spanish pensar - to think -> P.A. /pe~saː/ - to be lost in deep thought.
*If Spanish r is not before a vowel, it is deleted with lengthening of the preceding vowel e.g. Spanish pensar - to think -> P.A. /pẽsaː/ - to be lost in deep thought.
*If Spanish r is word initial, or doubled, then it changed to /z/ e.g. Spanish tierra - land -> P.A. /teza/ - landscape.
*If Spanish r is word initial, or doubled, then it changed to /z/ e.g. Spanish tierra - land -> P.A. /teza/ - landscape.
*Otherwise, Spanish r merged into l.
*Otherwise, Spanish r merged into l.
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===Burmese===
===Burmese===
Another language which had heavy influence on Japanese was Burmese. Below are the sound changes of note that happened to Burmese loanwords in the language:
Another language which had heavy influence on Proto-Antarctican was Burmese. Below are the sound changes of note that happened to Burmese loanwords in the language:
*Vowels and diphthongs with low (modal) tone became lengthened word finally, and are short otherwise e.g. Burmese taungban - wing -> P.A. /tãubãː/.
*Vowels and diphthongs with low (modal) tone became lengthened word finally, and are short otherwise e.g. Burmese taungban - wing -> P.A. /tãubãː/.
*Vowels and diphthongs with high (breathy) tone become lengthened and followed by a voiced obstruent, usually /z/ e.g. Burmese du:gaung: - knee -> P.A. /duːzgãːuz/.
*Vowels and diphthongs with high (breathy) tone become lengthened and followed by a voiced obstruent, usually /z/ e.g. Burmese du:gaung: - knee -> P.A. /duːzgãːuz/.
*Vowels and diphthongs with the creaky tone become are lengthened. Word finally, a voiceless obstruent is inserted e.g. Burmese thi.shi. - know -> P.A. /sʲiːçiːc/ - wise
*Vowels and diphthongs with the creaky tone become are lengthened. Word finally, a voiceless obstruent is inserted e.g. Burmese thi.shi. - know -> P.A. /sʲiːçiːc/ - wise
*Vowels and diphthongs with the checked "tone" are pronounced short, and with whatever consonant is written in the Burmese orthography e.g. Burmese amelaik - hunt, P.A. /ʔameɫaik/. In the case of a monophthong in the last syllable of the word, the consonant is geminated e.g. Burmese naywet - ear -> P.A. /naiwetː/.
*Vowels and diphthongs with the checked "tone" are pronounced short, and with whatever consonant is written in the Burmese orthography e.g. Burmese amelaik - hunt, P.A. /ʔameɫaik/. In the case of a monophthong in the last syllable of the word, the consonant is geminated e.g. Burmese naywet - ear -> P.A. /naiwetː/.
*Burmese consonants are palatalised before /i/, and depalatalised before /e/ e.g. Burmese myetsi. - eye -> P.A. /metsʲit/.
*Burmese consonants are palatalised before /i/, and depalatalised before /e/ e.g. Burmese myetsi. - eye -> P.A. /metsʲiːt/.
*Burmese /ɔ/ centralised to schwa e.g. Burmese thittaw: - forest -> P.A. /sʲitːəːt/.
*Burmese /ɔ/ centralised to schwa e.g. Burmese thittaw: - forest -> P.A. /sʲitːəːz/.
*If a Burmese minor syllable both begins with an obstruent and is followed by an obstruent, the vowel in the minor syllable is deleted (as long as it would not violate Proto-Antarctican phonotactics), causing a consonant cluster e.g. Burmese thei na pati. - general -> P.A. /seinaptʲiːt/
*If a Burmese minor syllable both begins with an obstruent and is followed by an obstruent, the vowel in the minor syllable is deleted (as long as it would not violate Proto-Antarctican phonotactics), causing a consonant cluster e.g. Burmese thei na pati. - general -> P.A. /seinaptʲiːt/
*Burmese initial aspirated consonants become clusters of consonant + /x/ if non-palatalised e.g. Burmese hpoun - dust -> P.A. /pxoːu~/, Burmese hsabin - hair (of the human head) -> P.A. /sxabʲi~/. If they are palatalised, they become clusters with /ç/ instead e.g. Burmese hpyaun - straight -> P.A. /pʲçãːu/, Burmese yanhpyit - to fight -> P.A. /jãpʲçitː/ - battle.
*Burmese initial aspirated consonants become clusters of consonant + /x/ if non-palatalised e.g. Burmese hpoun - dust -> P.A. /pxoːũ/, Burmese hsabin - hair (of the human head) -> P.A. /sxabʲĩ/. If they are palatalised, they become clusters with /ç/ instead e.g. Burmese hpyaun - straight -> P.A. /pʲçãːu/, Burmese yanhpyit - to fight -> P.A. /jãpʲçitː/ - battle.
*Burmese /l/ becomes /ɫ/, unless before /i/ or /j/, when it becomes /ʎ/.
*Burmese /l/ becomes /ɫ/, unless before /i/ or /j/, when it becomes /ʎ/.
*The alveo-palatal series of consonants become palatal e.g. Burmese yaukkya - man -> P.A. /jaucaː/ (remember Proto-Antarctican does not like geminated consonants after diphthongs).
*The alveo-palatal series of consonants become palatal e.g. Burmese yaukkya - man -> P.A. /jaucaː/ (remember Proto-Antarctican does not like geminated consonants after diphthongs).
*Burmese voiceless hl became /sʲ/ e.g. Burmese hle: - to lie down -> P.A. /sʲaː/.
*Burmese voiceless hl became /sʲ/ e.g. Burmese hle: - to lie down -> P.A. /sʲaːz/.
*Voiceless nasals become prestopped nasals e.g. Burmese hman - correct -> P.A. /pman/.
*Voiceless nasals become prestopped nasals e.g. Burmese hman - correct -> P.A. /pman/.
*Burmese /h/ became /x/.
*Burmese /h/ became /x/.
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*Thai /i/ palatalised any preceding consonants, or turned a glottal stop into /j/ e.g. Thai /səbaːidiː/ - good health / feeling -> P.A. /sabaːidʲiː/ - "all well".
*Thai /i/ palatalised any preceding consonants, or turned a glottal stop into /j/ e.g. Thai /səbaːidiː/ - good health / feeling -> P.A. /sabaːidʲiː/ - "all well".
*Thai /æ/ merged to /a/, but palatalised the preceding consonant in the exact same way e.g. Thai /bæŋ/ - separate -> P.A. /bʲã/.
*Thai /æ/ merged to /a/, but palatalised the preceding consonant in the exact same way e.g. Thai /bæŋ/ - separate -> P.A. /bʲã/.
*Thai /ɨ/ merged into /u/, but palatalised the preceding consonant in the exact same way e.g. Thai /sʲɨːsat/ - faithful -> P.A. /suːsad/.
*Thai /ɨ/ merged into /u/, but palatalised the preceding consonant in the exact same way e.g. Thai /sʲɨːsat/ - faithful -> P.A. /sʲuːsad/.
*Thai /ə/ merged with /a/ e.g. Thai /baŋʔəːn/ - by chance -> P.A. /bãʔãː/ - to stumble upon.
*Thai /ə/ merged with /a/ e.g. Thai /baŋʔəːn/ - by chance -> P.A. /bãʔãː/ - to stumble upon.
*Thai /ɔː/ centralised to /əː/ e.g. Thai /luːksɔːn/ - arrow, P.A. -> /ɫuːksəː~/
*Thai /ɔː/ centralised to /əː/ e.g. Thai /luːksɔːn/ - arrow, P.A. -> /ɫuːksəː~/
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*Thai /æːu/ became /ʲaːu/ e.g. Thai /mæːu/ - cat -> P.A. /mʲaːu/
*Thai /æːu/ became /ʲaːu/ e.g. Thai /mæːu/ - cat -> P.A. /mʲaːu/
*Thai /ia/ split into two syllables, becoming /ija/ e.g. Thai /siahaːi/ - destroyed -> P.A. /sʲijaxaːi/
*Thai /ia/ split into two syllables, becoming /ija/ e.g. Thai /siahaːi/ - destroyed -> P.A. /sʲijaxaːi/
*Thai /ua/ split into two syllables, becoming /uwa/ e.g. Thai /tua/ - body, figure -> P.A. /tuwa/.
*Thai /ua/ similarly split into two syllables, becoming /uwa/.
*Thai /ɨa/ split into two syllables, becoming /uɥa/ e.g. Thai /rɨa/ - boat -> P.A. /zuɥa/.
*Thai /ɨa/ split into two syllables, becoming /uɥa/ e.g. Thai /rɨa/ - boat -> P.A. /zuɥa/.
*Thai /iau/ split into two syllables, becoming /ijau/ e.g. Thai /tʰiau/ - go out / go on holiday -> P.A. /txijau/.
*Thai /iau/ split into two syllables, becoming /ijau/ e.g. Thai /tʰiau/ - go out / go on holiday -> P.A. /tʲçijau/.
*Thai /uai/ split into two syllables, becoming /uwai/ e.g. Thai /tuasuai/ - jinx -> P.A. /tuwasuwai/.
*Thai /uai/ split into two syllables, becoming /uwai/.
*Thai /ɨai/ split into two syllables, becoming /uɥai/ e.g. Thai /pɨai/ - falling apart -> P.A. /puɥai/.
*Thai /ɨai/ split into two syllables, becoming /uɥai/ e.g. Thai /pɨai/ - falling apart -> P.A. /puɥai/.


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*Final stops became voiced in syllables with low tone e.g. Thai /sàːk/ - pestle -> P.A. /saːg/. Otherwise they became voiceless e.g. Thai /sâːk/ - carcass -> P.A. /saːk/.
*Final stops became voiced in syllables with low tone e.g. Thai /sàːk/ - pestle -> P.A. /saːg/. Otherwise they became voiceless e.g. Thai /sâːk/ - carcass -> P.A. /saːk/.
*Word final stops were geminated after short vowels e.g. Thai /ʔaːtʰít/ - week -> P.A. /ʔaːtʲçit/.
*Word final stops were geminated after short vowels e.g. Thai /ʔaːtʰít/ - week -> P.A. /ʔaːtʲçit/.
*Final /m/ had an epenthetic /u/ added after it e.g. Thai /jɔːmpʰæː/ - give up -> P.A. /jəːmupçaː/ - surrender.
*Final /m/ had an epenthetic /u/ added after it e.g. Thai /jɔːmpʰæː/ - give up -> P.A. /jəːmupʲçaː/ - surrender.
*Other nasals disappeared at the end of syllables, nasalising the preceding vowel e.g. Thai /ʔajakaːn/ - prosecutor -> P.A. /ʔajakãː/ - to prosecute.
*Other nasals disappeared at the end of syllables, nasalising the preceding vowel e.g. Thai /ʔajakaːn/ - prosecutor -> P.A. /ʔajakãː/ - to prosecute.
*The evolution of affricates is unpredictable. Sometimes they became palatal, sometimes palatalised alveolar. The aspirated affricate either became a fricative or a voiceless stop. The unaspirated affricate either became a voiced or a voiceless stop.
*The evolution of affricates is unpredictable. Sometimes they became palatal, sometimes palatalised alveolar. The aspirated affricate either became a fricative or a voiceless stop. The unaspirated affricate either became a voiced or a voiceless stop.
*Apart from this, aspirated consonants behaved like in words from Burmese. They tended to become clusters of consonant + /x/ (or /ç if before /i/ or /j/) e.g. Thai /tʰai/ -> P.A. /txai/, Thai /kʰəjan/ - hard-working -> P.A. /cçã/.
*Apart from this, aspirated consonants behaved like in words from Burmese. They tended to become clusters of consonant + /x/ (or /ç if before /i/ or /j/) e.g. Thai /tʰai/ -> P.A. /txai/, Thai /kʰəjan/ - hard-working -> P.A. /cçã/.
*Outside of clusters, Thai /r/ fricativised to /z/ e.g. e.g. Thai /ʔərɔːi/ - tasty -> P.A. /ʔazoi/.
*Outside of clusters, Thai /r/ fricativised to /z/ e.g. e.g. Thai /ʔərɔːi/ - tasty -> P.A. /ʔazoi/.
*In a cluster, Thai /r/ became /aɫ/ e.g. Thai /kroːt/ - angry, P.A. /kaɫoːd/. However, before /i/, /ɨ/ and /æ/, it became /ʎ/ instead e.g. Thai - /priau/ - sour -> P.A. /paʎijau/.
*In a cluster, Thai /r/ became /aɫ/ e.g. Thai /kròːt/ - angry, P.A. /kaɫoːd/. However, before /i/, /ɨ/ and /æ/, it became /ʎ/ instead e.g. Thai - /priau/ - sour -> P.A. /paʎijau/.
*Outside a cluster, Thai /l/ became /ɫ/ e.g. Thai /leːu/ - bad, naughty -> P.A. /ɫeːu/. However, before /i/, /ɨ/ or /æ/, it became /ʎ/ e.g. Thai /kʰiːlɨːm/ - forgetful -> P.A. /cçiːʎuːmu/ - absent-minded.
*Outside a cluster, Thai /l/ became /ɫ/ e.g. Thai /leːu/ - bad, naughty -> P.A. /ɫeːu/. However, before /i/, /ɨ/ or /æ/, it became /ʎ/ e.g. Thai /kʰiːlɨːm/ - forgetful -> P.A. /cçiːʎuːmu/ - absent-minded.
*In a cluster, Thai /l/ became /eɫ/ normally e.g. Thai /pluːk/ - to plant -> P.A. /peluːg/. However, it became /eʎ/ before /i/ and /æ/ e.g. Thai - /plianplæːŋ/ - to change -> P.A. /peʎijãpeʎãː/.
*In a cluster, Thai /l/ became /eɫ/ normally e.g. Thai /pluːk/ - to plant -> P.A. /peluːg/. However, it became /eʎ/ before /i/ and /æ/ e.g. Thai - /plianplæːŋ/ - to change -> P.A. /peʎijãpeʎãː/.
*In a cluster, Thai /w/ became /aw/ e.g. Thai /kʰwaːi/ - water buffalo -> P.A. /kxawaːi/.
*In a cluster, Thai /w/ became /aw/ e.g. Thai /kʰwaːi/ - water buffalo -> P.A. /kxawaːi/.
*/ŋ/ became /g/ before a vowel, and disappeared with nasalisation of the preceding vowel otherwise e.g. Thai /ŋoŋŋuai/ - astonished -> P.A. /gõguwai/.
*/ŋ/ became /ŋg/ and then /g/ before a vowel, and disappeared with nasalisation of the preceding vowel otherwise e.g. Thai /ŋoŋŋuai/ - astonished -> P.A. /gõguwai/.
*While voiceless nasals are no longer a feature of spoken Thai (only being found in the written language), they were revived via spelling pronunciations and became prestopped nasals in Proto-Antarctican e.g. Thai /maːk/ - betel nut -> P.A. /pmaːg/.
*While voiceless nasals are no longer a feature of spoken Thai (only being found in the written language), they were revived via spelling pronunciations and became prestopped nasals in Proto-Antarctican e.g. Thai /maːk/ - betel nut -> P.A. /pmaːg/.
*Thai /h/ became /x/.
*Thai /h/ became /x/.
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===Taiwanese===
===Taiwanese===
Most of the refugees who came to Antarctica were from Taiwan rather than the mainland. Therefore, Taiwanese has influenced Proto-Antarctican far more than Mandarin. Aspirated consonants generally behaved like those from Burmese. Syllable final stops were pronounced voiced in words with tone 4, and voiceless in words with tone 8. Vowels in words with tones 1, 2, 5 and 6 were pronounced long, otherwise they were short. Taiwanese unaspirated /t/ and voiced /d/ became /ts/ and /z/ before /u/.
More of the refugees who came to Antarctica were from Taiwan rather than the mainland. Therefore, Taiwanese has influenced Proto-Antarctican far more than Mandarin. Aspirated consonants generally behaved like those from Burmese. Syllable final stops were pronounced voiced in words with tone 4, and voiceless in words with tone 8. Vowels in words with tones 1, 2, 5 and 6 were pronounced long, otherwise they were short. Taiwanese unaspirated /t/ and voiced /d/ became /ts/ and /z/ before /u/.
 
==Grammar==
 
===Nouns===
 
Proto-Antarctican originally borrowed its noun morphology open slather from Japanese. It used postpositions to mark nominative case /ga/, accusative case /wo/ (a spelling pronunciation), topicalisation /wa/, comitative case /mo/, genitive case /no/, and dative case /nʲi/ etc. It did have one extra case, an alienable possessive case marked with the postposition /wei/ (/no/ was used exclusively for inalienable possession).
 
The language also had pronominal possessive particles, borrowed from English and Spanish, though these were marked for clusivity due to influence from Austronesian languages:
* /mi/ 1st person exclusive
* /jau/ 1st person inclusive
* /te/ 2nd person
* /su/ 3rd person
 
However, major changes occurred to the case system. Firstly, /no/ and /wei/ stopped being interpreted as postpositions attaching to the possessor noun, and instead became prepositions attaching to the possessed noun, occupying the same syntactic "slot" as pronominal possessive prefixes.
 
In addition, the topic particle /wa/ was lost everywhere. Henceforth, topicalisation was indicated solely by word order. The only exception was where it was reinterpreted as a possessive particle indicating that the noun was possessed by the topic. The particle /su/ was interpreted as indicating the noun was possessed by something other than the topic.
 
The accusative particle /wo/ was also lost, except when it was needed to distinguish direct from indirect objects.
 
Now, Proto-Antarctican was still a nominative-accusative language, but one that only marked the nominative. In intransitive sentences, this was redundant, and the postposition /ga/ was dropped. Now it only marked the subject of an intransitive sentence, and was hence an ergative case marker.
 
At this point, the language now used prepositions more than postpositions, which triggered a massive change in the syntax to become head-initial.
 
Eventually, the prepositions fused to the noun as prefixes. The ergative postposition /ga/ fused to the noun as a suffix. If the noun ended in a vowel, an epenthetic /u/ was inserted e.g. /bukː/ - book, absolutive -> /bukkuga/ - book, ergative. If the noun ended in a palatalised consonant, an epenthetic /i/ was inserted instead e.g. /te~kʲ/ - weather, absolutive -> /te~kʲiga/. And if the noun ended in /t/ or /d/, /o/ was inserted instead e.g. /ʔoiʎãd/ - island, absolutive -> /ʔoiʎãdoga/ - island, ergative.
 
 
===Verbs===
 
====Pronominal Objects====
 
These were originally marked by prefixes (a feature borrowed from Spanish). However, early in the development of Proto-Antarctican, they underwent metathesis to become infixes (which came immediately before the first vowel). There were two separate forms of the infix, one for words beginning with a palatalised consonant, and another for words beginning with a non-palatalised consonant. The consonants inside the infix must agree with the initial consonant in palatalisation:
*1st Person Exclusive: /imʲ/ ~ /em/ (from Spanish "mi")
*1st Person Inclusive: /asʲ/ ~ /as/ (from English "as")
*2nd Person: /əːsʲ/ ~ /əːs/ (from Spanish "vos")
*Reflexive: /iʎ/ ~ /eɫ/ (from Spanish "él" which underwent semantic shift)
*3rd Person Singular: /utʲ/ ~ /ut/ (from English "it", extended to cover both animate and inanimate objects).
*3rd Person Plural: /amʲ/ ~ /am/ (from English "them").
 
 
However, with the development of ergativity, the 3rd person pronominal infixes shifted in meaning to mark antipassive voice. The plural pronoun came to mean that the action happened multiple times, eventually turning into a portmanteau morpheme marking both antipassive voice and imperfective aspect. Similarly, the singular pronoun came to mark both antipassive voice and perfective aspect.
 
 
====Pronominal Subjects====
Subject pronouns also fused as affixes on the verb. However, since most of them were borrowed from English, which fused tense marking onto pronouns via contractions with an auxiliary verb (e.g. marking both 1st person singular subject and future tense by "I'll"), they also marked tense.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Past !! Present !! Future
|-
| 1PS Exclusive || ʔoi || ʔomʲi || ʔou
|-
| 1PS Inclusive || ci || we || wu
|-
| 2PS || nʲi~ || jo || ju
|-
| 3PS || dai || de || dau
|-
| Who / What || wo || heu || ɫu
|}
 
Apart from this, tense and aspect were not marked on Proto-Antarctican verbs.
 
 
====Focus====
 
Verbs were initially put into focus by suffixing them with /i/ (from Japanese emphatic particle /yo/). However this underwent metathesis with the final vowel, and ended up as simple palatalisation of the final consonant if it was non-palatalised, and as an infix /iʔ/ if the last consonant of the word was already palatalised e.g.
 
/ji~toɫəː/ - to introduce oneself, verb root (from English "intro")
 
/ji~toʎəː/ - to introduce oneself, verb focus
 
/ʔumupo/ - to sit, verb root
 
/ʔumupʲo/ - to sit, verb focus
 
/sʲəː/ - to perform, verb root (from English "show")
 
/sʲiʔəː/ - to perform, verb focus
 
 
To put the nouns in sentence into focus, the typical suffix was /z/ e.g.
 
 
/sʲəː/ - to perform, verb root
 
/sʲəːz/ - to perform, verb root
 
 
If the verb root already ended in a consonant, one of two things happened:
*If the consonant was a non-geminated voiced obstruent, the suffix was changed to /zu/ e.g. /doʎaːg/ - to drag, verb root -> /doʎaːgzu/ - to drag, noun focus
*Otherwise, the suffix was changed to /iz/ after a palatalised consonant, and /uz/ otherwise e.g. /damas/ - to swindle, verb root -> /damasuz/ - to swindle, noun focus, or /sakːʲ/ - to have already occurred some time ago, verb root -> /sakːʲiz/ - to have already occurred some time ago, noun-focus.
 
 
Any noun could be verbalised to a verb meaning "to be ..." or "to become ..." by simply applying either the verb-focus or the noun-focus transformations e.g.
 
 
/zuɥa/ - boat
 
/zuɥiʔa/ - to be a boat, verb focus
 
/zuɥaz/ - to be a boat, noun focus
 


==Evolution into Antarctican==
==Evolution into Antarctican==
Line 492: Line 486:
===Origin of Glottal Codas===
===Origin of Glottal Codas===


*Clusters which ended in a non-alveolar fricative were broken up by inserting an epenthetic /a/ e.g. /pxõːu/ - dust -> /paxõʲu/, or /ʔaːtʲçit/ - week -> /ʔaːtʲaçit/
*Clusters which ended in a non-alveolar fricative were broken up by inserting an epenthetic /a/ e.g. /pxõːu/ - dust -> /paxõːu/, or /ʔaːtʲçit/ - week -> /ʔaːtʲaçit/
*Voiceless consonants that were not followed by a vowel became a glottal stop e.g. /seinaptʲiːt/ - general -> /seinaʔtʲiːʔ/. Note that this did not affect prestopped nasals, since they counted as a single consonant.
*Voiceless consonants that were not followed by a vowel became a glottal stop e.g. /seinaptʲiːt/ - general -> /seinaʔtʲiːʔ/. Note that this did not affect prestopped nasals, since they counted as a single consonant.
*Voiceless geminate consonants became sequences of glottal stop + consonant e.g. /kucːik/ - a female given name -> /kuʔciʔ/ (the above sound change also applies, changing the final /k/ into a glottal stop.
*Voiceless geminate consonants became sequences of glottal stop + consonant e.g. /kucːik/ - a female given name -> /kuʔciʔ/ (the above sound change also applies, changing the final /k/ into a glottal stop.
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*Similarly, the glottal stop put tense voice on the vowel and raised the pitch e.g. /webːoʔ/ (the final /s/ had debuccalised to a glottal stop) - eggs -> /webːóʔ/.
*Similarly, the glottal stop put tense voice on the vowel and raised the pitch e.g. /webːoʔ/ (the final /s/ had debuccalised to a glottal stop) - eggs -> /webːóʔ/.
*In some cases, this tense voice spread through consonants and affect multiple vowels. Consonants that permitted this spreading were voiced sonorants and voiceless stops (other than the glottal stop) e.g. /ʔameɫaiʔ/ - hunt (the final /k/ had debuccalised to a glottal stop) -> /ʔáméɫáiʔ/.
*In some cases, this tense voice spread through consonants and affect multiple vowels. Consonants that permitted this spreading were voiced sonorants and voiceless stops (other than the glottal stop) e.g. /ʔameɫaiʔ/ - hunt (the final /k/ had debuccalised to a glottal stop) -> /ʔáméɫáiʔ/.
*If the tense voice would "spread" through an initial consonant, then that word acquired floating phonation e.g. /te~ʔ/ - weather (the final /kʲ/ had debuccalised to a glottal stop) -> /'té~ʔ/.
*If the tense voice would "spread" through an initial consonant, then that word acquired floating phonation e.g. /tẽʔ/ - weather (the final /c/ had debuccalised to a glottal stop) -> /'té~ʔ/.
*Word initial clusters beginning with glottal stops also created floating phonation e.g. /'ʔcidáʔ/ - drawers (from /çcidasʲ/).
*Word initial clusters beginning with glottal stops also created floating phonation e.g. /'ʔcidáʔ/ - drawers (from /çcidasʲ/).


Line 539: Line 533:
=====After a Non-Palatalised Consonant=====
=====After a Non-Palatalised Consonant=====


After this, a second, anti-clockwise chain shift began with the fronting of short /u/ to /i/ e.g. /tuwasuwai/ - jinx -> /tiwasiwai/  The diphthong /ui/ became long /iː/ e.g. /pmui/ - cold (weather) -> /pmiː/ (note that these never created any new homophones because previously /i/ had only occurred before /j/ or a palatalised cononant.). Short /o/ was then raised to /u/ e.g. /doko/ - where -> /duku/.
After this, a second, anti-clockwise chain shift began with the fronting of short /u/ to /i/ e.g. /zuɥa/ - boat -> /ziɥe/ (the /a/ shifted to /e/ because of the preceding sound change). The diphthong /ui/ became long /iː/ e.g. /pmui/ - cold (weather) -> /pmiː/ (note that these never created any new homophones because previously /i/ had only occurred before /j/ or a palatalised cononant.). Short /o/ was then raised to /u/ e.g. /doko/ - where -> /duku/.


Finally, /oi/ and /oːi/ shifted to /ui/ and /uːi/ respectively e.g. /kamoːi/ - thief -> /kamuːi/, or /ʔazoi/ - tasty -> /ʔazui/.
Finally, /oi/ and /oːi/ shifted to /ui/ and /uːi/ respectively e.g. /kamoːi/ - thief -> /kamuːi/, or /ʔazoi/ - tasty -> /ʔazui/.
Line 602: Line 596:
The velarised alveolar lateral /ɫ/ lost its laterality and became uvular /ʁ/. The palatal lateral /ʎ/ became alveolar /l/ (which still has /ʎ/ as an allophone before high vowels).
The velarised alveolar lateral /ɫ/ lost its laterality and became uvular /ʁ/. The palatal lateral /ʎ/ became alveolar /l/ (which still has /ʎ/ as an allophone before high vowels).


Antarctican also acquired lateral obstruents /tɬ/, /dɮ/, /ɬ/ from the palatalised alveolar consonants /tʲ/, /dʲ/ and /sʲ/ respectively. The voiced palatalised fricative /zʲ/ was lost, merging into /dɮ/ respectively.
Antarctican also acquired lateral obstruents /tɬ/, /dɮ/, /ɬ/ from the palatalised alveolar consonants /tʲ/, /dʲ/ and /sʲ/ respectively. This was via an intermediate sound change to clusters of /tʎ/, /dʎ/ and /ʎ/ The voiced palatalised fricative /zʲ/ was lost, merging into /dʲ/, which then became /dʎ/ and finally /dɮ/.
 


====Loss of Voicing Contrasts====
====Loss of Voicing Contrasts====
Line 674: Line 667:
| Japanese || youfuku || clothes || joːfku || ˤjaːˤki || clothes
| Japanese || youfuku || clothes || joːfku || ˤjaːˤki || clothes
|-
|-
| Japanese || zubon || pants || zbõ || `boɵ || pants
| Japanese || zubon || pants || zbõ || ʱboɴ || pants
|-
|-
| Japanese || sakki || some time ago || sakː || saˤ || some time ago
| Japanese || sakki || some time ago || sacː || saˤ || some time ago
|-
|-
| Japanese || mazu || firstly || maz || `mɜʱ || firstly
| Japanese || mazu || firstly || maz || ʱmɜʱ || firstly
|-
|-
| Japanese || shiboru || to squeeze || sʲibou || ɬibou || squeeze
| Japanese || shiboru || to squeeze || sʲibou || ɬibou || squeeze
|-
|-
| Japanese || kanjiru || to feel || kãdʲiu || kaɴdɮuː || to feel
| Japanese || kanjiru || to feel || kãdʲiu || kaɴdɮuː || to feel
|-
| Japanese || koutsu || traffic || koːs || koːuˤ || traffic
|-
|-
| Japanese || kazoeru || to count || kazoweu || kazoweu || to count
| Japanese || kazoeru || to count || kazoweu || kazoweu || to count
Line 694: Line 685:
| Spanish || mañana || morning || manʲana || maɲana || morning
| Spanish || mañana || morning || manʲana || maɲana || morning
|-
|-
| Spanish || cabeza || head || kabesːa || kapɛsa || head
| Spanish || cabeza || head || kabesːa || kapɛˤsa || head
|-
|-
| Spanish || pensar || to think || pe~saː || pɘɴsaː || lost in deep thought
| Spanish || pensar || to think || pẽsaː || pɘɴsaː || lost in deep thought
|-
|-
| Spanish || tierra || land || teza || teza || landscape
| Spanish || tierra || land || teza || teza || landscape
Line 702: Line 693:
| Spanish || lima || Lima (in Peru) || ʎima || lima || Lima (in Peru)
| Spanish || lima || Lima (in Peru) || ʎima || lima || Lima (in Peru)
|-
|-
| Spanish || palo || stick || paɫo || paʁa || stick
| Spanish || palo || stick || paɫo || paʁu || stick
|-
|-
| Spanish || derecha || right (as in not left) || deɫetːʲa || tɛˤʁɛˤtɬe || right (as in not left)
| Spanish || derecha || right (as in not left) || deɫetːʲa || tɛˤʁɛˤtɬe || right (as in not left)
Line 715: Line 706:
|-
|-
| Spanish || viuda || widow || bʲudːa || pʲuʱda || widow
| Spanish || viuda || widow || bʲudːa || pʲuʱda || widow
|-
| Burmese || taungban || wing || tãubãː || tauɴbaː || wing
|-
| Burmese || du:gaung: || knee || duːzgãːuz || ʱtɨuʱgɜːu || knee
|-
| Burmese || thi.shi. || to know || sʲiːçiːc || ɬiːjɘiˤ || wise
|-
| Burmese || amelaik || to hunt || ʔameɫaik || ʔaˤmɛˤʁaiˤ || prey
|-
| Burmese || naywet || ear || naiwetː || ˤnaiˤwɛˤ || ear
|-
| Burmese || myetsi || eye || metsʲiːt || ˤmɛˤɬɘiˤ || eye
|-
| Burmese || thittaw: || forest || sʲitːəːz || leiˤtoʱ || forest
|-
| Burmese || tei na pati. || general || seinaptʲiːt || sɛiˤnaˤtʼɬɘiˤ || general
|-
| Burmese || hpoun || dust || pxoːũ || pɛχoːuɴ || dust
|-
|| Burmese || hsabin || hair (on the head) || sxabʲĩ || saxabʲiɴ || hair (on the head)
|-
| Burmese || hypaun || straight || pʲçãːu || pʲɘçaːuɴ || straight
|-
| Burmese || yanhpyit || to fight || jãpʲçitː || jɘɴpʲejeiˤ || battle
|-
| Burmese || yaukkya || man || jaucaː || jauceː || man
|-
| Burmese || hle: || to lie down || sʲaːz || lɘːʱ || to lie down
|-
| Burmese || hman || correct || pmã || pmaɴ || correct
|-
| Thai || /sʲɨːsat/ || faithful || sʲuːsad || ɬuːsɜʱ || faithful
|-
| Thai || /səbaːidiː/ || good health / feeling || sabaːidʲiː || sabaːidɮiː || all well
|-
| Thai || /bæŋ/ || separate || bʲã || bʲaɴ || separate
|-
| Thai || /baŋʔəːn/ || by chance || bãʔãː || bɛkŋaːɴ || to stumble upon
|-
| Thai || /ʔərɔːi/ || tasty || ʔazoi || ʔazui || tasty
|-
| Thai || /kətʰəːi/ || transsexual || katxei || kɛtɛxei || transsexual
|-
| Thai || /siahaːi/ || destroyed || sʲijaxaːi || ɬijɛxaːi || to destroy
|-
| Thai || /rɨa/ || boat || zuɥa || ziɥe || boat
|-
| Thai || /mæːu/ || cat || mʲaːu || mʲeːu || cat
|-
| Thai || /tʰiau/ || go out / go on holiday || tʲçijau || tɬɛçijeu || go out / go on holiday
|-
| Thai || /pɨai/ || falling apart || puɥai || piɥei || to fall apart
|-
| Thai || /sàːk/ || pestle || saːg || sɜːʱ || pestle
|-
| Thai || /sâːk/ || carcass || saːk || saːˤ || carcass
|-
| Thai || /ʔaːtʰít/ || week || ʔaːtʲçit || ʔɛːtɬejeiˤ || week
|-
| Thai || /wanʔaːtʰít/ || Sunday|| wãʔaːtʲçit || wɛkŋɛːtɬejeiˤ || Sunday
|-
| Thai || /jɔːmpʰæː/ || give up || jəːmupʲçaː || jɔmɨpʲɘçeː || surrender
|-
| Thai || /ʔajakaːn/ || prosecutor || ʔajakãː || ʔajɘkaːɴ || to prosecute
|-
| Thai || /kʰəjan/ || hard-working || cçã || cɘçaɴ || hard-working
|-
| Thai || /kròːt/ || angry || kaɫoːd || kɜʱʁuːʱ || angry
|-
| Thai || /priau/ || sour || paʎijau || palijeu || sour
|-
| Thai || /kʰiːlɨːm/ || forgetful || cçiːʎuːmu || cɘçiːloːmi || absent-minded
|-
| Thai || /leːu/ || bad, naughty || ɫeːu || ʁeːu || naughty
|-
| Thai || /plianplæːŋ/ || to change || peʎijãpeʎãː || pelijɛɴpeleːɴ || to change
|-
| Thai || /kʰwaːi/ || water buffalo || kxawaːi || kɛxawaːi || water buffalo
|-
| Thai || /ŋoŋŋuai/ || astonished || gõguwai || goɴgiwai || astonished
|-
| Thai || /maːk/ || betel nut || pmaːg || mɜːʱ || betel nut
|-
| Vietnamese || nhẵn || smooth || nʲaʔã || ɲeʔaɴ || smooth
|}
|}


[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Proto-languages]][[Category:Antarctican]]
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Languages]][[Category:Proto-languages|A]][[Category:Antarctican]]
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