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{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
|name = Sceptrian | |name = Sceptrian | ||
| | |image = Lusha name.png | ||
|pronunciation = | |imagesize = 300px | ||
|nativename = Batop Lushan | |||
|pronunciation = ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ | |||
|states = Sceptre | |states = Sceptre | ||
|speakers = 29,200,000 | |speakers = 29,200,000 | ||
| Line 11: | Line 12: | ||
|fam1 = West-Herookuan | |fam1 = West-Herookuan | ||
|fam2 = Lutian | |fam2 = Lutian | ||
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch | |fam3 = Sceptrian branch | ||
|creator=Ahuelni | |creator = Ahuelni | ||
|setting=Akekata | |setting = Akekata | ||
| | |dia1 = Yerzonian | ||
| | |dia2 = Mulish | ||
|dia3 = Fanish | |||
|scripts = * Toneka alphabet | |||
|nation = Empire of Sceptre | |nation = Empire of Sceptre | ||
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia | |minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia | ||
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) | |agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) | ||
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg | |map = Lusha_regions.jpg | ||
|mapsize = | |mapsize = 300px | ||
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects | |mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects | ||
}} | }} | ||
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages. | |||
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' | |||
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**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head) | **Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head) | ||
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]] | *Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]] | ||
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as | **Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant | ||
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!). | **Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!). | ||
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) | *Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) | ||
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞] (soup) | **Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup) | ||
===Consonant form=== | ===Consonant form=== | ||
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|} | |} | ||
*When stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting) | *When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting) | ||
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of '' | *With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''. | ||
==Orthography== | ==Orthography== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!COM | !COM | ||
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh || | | nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh ||thas ||sus ||slosh || his ||klosh | ||
|- | |- | ||
!CAU | !CAU | ||
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*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.) | *As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.) | ||
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) | *For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) | ||
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the | *The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the head acts more like a specifying comment on the true sentence subject: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) | ||
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]]. | See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]]. | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!Comitative | !Comitative | ||
| shos || | | shos ||kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos ||zeos || sos | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Causal | !Causal | ||
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There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes. | There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes. | ||
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in | *Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. | ||
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h''), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings. | *Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings. | ||
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group. | *Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group. | ||
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull) | In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use. | ||
====Number==== | ====Number==== | ||
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| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon | | An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style=""| | ! style=""| Instrumental-comitative | ||
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh | | Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh | ||
|- | |- | ||
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*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø'' | *''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø'' | ||
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø | **Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø | ||
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. | *''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. | ||
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng'' | *''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng'' | ||
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q'' | *''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q'' | ||
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*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix | *place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix | ||
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish) | *collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish) | ||
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' | |||
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy") | *being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy") | ||
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer) | **doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer) | ||
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*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.) | *When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.) | ||
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle. | *Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle. | ||
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii | *When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) | ||
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). | '''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). | ||
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Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly) | Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly) | ||
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh | Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh óomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely") | ||
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly) | '''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly) | ||
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*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man) | *"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man) | ||
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith) | **Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith) | ||
**Showing tense: | **Showing tense-aspect: | ||
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past) | ***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past) | ||
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective | ***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective | ||
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense | ***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense | ||
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" | ***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" | ||
**Vernacularly, [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|proximal demonstrative pronouns]] are used as copulae with corresponding grammatical gender: ''Trs saitu Berats.'' ("Smith this Berats." Berats is a smith.) | |||
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man") | * "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man") | ||
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|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect | |+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Tense | !Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN | ||
!Aspect | |||
!1SG | |||
!1PL | |||
!2SG | |||
!2PL | |||
!2SG.POL | |||
!2PL.POL | |||
!3SG.A | |||
!3PL.A | |||
!3SG.INAN | |||
!3PL.INAN | |||
|- | |- | ||
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT | !colspan="2"|GNO-STAT | ||
| a | | a || ha || e || he || ahi || aqhi || ó || hó || (o) || l | ||
| ha | |||
| e | |||
| he | |||
| ahi | |||
| aqhi | |||
| ó | |||
| hó | |||
| (o) | |||
| l | |||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="2"|PRES | ! rowspan="2"|PRES | ||
!PROG | !PROG | ||
| an | | an || han || en || hen || ang || aing || ón || hón || on || lon | ||
| han | |||
| en | |||
| hen | |||
| ang | |||
| aing | |||
| ón | |||
| hón | |||
| on | |||
| lon | |||
|- | |- | ||
!INCEP | !INCEP | ||
| ast | | ast || last || est || lest || æst || hæst || ós || lós || os || osl | ||
| last | |||
| est | |||
| lest | |||
| æst | |||
| hæst | |||
| ós | |||
| lós | |||
| os | |||
| osl | |||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="2"| PST | ! rowspan="2"| PST | ||
! IPFV | ! IPFV | ||
| ajin | | ajin || hajin || ejin || hejin || azing || izing || ójin || hójin || oin || loin | ||
| hajin | |||
| ejin | |||
| hejin | |||
| azing | |||
| izing | |||
| ójin | |||
| hójin | |||
| oin | |||
| loin | |||
|- | |- | ||
!PFV | !PFV | ||
| ai | | ai || hai || ei || hei || athi || idhi || óji || hóji || oi || loi | ||
| hai | |||
| ei | |||
| hei | |||
| athi | |||
| idhi | |||
| óji | |||
| hóji | |||
| oi | |||
| loi | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2"| FUT | ! colspan="2"| FUT | ||
| har | | har || +har || her || +her || athar || idhar || hór || +hór || ho || +ho | ||
| +har | |||
| her | |||
| +her | |||
| athar | |||
| idhar | |||
| hór | |||
| +hór | |||
| ho | |||
| +ho | |||
|} | |} | ||
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive | * initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive | ||
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*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration | *+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration | ||
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh'' | **simple ''h'' becomes ''qh'' | ||
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.) | *Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.) Note the second apophony due to the abstract gender. | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect | |+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Tense | !Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN | ||
!Aspect | |||
!1SG | |||
!1PL | |||
!2SG | |||
!2PL | |||
!2SG.POL | |||
!2PL.POL | |||
!3SG.A | |||
!3PL.A | |||
!3SG.INAN | |||
!3PL.INAN | |||
|- | |- | ||
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT | !colspan="2"|GNO-STAT | ||
| a | | a || sa || e || se || æ || hæ || ó || só || o || lo | ||
| sa | |||
| e | |||
| se | |||
| æ | |||
| hæ | |||
| ó | |||
| só | |||
| o | |||
| lo | |||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="2"|PRES | ! rowspan="2"|PRES | ||
!PROG | !PROG | ||
| an | | an || san || en || sen || nga || ngai || ón || són || on || lon | ||
| san | |||
| en | |||
| sen | |||
| nga | |||
| ngai | |||
| ón | |||
| són | |||
| on | |||
| lon | |||
|- | |- | ||
!INCEP | !INCEP | ||
| tsa | | tsa || tsla || tse || tsle || tsæ || tshæ || tsó || tsló || so || slo | ||
| tsla | |||
| tse | |||
| tsle | |||
| tsæ | |||
| tshæ | |||
| tsó | |||
| tsló | |||
| so | |||
| slo | |||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="2"| PST | ! rowspan="2"| PST | ||
! IPFV | ! IPFV | ||
| jan | | jan || zhan || jen || zhen || izæ || izhæ || jón || zhón || i || li | ||
| zhan | |||
| jen | |||
| zhen | |||
| izæ | |||
| izhæ | |||
| jón | |||
| zhón | |||
| i | |||
| li | |||
|- | |- | ||
!PFV | !PFV | ||
| ai | | ai || sai || ei || sei || thæ || dhæ || jó || zhó || oi || loi | ||
| sai | |||
| ei | |||
| sei | |||
| thæ | |||
| dhæ | |||
| jó | |||
| zhó | |||
| oi | |||
| loi | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2"| FUT | ! colspan="2"| FUT | ||
| ar | | ar || sar || er || ser || thar || dhar || ór || sór || or || lor | ||
| sar | |||
| er | |||
| ser | |||
| thar | |||
| dhar | |||
| ór | |||
| sór | |||
| or | |||
| lor | |||
|} | |} | ||
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.) | *Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.) | ||
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In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used. | In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used. | ||
Endings with different tenses may be mixed: | Endings with different tenses and aspects may be mixed in some cases: | ||
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) | *PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) | ||
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while)) | *PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while)) | ||
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'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well) | '''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well) | ||
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.) | '''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for supposedly factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.) | ||
=====Irrealis===== | =====Irrealis===== | ||
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?) | '''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?) | ||
*The change in stress does not affect the apophony. | |||
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) | '''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) | ||
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!) | *The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!) | ||
**Alternatively, the ''r'' may be added after the inceptive agent prefix. | |||
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original | '''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original stressed syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go) | ||
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject. | *The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject. | ||
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished | *The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished | ||
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Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse''' | Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fo'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?) | ||
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.) | '''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.) | ||
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*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed) | *Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed) | ||
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]] | *Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]] | ||
====Auxiliary verbs==== | ====Auxiliary verbs==== | ||
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===Word order=== | ===Word order=== | ||
*VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive | * VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive | ||
* often a comment precedes the topic | |||
* numerals precede nouns | |||
* possessives follow nouns | * possessives follow nouns | ||
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns | * predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns | ||
* demonstratives come last | |||
===Emphasizing clitics=== | ===Emphasizing clitics=== | ||
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton dothee'''noh''' | Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton pof dothee'''noh'''.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used in nominalized relative clauses and with verbs in antipassive constructions. | ||
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) | When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) | ||
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====Independent==== | ====Independent==== | ||
Independent clauses make sense by themselves so that they may form their own sentence. | |||
In Sceptrian, the subject is not necessarily a separate word since the verb can convey both the agent and the object. Thus a single verb can be a complete sentence: ''Ainamoi.'' (It was eaten by me.) However, a full clause may a verbless one as well when the gnomic-static aspect is used or because the languages lacks the verbs "to be" and "to have": ''Ksaru lutu(ma).'' (The woman is a guard.), ''Lutugu ksarushos.'' (Lady has their own guards.) | |||
Traditional Sceptrian language theorists have used the term ''qópó'' (act) when referring to the verb phrase: the main verb, its auxiliaries and particles which wouldn't appear without the verb. It may also refer to the predicative determiners of a verbless clause subject (possibly bearing the emphasizing clitic): e.g. ''ksaru'' (guard) is ''qópó hetson'' ("still" act) of the above example ''Ksaru lutu.''. This may be called predicate in Westlang grammar. | |||
''Betsloi'ó'' (affectee), that is, the absolutive subject-object may be: | |||
*Noun: ''Lehkotón '''kuth'''.'' ('''A dog''' is running.) | |||
*Pronoun: ''Aiteshóji '''slo'''.'' ('''They''' were seen by me.) | |||
*Gerund: ''Apekingvó '''lateppi'''.'' (I enjoy '''dancing'''.) | |||
*Another clause: ''Aitésoutóji, '''skugu rorøtóji'''.'' (I couldn't see, '''where he went'''.) | |||
*Note that the main verb conjugation is for the abstract subject. In the indirect question, the verb is in subjunctive. | |||
''Betslaató'' (affecter) refers to the agent which is declined into the ergative case. | |||
*A gerung will be declined if necessary, but an entire clause remains the same. | |||
Interrogative clauses begin with either the verb or the interrogative. Interrogative mood is indicated by the moving the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. Questions are placed between question marks "¿" and "?". See below in the [[Sceptrian#Noun_clauses|noun clauses]] for more of indirect questions. | |||
*In written language, requests often use only the final question mark: ''Tsemaakor nai?'' (Will you give it to me?) | |||
====Conjunction==== | ====Conjunction==== | ||
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?) | coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?) | ||
*and, but, for, so, or | |||
*... | |||
Demonstratives will take the case ending, if the entire | |||
====Noun clauses==== | ====Noun clauses==== | ||
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[[Category:Languages]][[Category: | [[Category:Languages]][[Category:Languages]] | ||