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:[[Togarmite/Lexicon]]
:[[Togarmite/Swadesh list]]
:[[Togarmite/he|דף זה בעברית]]


{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|name = {{PAGENAME}}
|name = {{PAGENAME}}
|creator = Praimhín
|image =  
|image =  
|setting = [[Verse:Lõis|Lõis]]
|setting = Irta
|nativename = Þėgamiþ
|nativename = yn Tėrmit
|pronunciation = /θegamiθ/
|pronunciation = /ən thermith/
|region =  
|region =  
|states =  
|states =  
|speakers =  
|speakers =  
|date =  
|date =  
|script=토갊글 (a form of linear Hangul)
|familycolor=afroasiatic
|familycolor=afroasiatic
|fam1=Afro-Asiatic
|fam1=Afro-Asiatic
|fam2=[[North Semitic]] (Togarmo-Canaanite)
|fam2=Semitic
|fam3=Northwest Semitic
|fam4=[[Togarmite/Old|Old Togarmite]]
}}
}}


'''Togarmite''' (''Þėgamiþ'' /θegamiθ/ or ''lysėnyn þėgamijyn'' /ˈləsenən θegamijən/) is a Semitic language closely related to Hebrew and [[Knánith]]. It is inspired by Lithuanian, Germanic languages (particularly Icelandic) and the Semitic conlang Alashian.
'''Togarmite''' or '''Thermite''' (''yn Tėrmit'' /ən thermith/ or ''yn lysėn Tėrmi'') is a Northwest Semitic language (as distant from Hebrew as Aramaic is). It is inspired by Hebrew, Lithuanian, Germanic languages (particularly Icelandic), Greek, Welsh and [https://www.veche.net/alashian Alashian], a Semitic conlang.


Modern Togarmite retains the Semitic root-and-pattern morphology and binyanim of [[Togarmite/Old|Old Togarmite]], but has undergone some grammatical restructuring, taking features of the Turkey-Northern Levant-Iranian sprachbund, with [[L-Persian]], [[Modern An Bhlaoighne]] and [[Time Traveler English|English]]:
Modern Togarmite retains the Semitic root-and-pattern morphology of [[Togarmite/Old|Old Togarmite]], but has undergone some phonological and grammatical restructuring:


*loss of grammatical gender
*loss of grammatical gender
*loss of the passive binyanim
*loss of the passive binyanim
*loss of the suffix conjugation except in a few verbs
*loss of the suffix conjugation except in a few verbs (where they form the w-form); erosion of the prefix paradigm (used for the past tense, like the Hebrew waw-consecutive preterite) to the point where subject pronouns are required
*the use of the ''w-form'' (inherited from the Old Togarmite waw-consecutive future) for the present progressive, mirroring [[Time Traveler English|English]] ''-ing'' < PIE *-nd-kwe
*the use of the ''w-form'' (inherited from the Old Togarmite waw-consecutive) for the present progressive, mirroring [[Time Traveler English|English]] ''-ing'' < PIE *-nd-kwe
*the development of a productive concatenative verb paradigm used to form verbs from other words, analogous to Germanic weak verbs


==Todo==
==Todo==
*gdėl = big
* Dalet tet tav > ð d t (d = /d~t/, t aspirated); more of a Hivantish/Spanish/Tsarfati Hebrew aesthetic and gives a Welsh aesthetic to Greek loans
*kdės = (formal, mathematics) specific, particular, chosen (not arbitrary)
* Should have initial w- > j- like Hebrew and Aramaic
*''Kabšyn wy frasel'' /xabʃən və fɾasel/ = The sheep and the horses
* Should be spoken in our Turkey?
*A few verbs derived from historical passive binyanim, analogized so they're weak verbs
*Gzarot
*Syntax
*Declensions
*Lots of triconsonantified Greek words
*A bit more Aramaic isoglosses / semantic shifts in a general Aramaic direction
*Much less of an English relex: more consistent do-support, progressive forms used for imperfectives and VSO as in Welsh? Most "Englishy" bits should be literal translations of idioms, phrasal verbs and pragmatics, loss of grammatical gender, intense dialectal mixing in the early modern period with what appears to be occasional random unpredictable changes, and some vocabulary and affixes
*Relex Modern Greek in places where it differs grammatically from English: ''yn'' before proper names?
*Prepositional pronouns
*more binyanim like ''syfȝel'', ''asøfȝel'', ''tasøfȝel'' and ''tystyfȝel''?
*Taxonomic names get calqued into Greek
*CiCV:C > CyCVC, CaCV:C > CCVC


==History==
==History==
The Old Togarmite name for the language, ''Θėgammīθ'', is thought to have been borrowed from a pre-Togarmite source *''Tāgarma''. The name ''Togarmah'' from the same source is also attested in the Hebrew Bible. (The Greeks and the Romans called the Togarmite people ''Θηγαρμικοί'' and ''Thegarmici'' respectively.) The name of the language shows the most striking feature of Togarmite, the shift of Proto-Semitic ''ā'' to ''ė'' /e:/, mirroring the Canaanite shift ''ā'' > [o:] occuring in its close relative Hebrew.
The Old Togarmite name for the language, ''Θėgarmīθ'', is thought to have been borrowed from a pre-Togarmite source *''Tāgarma''. The name ''Togarmah'' from the same source is also attested in the Hebrew Bible. (The Greeks and the Romans called the Togarmite people ''Θηγαρμικοί'' and ''Thegarmici'' respectively.) The name of the language shows the Togarmite shift of Proto-Semitic ''ā'' to ''ė'' /e:/, mirroring the Canaanite shift ''ā'' > ''ō'' occuring in Hebrew.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Togarmite has 23 consonants, 22 of them inherited from Proto-Semitic. It gained /p/ during the Old Togarmite stage from adapting loans from Greek, Aramaic and Persian, e.g. ''parkes'' 'to act', from Ancient Greek ''praxis''.
Togarmite has 26 consonants, 22 of them inherited from Proto-Semitic. It gained /p=/ during the Old Togarmite stage by adapting loans from Greek, Aramaic and Persian, e.g. ''barkes'' 'to act', from Ancient Greek ''praxis''. It also merged Old Togarmite ''ħ'' /ħ/ and ''h'' /h/ into ''h'' /h/, OTog ''č'' /tʃ/, ''ž'' and ''j'' into ''ž''.
*'''m n''' /m n/
*'''m n''' /m n/ (PSem *m *n)
*'''p t c k ' ''' /p t ts k ʔ/
*'''b d g ' ''' /p=~b t=~d k=~g ʔ/ ((not in PSem) *T *q *2)
*'''b d g''' /b d g/
*'''t k''' /th kh/ (*t *k)
*'''f þ s š x h''' /f θ s ʃ x h/
*'''th ch''' /θ x/ (in Greek loans)
*'''w z ž ȝ''' /v z ʒ ɣ/
*'''v ð γ''' /v ð γ/ (*b *d *g)
*'''l r j''' /l r j/
*'''f s š h''' /f s ʃ h/ (*p *s/*š *þ/*ś *h/*H/*x)
*'''z ž ȝ''' /z ʒ (Philly L)/ (*z *ð/*D/*Z *3/*ğ)
*'''c č''' /ts= tʃ=/ (*S (not in PSem))
*'''w l r j''' /w l r j/ (*w *l *r *w-/*j)


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Modern Togarmite has 9 vowels in stressed syllables, possibly the largest vowel inventory of any Semitic language.
Modern Togarmite has 9 vowels in stressed syllables.


''a e ė i o ø u y'' /ɑ ɛ e i o ø u (ə)/
''a e ė i o ø u y'' /ɑ æ e i o ø u (ə)/


''ai au'' /ai øy/
''ei au'' /ɛi ɔu/


''ai'' and ''au'' are often merged to /e ø/. Some dialects pronounce ''au'' as /y/.
Contrastive vowel length is present from elision of h in colloquial Togarmite: ''møtyhanan'' = [mø'ta:nan] instead of /møtə'hanan/


===Stress===
===Stress===
Stress is always penultimate.
Stress in native words is similar to our Maltese.


==Orthography==
==Orthography==
In addition to the Latin and Greek alphabets, Togarmite uses an abugida (a form of cursive linear Hangul) based on the Phoenician alphabet, called ''yn alvėt'' (after the first 2 letters).


Togarmite uses an abugida based on the Phoenician alphabet.
The abjadi letter names:
''al, vėt, γam, ðal, hė, wau, zėn, žėn, dėt, jøð, kaf, lam, mėm, nun, ȝėn, fė, bė, cað, čað, gøf, rėš, sin, šin, tau''
 
===Traditional Romanization===
 
The traditional romanization of Togarmite is very unphonetic.
*aCe for ė
*English style unetymological OSL gone crazy
*the orthography should also be templatic, gemination in weird places i.e. not necessarily related to Old Togarmite gemination
*two scripts, Latin and Greek? works like hiragana and kanji
*v for the vowel /ø/!
 
==Dialects==
===Ethiopian dialect===
some different vocab e.g. ''tėt'' instead of ''wyhėv'' for 'give', ''ðøvrėn'' instead of ''tėma'' for 'topic'
 
some words can have different meanings in Ethiopian and Levantine leading to some funny misunderstandings
 
phonological differences ("ear" -> ødny)
<poem>
a e ė i o ø u y [a e̞ ɛi i ɔ ɵ u (ə)]
ei au [ɒi ø:~øo]
 
a broad Ethiopian accent in Togarmite has random variation in some words like heno, šamo, šyðo etc are pronounced hena, šama, šyða
 
-an -> -en is common in a broad Ethiopian accent (ðarkan -> ðarken); this should typically happen only with agentives, otherwise møsaken / møsakan would be mixed up (that would be one of the telltale signs of a non-Ethiopian faking an accent)
</poem>
 
===Indian dialect===
<poem>
a e ė i o ø u y /a: e~ɪ ɛ: i o: ʊ u: ə/
ei au /ai ɔ:/
</poem>


The abjadi letter names:
===New World dialect===
''al, bėþ, gam, dal, hė, wau, zėn, žėn, tėþ, jėþ, xaf, lam, mėm, nun, ȝėn, fė, pė, cad, køf, rėš, sin, šin, tau''
a e ė i o ø u y /a e ɪə i o ø u ə/
ei au /ɛi ɔu/


==Pronouns==
==Pronouns==
===Personal===
===Personal===
Modern Togarmite pronouns work very similarly to English pronouns.
Modern Togarmite pronouns work similarly to modern Hebrew pronouns. The accusative pronouns derive from inflected foms of Old Togarmite ''ʔiθ'' (emphasis particle and accusative, related to Hebrew ''et'' and Arabic ''iyya-''). The possessive pronouns are derived from inflected forms of Old Togarmite ''la-''. The reflexive pronouns come from inflected forms of ''af'' 'nose'.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
 
The semantics of ''hu'', ''hi'' and ''že'' work like in West Country English. (Clarify)
 
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
|-
!|
!|
!I!!thou (m.)!!thou (f.)!!he!!she!!it!!we!!you (pl.)!!they
!I!!thou (m.)!!thou (f.)!!he!!she!!it!!we!!you (pl, polite)!!they
|-
|-
!|Nominative
!|Nominative/Conjunctive
|''nėx''||''aþ''||''eþ''||''hu''||''hi''||''že''||''nanė''||''aþøm''||''høm''
|''nėk''||''at''||''et''||''hu''||''hi''||''že''||''nan''||''atøm''||''høm''
|-
|-
!|Objective
!|Objective/Disjunctive
|''þi''||''þax''||''þex''||''þau''||''þa''||''þež''||''þanė''||''þaxøm''||''þaum''
|''ti''||''tak''||''tek''||''tau''||''ta''||''tež''||''tanė''||''takøm''||''taum''
|-
|-
!|Possessive
!|Possessive
|''li''||''lax''||''lex''||''lau''||''la''||''lež''||''lanė''||''laxøm''||''laum''
|''li''||''lak''||''lek''||''lau''||''la''||''lež''||''lanė''||''lakøm''||''laum''
|-
|-
!|Reflexive/Intensive
!|Reflexive/Intensive
|''afi''||''afax''||''afex''||''afau''||''afa''||''afež''||''afnė''||''afxøm''||''afaum''
|''afi''||''afak''||''afek''||''afau''||''afa''||''afež''||''afnė''|| ''afkøm''||''afaum''
|}
|}
The plural pronouns ''aþøm'' and ''høm'' can be used as gender-neutral pronouns in the singular, like English ''they''.
The plural pronouns ''atøm'' and ''høm'' can be used as gender-neutral pronouns in the singular, like English ''they''.
 
===Demonstrative===
===Demonstrative===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! || singular || plural
! || who? || what? || which? || where? || whither? || whence? || when? || how? || why? || how much?
|-
! this
|colspan=3|''žinė'' (sg); ''elinė'' (pl) || ''hė'' || ''heno'' || ''me hė'' || ''ȝeto''
|rowspan="2"| ''hėk''
|rowspan="2"| ''ež''
|rowspan="2"| ''kėrav''
|-
! that
|colspan=3| ''ži'' (sg); ''eli'' (pl) || ''šam'' || ''šamo'' || ''me šam'' || ''šøm''
|-
! what
| ''man'' || ''ma'' || ''ėjo'' || ''ein'' || ''eino'' || ''men ein'' || ''møran'' || ''keik'' || ''maž'' ||''kma, marvy''
|-
! all; every
| ''kølšar'' || ''kølvar; køl'' || ''køl'' || ''kølein'' || ''køleino'' || ''me kølein'' || ''kølam'' || ''køl ør'' || ''-'' || ''-''
|-
! any
| ''nukšar'' || ''nukvar'' || ''nuk'' || ''nukein'' || ''nukeino'' || ''me nukein'' || ''kølam''
|| ''nuk ør'' || ''me nuk sevt'' || ''-''
|-
|-
! Proximal
! some
| ''ži'' || ''elu''
| ''vilšar'' || ''vilvar'' || ''vil '' || ''vilein'' || ''vileino'' || ''me vilein'' || ''ly zman''; ''vil zman''
|| ''vil ør'' || ''me vil sevt'' || ''-''
|-
|-
! Distal
! none
| ''žix'' || ''elux''
| ''lėmšar'' || ''lėmvar'' || ''lėm'' || ''lėmein'' || ''lėmeino'' || ''me lėmein'' || ''lėfȝam''
|| ''lėm ør'' || ''me lėm sevt'' || ''-''
|}
|}
Demonstratives come before nouns as in Arabic:
Demonstratives come after nouns.
*''ži baiþyn'' 'this house'
*''veit žinė'' 'this house'
*''elu baiþil'' 'these houses'
*''gawi eli'' 'those lines'


==Nouns==
==Nouns==
In some ways declension has simplified: Like [[Knánith]], Modern Togarmite has lost grammatical gender. Nouns and adjectives still have indefinite and definite states, but the construct state has been lost.  
In some ways declension has simplified: Modern Togarmite has lost grammatical gender. The construct state has been lost, and the Old Togarmite definite state ''ʔan-'' has been reanalyzed as a separate definite article ''yn''. ''Yn'' becomes ''ym'' before /m f v p=/.


However, declension has become more complicated in other ways. For example, Modern Togarmite has innovated more declension paradigms.
However, declension has become more complicated in other ways. For example, Modern Togarmite has innovated more declension paradigms.
===Regular declension===
===Regular declension===
Most nouns have a regular plural in ''-i'', definite ''-il''.
Most nouns have a regular plural in ''-i'', from a conflation of Middle Togarmite absolute ''-in'' and construct ''-ė''.


Example: ''ȝėlam'' 'world'
Example: ''ȝėlam'' 'world'


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+ Regular noun declension
|+ ''ȝėlam'' 'world'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''ȝėlam'' || ''ȝėlam'''i'''''
| ''ȝėlam'' || ''ȝėlam'''i'''''
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ ''lysėn'' 'language'
! || singular || plural
|-
|-
! definite
! indefinite
| ''ȝėlam'''yn''''' || ''ȝėlam'''il'''''
| ''lysėn'' || ''lysėn'''i'''''
|}
 
===Segolates===
These nouns come from CVCC nouns in Proto-Semitic and thus are related to segolates in Hebrew.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ ''kalv'' 'dog'
! || singular || plural
|-
! indefinite
| ''kalv'' || 'klav'''i'''''
|}
|}


===Nisba nouns===
===Nisba nouns===
An important declension class is comprised of nouns or adjectives with the ''nisba'' suffix ''-i'':
An important declension class is comprised of nouns with the ''nisba'' suffix ''-i'':


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''þėgami'' 'Togarmite'
|+''Tėrmi'' 'Togarmite'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''þėgam'''i''''' || ''þėgam'''ije'''''
| ''Tėrm'''i''''' || ''Tėrm'''in'''''
|-
! definite
| ''þėgami'''jyn''''' || ''þėgami'''jel'''''
|}
|}


===Singulative-collective nouns===
===Singulative-collective nouns===
These nouns have a marked singular in ''-t''.
These nouns have a marked singular in ''-t''.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''šeȝart'' '(strand of) hair'
|+''šeȝart'' '(strand of) hair'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
Line 139: Line 233:
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''šeȝar'''t''''' || ''šeȝar''
| ''šeȝar'''t''''' || ''šeȝar''
|-
! definite
| ''šeȝar'''tyn''''' || ''šeȝar'''il'''''
|}
|}


===Former feminines/body parts===
===Former feminines===
This class consists of a small number of nouns that were feminine in Old Togarmite, such as many body parts, which take a plural in ''-ėþ'':
This class consists of nouns that were feminine in Old Togarmite, which typically end in ''-t'' and take a plural in ''-ėt'':


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''øžny'' 'ear'
|+''frit'' 'fruit'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''øžny'' || ''øžn'''ė'''''
| ''frit'' || ''frij'''ėt'''''
|}
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+''γalt'' 'door' (altered from *ðalt)
! || singular || plural
|-
|-
! definite
! indefinite
| ''øžn'''yn''''' || ''øžn'''ėþil'''''
| ''γalt'' || ''γlat'''ėt'''''
|}
|}


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''lysėn'' 'tongue; language'
|+''tyktøvt'' 'document'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''lysėn'' || ''lysėn'''ėþ'''''
| ''tyktøvt'' || ''tyktøv'''ėt'''''
|-
! definite
| ''lysėn'''yn''''' || ''lysėn'''ėþil'''''
|}
|}


===-a nouns===
===-a nouns===
These are mainly Greek words:
These are mainly Greek and Aramaic words.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''apoloža'' 'excuse (pretext)'
|+''aboloža'' 'excuse (pretext)'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''apolož'''a''''' || ''apolož'''es'''''
| ''abolož'''a''''' || ''abolož'''es'''''
|}
 
Greek ending in ''-ma'' can have a plural in ''-mada'':
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+''tėma'' 'topic'
! || singular || plural
|-
|-
! definite
! indefinite
| ''apolož'''an''''' || ''apolož'''ėþil'''''
| ''tėm'''a''''' || ''tėm'''es''''' / ''tėm'''ada'''''
|}
|}


Greek ending in ''-ma'' can have a plural in ''-mata'':


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
By analogy, even native words ending in ''-a'' are declined this way:
|+''þėma'' 'topic'
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''heda'' 'sin'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''þėm'''a''''' || ''þėm'''es''''' / ''þėm'''ata'''''
| ''hed'''a''''' || ''hed'''es'''''
|}
 
=== Irregulars ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+''vennės'' 'human'
! || singular || plural
|-
|-
! definite
! indefinite
| ''þėm'''an''''' || ''þėmė'''þil''''' / ''þėmat'''aþil'''''
| ''vennės'' || ''nės''
|}
|}




By analogy, even some native words are declined this way:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
 
|+''ašt'' 'woman'
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
|+''heta'' 'sin'
! || singular || plural  
! || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! indefinite
! indefinite
| ''het'''a''''' || ''het'''es'''''
| ''ašt'' || ''nysi''
|-
! definite
| ''het'''an''''' || ''het'''ėþil'''''
|}
|}


==Adjectives==
==Adjectives==
Adjectives have the same declension patterns as nouns.
Adjectives do not decline.
===Degree===
===Degree===
Adjectives do not have separate degree forms, unlike in Indo-European languages. A dedicated particle ''brėþ'' (*bi-raʔēθī yuθ- 'when-see.INF-1SG ACC') is used for 'than', however.
Adjectives have a comparative form in ''yn-/ym-'' and a superlative in ''køl-'':
*''yn-kvur'' = bigger
*''kølkvur'' = biggest
 
A dedicated particle ''šøm'' (cognate to Arabic ''þumma'') is used for 'than'.


==Verbs==
==Verbs==
*Past = prefix conjugation (from the PSem preterite)
*Past = (eroded) suffix conjugation that became analogized with the prefix present
*Present = from the Proto-Semitic L-stem (variant of the PSem non-past)
**The ''y-'' prefix is only used when the verb directly follows the subject pronoun: ''nėk yktøv'' 'I wrote', ''nėk lė ktøv'' 'I didn't write'.
*Present = from the bare w-form
*Imperative
*Imperative
**The negative imperative is formed with ''al'' + 2nd person past tense: ''xþøb'' 'write! (singular)', ''al tyxþøb!'' 'don't write! (singular)'
**The imperative is negated with ''al'': ''Ktøv!'' 'write!', ''Al ktøv!'' 'don't write!'
*w-form = w + stem from the 3ms suffix conjugation in the ''f3al'' binyan, past tense but with w- for the prefix in other binyanim
*w-form = w + stem from the 3ms suffix conjugation in the ''f3øl'' binyan, past tense but with w- for the prefix in other binyanim
*Infinitive
*Infinitive
*Participles
*Participles
*Progressive ''lu'' from *ȝalė-hu, c.f. wrthi in Welsh


The suffix conjugation does not survive unlike in most other Semitic languages, except in certain irregular verbs like ''hwė '' 'to be'.
The suffix conjugation does not survive unlike in most other Semitic languages, except in certain irregular verbs like ''fė '' 'to be'.


The citation form is the 2nd person singular imperative.
The citation form is the 2nd person singular imperative.
===Binyanim===
===Binyanim===
Modern Togarmite inherits all 8 binyanim of Old Togarmite. The ''ty-'' of Binyan 7 (''tyfaȝel'') verbs has become a productive derivational prefix, however.
====Binyan 1: ''fȝøl''====
====Binyan 1: ''fȝøl''====
This binyan can take -ø-, -e- or -a- as the theme vowel.
This binyan can take -ø- (e.g. ''ktøv'' 'to write'), -e- (''sen'' 'to sleep') or -a- (''dȝam'' 'to choose') as the theme vowel.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 1 conjugation: ''xþøb'' 'write'
|+ Binyan 1 conjugation: ''ktøv'' 'write'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''nėk yktøv''
| ''at/et yktøv''
| ''hu/hi ktøv''
| ''nan ktøv''
| ''atøm ktøv''
| ''høm ktøv''
|-
! past imperfective; past subjunctive
| ''nėk fit wyktav''
| ''at/et fit wyktav''
| ''hu/hi fė wyktav''
| ''nan fu wyktav''
| ''atøm fu wyktav''
| ''høm fu wyktav''
|-
! present
| ''nėk wyktav''
| ''at/et wyktav''
| ''hu/hi wyktav''
| ''nan wyktav''
| ''atøm wyktav''
| ''høm wyktav''
|-
! present progressive
| ''nėk lu wyktav''
| ''at/et lu wyktav''
| ''hu/hi lu wyktav''
| ''nan lu wyktav''
| ''atøm lu wyktav''
| ''høm lu wyktav''
|-
! present subjunctive
| ''nėk yktøvan''
| ''at/et yktøvan''
| ''hu/hi ktøvan''
| ''nan ktøvan''
| ''atøm ktøvan''
| ''høm ktøvan''
|-
! future
| ''nėk bė ktėv''
| ''at/et bė ktėv''
| ''hu bė ktėv''
| ''nan bė ktėv''
| ''atøm bė ktėv''
| ''høm bė ktėv''
|-
! perfect
| ''li ktuv''
| ''lax/lex ktuv''
| ''lau/la ktuv''
| ''lanė ktuv''
| ''laxøm ktuv''
| ''laum ktuv''
|-
! imperative
|colspan=6| ''ktøv!''
|-
! active participle
|colspan=6| ''xėtev''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''ktuv''
|-
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wyktav''
|-
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''ktėv''
|}
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 1 conjugation: ''num'' 'sleep'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 240: Line 431:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''yxþøb''
| ''nėk ynum''
| ''tyxþøb''
| ''at/et ynum''
| ''jyxþøb''
| ''hu/hi num''
| ''nyxþøb''
| ''nan num''
| ''tyxþøbu''
| ''atøm num''
| ''jyxþøbu''
| ''høm num''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''hwiti wyxþab''
| ''nėk fit wynaum''
| ''hwit wyxþab''
| ''at/et fit wynaum''
| ''hwė wyxþab''
| ''hu/hi fė wynaum''
| ''hwinė wnyxþøb''
| ''nan fu wynaum''
| ''hwitøm wtyxþøbu''
| ''atøm fu wynaum''
| ''hwu wėxþøbu''
| ''høm fu wynaum''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''yxėþøb''
| ''nėk wynaum''
| ''tyxėþøb''
| ''at/et wynaum''
| ''jyxėþøb''
| ''hu/hi wynaum''
| ''nyxėþøb''
| ''nan wynaum''
| ''tyxėþøbu''
| ''atøm wynaum''
| ''jyxėþøbu''
| ''høm wynaum''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''yše wyxþab''
| ''nėk lu wynaum''
| ''tyše wyxþab''
| ''at/et lu wynaum''
| ''jyše wyxþab''
| ''hu/hi lu wynaum''
| ''nyše wyxþab''
| ''nan lu wynaum''
| ''tyšu wyxþab''
| ''atøm lu wynaum''
| ''jyšu wyxþab''
| ''høm lu wynaum''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''yxþøban''
| ''nėk ynuman''
| ''tyxþøban''
| ''at/et ynuman''
| ''jyxþøban''
| ''hu/hi numan''
| ''nyxþøban''
| ''nan numan''
| ''tyxþøbun''
| ''atøm numan''
| ''jyxþøbun''
| ''høm numan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''ėbe xþėb''
| ''nėk bė nwėm''
| ''tėbe xþėb''
| ''at/et bė nwėm''
| ''jėbe xþėb''
| ''hu/hi bė nwėm''
| ''nėbe xþėb''
| ''nan bė nwėm''
| ''tėbu xþėb''
| ''atøm bė nwėm''
| ''jėbu xþėb''
| ''høm bė nwėm''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li myxþub''
| ''li num''
| ''lax/lex myxþub''
| ''lax/lex num''
| ''lau/la myxþub''
| ''lau/la num''
| ''lanė myxþub''
| ''lanė num''
| ''laxøm myxþub''
| ''laxøm num''
| ''laum myxþub''
| ''laum num''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-''
|colspan=6| ''num!''
| ''xþøb!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''xþøbu!''
| ''-''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=3| ''xėþeb''
|colspan=6| ''nėwem''
|colspan=3| ''xėþebi''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=3| ''myxþub''
|colspan=6| ''num''
|colspan=3| ''myxþubi''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wyxþab''
|colspan=6| ''wynaum''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''xþėb''
|colspan=6| ''nwėm''
|}
|}


====Binyan 2: ''faȝel''====
====Binyan 2: ''faȝel''====
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic D-stem (related to Hebrew pi33el and Arabic fa33ala)
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic D-stem (related to Hebrew pi33el and Arabic fa33ala)
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 2 conjugation: ''saxen'' 'inhabit'
|+ Binyan 2 conjugation: ''saken'' 'inhabit'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 331: Line 515:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''ysaxen''
| ''nėk ysaken''
| ''tysaxen''
| ''at/et ysaken''
| ''jysaxen''
| ''hu/hi saken''
| ''nysaxen''
| ''nan saken''
| ''tysaxenu''
| ''atøm saken''
| ''jysaxenu''
| ''høm saken''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''hwiti wysaxen''
| ''nėk fit wysaken''
| ''hwit wysaxen''
| ''at/et fit wysaken''
| ''hwė wysaxen''
| ''hu/hi fė wysaken''
| ''hwinė wysaxen''
| ''nan fu wysaken''
| ''hwitøm wysaxen''
| ''atøm fu wysaken''
| ''hwu wysaxen''
| ''høm fu wysaken''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''ysxėxen''
| ''nėk wysaken''
| ''tysxėxen''
| ''at/et wysaken''
| ''jysxėxen''
| ''hu/hi wysaken''
| ''nysxėxen''
| ''nan wysaken''
| ''tysxėxenu''
| ''atøm wysaken''
| ''jysxėxenu''
| ''høm wysaken''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''yše wysaxen''
| ''nėk lu wysaken''
| ''tyše wysaxen''
| ''at/et lu wysaken''
| ''jyše wysaxen''
| ''hu/hi lu wysaken''
| ''nyše wysaxen''
| ''nan lu wysaken''
| ''tyšu wysaxen''
| ''atøm lu wysaken''
| ''jyšu wysaxen''
| ''høm lu wysaken''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''ysaxenan''
| ''nėk ysakenan''
| ''tysaxenan''
| ''at/et ysakenan''
| ''jysaxenan''
| ''hu/hi sakenan''
| ''nysaxenan''
| ''nan sakenan''
| ''tysaxenun''
| ''atøm sakenan''
| ''jysaxenun''
| ''høm sakenan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''ėbe saxun''
| ''nėk bė sakun''
| ''tėbe saxun''
| ''at bė sakun''
| ''jėbe saxun''
| ''hu bė sakun''
| ''nėbe saxun''
| ''nan bė sakun''
| ''tėbu saxun''
| ''atøm bė sakun''
| ''jėbu saxun''
| ''høm bė sakun''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li møsaxan''
| ''li møsakan''
| ''lax/lex møsaxan''
| ''lax/lex møsakan''
| ''lau/la møsaxan''
| ''lau/la møsakan''
| ''lanė møsaxan''
| ''lanė møsakan''
| ''laxøm møsaxan''
| ''laxøm møsakan''
| ''laum møsaxan''
| ''laum møsakan''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-''
|colspan=6| ''saken!''
| ''saxen!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''saxenu!''
| ''-''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=3| ''møsaxen''
|colspan=6| ''møsaken''
|colspan=3| ''møsaxeni''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=3| ''møsaxan''
|colspan=6| ''møsakan''
|colspan=3| ''møsaxani''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wysaxen''
|colspan=6| ''wysaken''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''saxun''
|colspan=6| ''sakun''
|}
|}
For 4-letter verbs such as ''parkes'' 'to act', the present tense is formed with the stem ''-C₁C₂ėC₃eC₄'', like ''yprėkes'' 'I act'.


====Binyan 3: ''hafȝel''====
==== Binyan 3: ''fėȝel'' ====
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic Š-stems thus corresponds to Hebrew hif3il and Arabic ʔaf3ala.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
 
|+ Binyan 3 conjugation: ''ðėver'' 'speak'
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 3 conjugation: ''hažxer'' 'remind'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 424: Line 598:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''ažxer''
| ''nėk yðėver''
| ''tažxer''
| ''at/et yðėver''
| ''jažxer''
| ''hu/hi ðėver''
| ''nažxer''
| ''nan ðėver''
| ''tažxeru''
| ''atøm ðėver''
| ''jažxeru''
| ''høm ðėver''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''hwiti wažxer''
| ''nėk fit wyðėver''
| ''hwit wažxer''
| ''at/et fit wyðėver''
| ''hwė wažxer''
| ''hu/hi fė wyðėver''
| ''hwinė wažxer''
| ''nan fu wyðėver''
| ''hwitøm wažxer''
| ''atøm fu wyðėver''
| ''hwu wažxer''
| ''høm fu wyðėver''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''ažėxer''
| ''nėk wyðėver''
| ''tažėxer''
| ''at/et wyðėver''
| ''jažėxer''
| ''hu/hi wyðėver''
| ''nažėxer''
| ''nan wyðėver''
| ''tažėxeru''
| ''atøm wyðėver''
| ''jažėxeru''
| ''høm wyðėver''
|-
! present progressive
| ''yše wažxer''
| ''tyše wažxer''
| ''jyše wažxer''
| ''nyše wažxer''
| ''tyšu wažxer''
| ''jyšu wažxer''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''ažxeran''
| ''nėk yðėveran''
| ''tažxeran''
| ''at/et yðėveran''
| ''jažxeran''
| ''hu/hi ðėveran''
| ''nažxeran''
| ''nan ðėveran''
| ''tažxerun''
| ''atøm ðėveran''
| ''jažxerun''
| ''høm ðėveran''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''ėbe hažxur''
| ''nėk bė ðėvur''
| ''tėbe hažxur''
| ''at bė ðėvur''
| ''jėbe hažxur''
| ''hu bė ðėvur''
| ''nėbe hažxur''
| ''nan bė ðėvur''
| ''tėbu hažxur''
| ''atøm bė ðėvur''
| ''jėbu hažxur''
| ''høm bė ðėvur''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li mažxar''
| ''li møðėvar''
| ''lax/lex mažxar''
| ''lax/lex møðėvar''
| ''lau/la mažxar''
| ''lau/la møðėvar''
| ''lanė mažxar''
| ''lanė møðėvar''
| ''laxøm mažxar''
| ''laxøm møðėvar''
| ''laum mažxar''
| ''laum møðėvar''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''hažxer!''
| ''ðėver!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''hažxeru!''
| ''ðėveru!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=3| ''mažxer''
|colspan=6| ''møðėver''
|colspan=3| ''mažxeri''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=3| ''mažxar''
|colspan=6| ''møðėvar''
|colspan=3| ''mažxari''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wažxer''
|colspan=6| ''wyðėver''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''hažxur''
|colspan=6| ''ðėvur''
|}
|}


====Binyan 4: ''hyftyȝel''====
==== Binyan 4: ''afȝel'' ====
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic t-stem and shares similarities with the Hebrew binyan ''hitpa33el'' and Arabic ''ifta3ala''. It is characterized by the þ- prefix that comes from the *t infix.
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic Š-stems thus corresponds to Hebrew hif3il and Arabic ʔaf3ala.
 
The prefix ''þ'' metathesizes with C1 when
*C1 = f x s š c h z ž ȝ: ''þf þx þs þš þh þz þž þȝ'' > ''ft xt st št ct ht zd žd ȝd''
*C1 = d t þ: ''þd þt þþ'' > ''d t þ''


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 4 conjugation: ''hyþlymed'' 'find one's way around'
|+ Binyan 3 conjugation: ''ažker'' 'remind'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 520: Line 680:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''yþlymed''
| ''nėk ažker''
| ''tyþlymed''
| ''at/et ažker''
| ''jyþlymed''
| ''hu/hi ažker''
| ''nyþlymed''
| ''nan ažker''
| ''tyþlymed''
| ''atøm ažker''
| ''jyþlymed''
| ''høm ažker''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''hwiti wyþlymed''
| ''fiti wažker''
| ''hwit wyþlymed''
| ''fit wažker''
| ''hwė wyþlymed''
| ''fė wažker''
| ''hwinė wyþlymed''
| ''finė wažker''
| ''hwitøm wyþlymed''
| ''fitøm wažker''
| ''hwu wyþlymed''
| ''fu wažker''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''yþlėmed''
| ''nėk še wažker''
| ''tyþlėmed''
| ''at/et še wažker''
| ''jyþlėmed''
| ''hu/hi še wažker''
| ''nyþlėmed''
| ''nan še wažker''
| ''tyþlėmed''
| ''atøm šu wažker''
| ''jyþlėmed''
| ''høm šu wažker''
|-
! present progressive
| ''yše wyþlymed''
| ''tyše wyþlymed''
| ''jyše wyþlymed''
| ''nyše wyþlymed''
| ''tyšu wyþlymed''
| ''jyšu wyþlymed''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''yþlymedan''
| ''nėk ažkeran''
| ''tyþlymedan''
| ''at/et ažkeran''
| ''jyþlymedan''
| ''hu/hi ažkeran''
| ''nyþlymedan''
| ''nan ažkeran''
| ''tyþlymedun''
| ''atøm ažkeran''
| ''jyþlymedun''
| ''høm ažkeran''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''ėbe hyþlymud''
| ''nėk bė hažkur''
| ''tėbe hyþlymud''
| ''at bė hažkur''
| ''jėbe hyþlymud''
| ''hu bė hažkur''
| ''nėbe hyþlymud''
| ''nan bė hažkur''
| ''tėbu hyþlymud''
| ''atøm bė hažkur''
| ''jėbu hyþlymud''
| ''høm bė hažkur''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li møþlymad''
| ''li mažkar''
| ''lax/lex møþlymad''
| ''lax/lex mažkar''
| ''lau/la møþlymad''
| ''lau/la mažkar''
| ''lanė møþlymad''
| ''lanė mažkar''
| ''laxøm møþlymad''
| ''laxøm mažkar''
| ''laum møþlymad''
| ''laum mažkar''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-''
|colspan=6|''ažker!''
| ''hyþlymed!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''hyþlymedu!''
| ''-''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=3| ''møþlymed''
|colspan=6| ''mažker''
|colspan=3| ''møþlymedi''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=3| ''møþlymad''
|colspan=6| ''mažkar''
|colspan=3| ''møþlymadi''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wyþlymėd''
|colspan=6| ''wažker''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''hyþlymud''
|colspan=6| ''ažkur''
|}
|}


====Binyan 5: ''þyfaȝel''====
====Binyan 5: ''ftyȝel''====
This binyan comes from the tD-stem (t- with geminate stem) and corresponds directly to the Arabic binyan ''tafa33ala''.
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic t-stem and shares similarities with the Hebrew binyan ''hitpa33el'' and Arabic ''ifta3ala''. It is characterized by the t- prefix that comes from the *t infix.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
Meanings:
|+ Binyan 5 conjugation: ''þydares'' 'teach'
*reflexive
*reciprocal
 
The prefix ''t'' metathesizes with C1 when
*C1 = f x s š c h z ž ȝ: ''tf tx ts tš th tz tž tȝ'' > ''ft xt st št ct ht zd žd ȝd''
*C1 = ð d t: ''tð td tt'' > ''ð d t''
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 4 conjugation: ''tlymeð'' 'find one's way around'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 612: Line 765:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''yþydares''
| ''nėk ytlymeð''
| ''tyþydares''
| ''at/et ytlymeð''
| ''jyþydares''
| ''hu/hi tlymeð''
| ''nyþydares''
| ''nan tlymeð''
| ''tyþydaresu''
| ''atøm tlymeð''
| ''jyþydaresu''
| ''høm tlymeð''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''hwiti wyþydares''
| ''fiti wytlymeð''
| ''hwit wyþydares''
| ''fit wytlymeð''
| ''hwė wyþydares''
| ''fė wytlymeð''
| ''hwinė wyþydares''
| ''finė wytlymeð''
| ''hwitøm wyþydares''
| ''fitøm wytlymeð''
| ''hwu wyþydares''
| ''fu wytlymeð''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''yþydrėres''
| ''nėk ytlėmeð''
| ''tyþydrėres''
| ''at/et ytlėmeð''
| ''jyþydrėres''
| ''hu/hi tlėmeð''
| ''nyþydrėres''
| ''nan tlėmeð''
| ''tyþydrėresu''
| ''atøm tlėmeð''
| ''jyþydrėresu''
| ''høm tlėmeð''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''yše wyþydares''
| ''nėk še wytlymeð''
| ''tyše wyþydares''
| ''at/et še wytlymeð''
| ''jyše wyþydares''
| ''hu/hi še wytlymeð''
| ''nyše wyþydares''
| ''nan še wytlymeð''
| ''tyšu wyþydares''
| ''atøm šu wytlymeð''
| ''jyšu wyþydares''
| ''høm šu wytlymeð''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''yþydaresan''
| ''nėk ytlymeðan''
| ''jyþydaresan''
| ''at/et ytlymeðan''
| ''jyþydaresan''
| ''hu/hi tlymeðan''
| ''nyþydaresan''
| ''nan tlymeðan''
| ''tyþydaresun''
| ''atøm tlymeðan''
| ''jyþydaresun''
| ''høm tlymeðan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''ėbe þydarus''
| ''nėk bė hytlymuð''
| ''tėbe þydarus''
| ''at bė hytlymuð''
| ''jėbe þydarus''
| ''hu bė hytlymuð''
| ''nėbe þydarus''
| ''nan bė hytlymuð''
| ''tėbu þydarus''
| ''atøm bė hytlymuð''
| ''jėbu þydarus''
| ''høm bė hytlymuð''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li møþydaras''
| ''li møtlymað''
| ''lax/lex møþydaras''
| ''lax/lex møtlymað''
| ''lau/la møþydaras''
| ''lau/la møtlymað''
| ''lanė møþydaras''
| ''lanė møtlymað''
| ''laxøm møþydaras''
| ''laxøm møtlymað''
| ''laum møþydaras''
| ''laum møtlymað''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-''
|colspan=6|''ytlymeð''
| ''þydares!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''þydaresu!''
| ''-''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=3| ''møþydares''
|colspan=6| ''møtlymeð''
|colspan=3| ''møþydaresi''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=3| ''møþydaras''
|colspan=6| ''møtlymað''
|colspan=3| ''møþydaresi''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wyþydares''
|colspan=6| ''wytlymėð''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''þydarus''
|colspan=6| ''hytlymuð''
|}
|}


====Binyan 6: ''heþyfȝel''====
====Binyan 6: ''etyfȝel''====
This binyan comes from the Nt-stem, with the mediopassive n- marker and the reflexive/reciprocal t-marker: the stem comes from *intap3il. cf. Hebrew ''nitpa33el'', a variant of the ''hitpa33el'' binyan and the Arabic ''infa3ala'' binyan.
This binyan comes from the Nt-stem, with the mediopassive n- marker and the reflexive/reciprocal t-marker: the stem comes from *intap3il. cf. Hebrew ''nitpa33el'', a variant of the ''hitpa33el'' binyan and the Arabic ''infa3ala'' binyan.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 6 conjugation: ''heþygdel'' 'grow up'
|+ Binyan 5 conjugation: ''etyγðel'' 'grow up'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 704: Line 850:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''eþygdel''
| ''nėk etyγðel''
| ''teþygdel''
| ''at/et etyγðel''
| ''jeþygdel''
| ''hu/hi etyγðel''
| ''neþygdel''
| ''nan etyγðel''
| ''teþygdelu''
| ''atøm etyγðel''
| ''jeþygdelu''
| ''høm etyγðel''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''hwiti weþygdel''
| ''fiti wetyγðel''
| ''hwit weþygdel''
| ''fit wetyγðel''
| ''hwė weþygdel''
| ''fė wetyγðel''
| ''hwinė weþygdel''
| ''finė wetyγðel''
| ''hwitøm weþygdel''
| ''fitøm wetyγðel''
| ''hwu waþygdel''
| ''fu watyγðel''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''eþygėdel''
| ''nėk še wetyγðel''
| ''teþygėdel''
| ''at/et še wetyγðel''
| ''jeþygėdel''
| ''hu/hi še wetyγðel''
| ''neþygėdel''
| ''nan še wetyγðel''
| ''teþygėdelu''
| ''atøm šu wetyγðel''
| ''jeþygėdelu''
| ''høm šu wetyγðel''
|-
! present progressive
| ''yše weþygdel''
| ''tyše weþygdel''
| ''jyše weþygdel''
| ''nyše weþygdel''
| ''tyšu weþygdel''
| ''jyšu weþygdel''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''eþygdelan''
| ''nėk etyγðelan''
| ''teþygdelan''
| ''at/et etyγðelan''
| ''jeþygdelan''
| ''hu/hi etyγðelan''
| ''neþygdelan''
| ''nan etyγðelan''
| ''teþygdelan''
| ''atøm etyγðelan''
| ''jeþygdelan''
| ''høm etyγðelan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''ėbe heþygdul''
| ''nėk bė hetyγðul''
| ''tėbe heþygdul''
| ''at bė hetyγðul''
| ''jėbe heþygdul''
| ''hu bė hetyγðul''
| ''nėbe heþygdul''
| ''nan bė hetyγðul''
| ''tėbu heþygdul''
| ''atøm bė hetyγðul''
| ''jėbu heþygdul''
| ''høm bė hetyγðul''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li meþygdal''
| ''li metyγðal''
| ''lax/lex meþygdal''
| ''lax/lex metyγðal''
| ''lau/la meþygdal''
| ''lau/la metyγðal''
| ''lanė meþygdal''
| ''lanė metyγðal''
| ''laxøm meþygdal''
| ''laxøm metyγðal''
| ''laum meþygdal''
| ''laum metyγðal''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''heþygdel!''
| ''hetyγðel!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''heþygdelu!''
| ''hetyγðelu!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=3| ''meþygdel''
|colspan=6| ''metyγðel''
|colspan=3| ''meþygdeli''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=3| ''meþygdal''
|colspan=6| ''metyγðal''
|colspan=3| ''meþygdali''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''waþygdel''
|colspan=6| ''watyγðel''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''heþygdul''
|colspan=6| ''hetyγðul''
|}
|}


====Binyan 7: ''styfȝel''====
====Binyan 8: ''styfȝel''====
This binyan comes from the Št-stem and is directly related to the binyan ''istaf3ala'' in Arabic and the very rare binyan ''hishtaf3el'' in Biblical Hebrew.
This binyan comes from the Št-stem and is directly related to the binyan ''istaf3ala'' in Arabic and the very rare binyan ''hishtaf3el'' in Biblical Hebrew.  Binyan 7 tends to form verbs involving conscious decision.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Binyan 7 conjugation: ''stytȝem'' 'try out'
|+ Binyan 8 conjugation: ''stydȝem'' 'try out'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 795: Line 931:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''ystytȝem''
| ''nėk ystydȝem''
| ''tystytȝem''
| ''at/et ystydȝem''
| ''jystytȝem''
| ''hu/hi stydȝem''
| ''nystytȝem''
| ''nan stydȝem''
| ''tystytȝemu''
| ''atøm stydȝem''
| ''jystytȝemu''
| ''høm stydȝem''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''hwiti wystytȝem''
| ''fiti wystydȝem''
| ''hwit wystytȝem''
| ''fit wystydȝem''
| ''hwė wystytȝem''
| ''fė wystydȝem''
| ''hwinė wystytȝem''
| ''finė wystydȝem''
| ''hwitøm wystytȝem''
| ''fitøm wystydȝem''
| ''hwu wystytȝem''
| ''fu wystydȝem''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''ystytėȝem''
| ''nėk ystytėȝem''
| ''tystytėȝem''
| ''at/et ystytėȝem''
| ''jystytėȝem''
| ''hu/hi stytėȝem''
| ''nystytėȝem''
| ''nan stytėȝem''
| ''tystytėȝemu''
| ''atøm stytėȝem''
| ''jystytėȝemu''
| ''høm stytėȝem''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''yše wystytȝem''
| ''nėk še wystydȝem''
| ''tyše wystytȝem''
| ''at/et še wystydȝem''
| ''jyše wystytȝem''
| ''hu/hi še wystydȝem''
| ''nyše wystytȝem''
| ''nan še wystydȝem''
| ''tyšu wystytȝem''
| ''atøm šu wystydȝem''
| ''jyšu wystytȝem''
| ''høm šu wystydȝem''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''ystytȝeman''
| ''nėk ystydȝeman''
| ''tystytȝeman''
| ''at/et ystydȝeman''
| ''jystytȝeman''
| ''hu/hi stydȝeman''
| ''nystytȝeman''
| ''nan stydȝeman''
| ''tystytȝemun''
| ''atøm stydȝemun''
| ''jystytȝemun''
| ''jystydȝemun''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''ėbe stytȝum''
| ''nėk bė stydȝum''
| ''tėbe stytȝum''
| ''at bė stydȝum''
| ''jėbe stytȝum''
| ''hu bė stydȝum''
| ''nėbe stytȝum''
| ''nan bė stydȝum''
| ''tėbu stytȝum''
| ''atøm bė stydȝum''
| ''jėbu stytȝum''
| ''høm bė stydȝum''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li møstytȝam''
| ''li møstydȝam''
| ''lax/lex møstytȝam''
| ''lax/lex møstydȝam''
| ''lau/la møstytȝam''
| ''lau/la møstydȝam''
| ''lanė møstytȝam''
| ''lanė møstydȝam''
| ''laxøm møstytȝam''
| ''laxøm møstydȝam''
| ''laum møstytȝam''
| ''laum møstydȝam''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''stytȝem!''
| ''stydȝem!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''stytȝemu!''
| ''stydȝemu!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=3| ''møstytȝem''
|colspan=6| ''møstydȝem''
|colspan=3| ''møstytȝemi''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=3| ''møstytȝam''
|colspan=6| ''møstydȝam''
|colspan=3| ''møstytȝami''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wystytȝem''
|colspan=6| ''wystydȝem''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''stytȝum''
|colspan=6| ''stydȝum''
|}
|}


Line 877: Line 1,011:


It is used for recent loan verbs like ''maksimezi'' 'to maximize', but can also be used to derive verbs from native nouns:
It is used for recent loan verbs like ''maksimezi'' 'to maximize', but can also be used to derive verbs from native nouns:
*''mydrasi'' 'to school' (from ''mydras'' 'school')
*''myðrasi'' 'to school' (from ''myðras'' 'school')
*''þaxili'' 'to consume' (from ''þaxil'' 'consumption', itself from the root √ʔ-x-l 'to eat')
*''takili'' 'to consume' (from ''takil'' 'consumption', itself from the root √ʔ-k-l 'to eat')
*''žaxoji'' 'to entitle, to allow' (from ''žaxo'' 'right')
*''žakoji'' 'to entitle, to allow' (from ''žako'' 'right')
*''ȝaini'' 'to eye' (from ''ȝain'' 'eye')
*''ȝeini'' 'to eye' (from ''ȝein'' 'eye')


The endings are mainly derived from Middle Togarmite forms of 3-y verbs.
The endings are mainly derived from Middle Togarmite forms of 3-y verbs.
*[STEM]-i = active
*[STEM]-i = active
*þy-[STEM]-i = reflexive/reciprocal
*ty-[STEM]-i = re-
*mø- = active participle
*mø- = active participle
*-ėþ = infinitive
*-ėt = infinitive
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Weak verb conjugation: ''mydrasi'' 'to school'
|+ Weak verb conjugation: ''myðrasi'' 'to school'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 898: Line 1,032:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''ymydrasi''
| ''nėk ymyðrasi''
| ''tymydrasi''
| ''at/et ymyðrasi''
| ''jymydrasi''
| ''hu/hi myðrasi''
| ''nymydrasi''
| ''nan myðrasi''
| ''tymydrasu''
| ''atøm myðrasi''
| ''jymydrasu''
| ''høm myðrasi''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''hwiti wymydrasi''
| ''fiti wymyðrasi''
| ''hwit wymydrasi''
| ''fit wymyðrasi''
| ''hwė wymydrasi''
| ''fė wymyðrasi''
| ''hwinė wymydrasi''
| ''finė wymyðrasi''
| ''hwitøm wymydrasi''
| ''fitøm wymyðrasi''
| ''hwu wymydrasi''
| ''fu wymyðrasi''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''ymydrasė''
| ''nėk wymyðrasi''
| ''tymydrasė''
| ''at/et wymyðrasi''
| ''jymydrasė''
| ''hu/hi wymyðrasi''
| ''nymydrasė''
| ''nan wymyðrasi''
| ''tymydrasėju''
| ''atøm wymyðrasi''
| ''jymydrasėju''
| ''høm wymyðrasi''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''yše wymydrasi''
| ''nėk lu wymyðrasi''
| ''tyše wymydrasi''
| ''at/et lu wymyðrasi''
| ''jyše wymydrasi''
| ''hu/hi lu wymyðrasi''
| ''nyše wymydrasi''
| ''nan lu wymyðrasi''
| ''tyšu wymydrasi''
| ''atøm lu wymyðrasi''
| ''jyšu wymydrasi''
| ''høm lu wymyðrasi''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''ymydrasan''
| ''nėk ymyðrasan''
| ''tymydrasan''
| ''at/et ymyðrasan''
| ''jymydrasan''
| ''hu/hi myðrasan''
| ''nymydrasan''
| ''nan myðrasan''
| ''tymydrasun''
| ''atøm myðrasun''
| ''jymydrasun''
| ''høm myðrasun''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''ėbe mydrasėþ''
| ''nėk bė myðrasėt''
| ''tėbe mydrasėþ''
| ''at bė myðrasėt''
| ''jėbe mydrasėþ''
| ''hu bė myðrasėt''
| ''nėbe mydrasėþ''
| ''nėbu myðrasėt''
| ''tėbu mydrasėþ''
| ''atøm bė myðrasėt''
| ''jėbu mydrasėþ''
| ''høm bė myðrasėt''
|-
|-
! perfect
! perfect
| ''li mømydrasa''
| ''li mømyðrasa''
| ''lax/lex mømydrasa''
| ''lax/lex mømyðrasa''
| ''lau/la mømydrasa''
| ''lau/la mømyðrasa''
| ''lanė mømydrasa''
| ''lanė mømyðrasa''
| ''laxøm mømydrasa''
| ''laxøm mømyðrasa''
| ''laum mømydrasa''
| ''laum mømyðrasa''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-''
|colspan=6| ''myðrasi!''
| ''mydrasi!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''mydrasu!''
| ''-''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=3| ''mømydrasė''
|colspan=6| ''mømyðrasė''
|colspan=3| ''mømydrasėji''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=3| ''mømydrasa''
|colspan=6| ''myðrasa''
|colspan=3| ''mømydrasaji''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wymydrasi''
|colspan=6| ''wymyðrasi''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''mydrasėþ''
|colspan=6| ''myðrasėt''
|}
|}


===''hwe'' 'to be'===
===''fe'' 'to be'===
The verb ''hwė'' 'to be' is perhaps the most irregular verb of the language; it displays suppletion and it uses the Proto-Semitic suffix conjugation in the past tense.
The verb ''fe'' 'to be' is perhaps the most irregular verb of the language; it uses the Proto-Semitic suffix conjugation in the past tense.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ ''hwe'' 'to be'
|+ ''fe'' 'to be'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 989: Line 1,116:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''hwiti''
| ''nėk fit''
| ''hwit''
| ''at fit''
| ''hwė''
| ''hu fė''
| ''hwinė''
| ''nan fu''
| ''hwitøm''
| ''atøm fu''
| ''hwu''
| ''høm fu''
|-
|-
! past progressive; past subjunctive
! past progressive; past subjunctive
| ''hwiti wyhwė''
| ''nėk fit fė''
| ''hwit wyhwė''
| ''at fit fė''
| ''hwė wyhwė''
| ''hu fė fė''
| ''hwinė wyhwė''
| ''nan fu fė''
| ''hwitøm wyhwė''
| ''atøm fu fė''
| ''hwu wyhwė''
| ''høm fu fė''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''yše'' (or none)
| ''(nėk)''  
| ''tyše'' (or none)
| ''(at/et)''  
| ''jyše'' (or ''hu/hi'')
| ''(hu/hi)''  
| ''nyše'' (or none)
| ''(nan)''
| ''tyšu'' (or none)
| ''(atøm)''
| ''jyšu'' (or ''høm'')
| ''(høm)''
|-
|-
! present progressive
! present progressive
| ''yše wyhwė''
| ''nėk lu fė''
| ''tyše wyhwė''
| ''at/et lu fė''
| ''jyše wyhwė''
| ''hu/hi lu fė''
| ''nyše wyhwė''
| ''nan lu fė''
| ''tyšu wyhwė''
| ''atøm lu fė''
| ''jyšu wyhwė''
| ''høm lu fė''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''yhwijan''
| ''nėk yfijan''
| ''tyhwijan''
| ''at yfijan''
| ''jyhwijan''
| ''hu fijan''
| ''nyhwijan''
| ''nan fijan''
| ''tyhwijun''
| ''atøm fijan''
| ''jyhwijun''
| ''høm fijan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''ėbe hwėþ''
| ''nėk bė fėt''
| ''tėbe hwėþ''
| ''at bė fėt''
| ''jėbe hwėþ''
| ''hu bė fėt''
| ''nėbe hwėþ''
| ''nan bė fėt''
| ''tėbu hwėþ''
| ''atøm bė fėt''
| ''jėbu hwėþ''
| ''høm bė fėt''
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-''
|colspan=6| ''fe!''
| ''hwe!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''hwu!''
| ''-''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=3| ''hėwė''
|colspan=6| ''hėwi''
|colspan=3| ''hėwėji''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=3| ''myhwuj''
|colspan=6| ''fuj''
|colspan=3| ''myhwuji''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wyhwė''
|colspan=6| ''fė''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''hwėþ''
|colspan=6| ''fėt''
|}
|}


===''xėl'' 'can'===
===''kėl'' 'can'===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ ''xėl'' 'can'
|+ ''kėl'' 'can'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 1,071: Line 1,191:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''uxal''
| ''nėk ikel''
| ''tuxal''
| ''at/et ikel''
| ''juxal''
| ''hu/hi kel''
| ''nuxal''
| ''nan kel''
| ''tuxalu''
| ''atøm kel''
| ''juxalu''
| ''høm kel''
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''hwiti wėxel''
| ''nėk fit wėkel''
| ''hwit wėxel''
| ''at fit wėkel''
| ''hwė wėxel''
| ''hu fė wėkel''
| ''hwinė wėxel''
| ''nan fu wėkel''
| ''hwitøm wėxel''
| ''atøm fu wėkel''
| ''hwu wėxel''
| ''høm fu wėkel''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''wyxėlti''
| ''nėk wėkel''
| ''wyxėlt''
| ''at wėkel''
| ''wyxėl''
| ''hu wėkel''
| ''wyxėlnė''
| ''nan wėkel''
| ''wyxėltøm''
| ''atøm wėkel''
| ''wyxėlu''
| ''høm wėkel''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''ėxelan''
| ''nėk ikelan''
| ''tėxelan''
| ''at/et ikelan''
| ''jėxelan''
| ''hu/hi kelan''
| ''nėxelan''
| ''nan kelan''
| ''tėxelun''
| ''atøm kelan''
| ''jėxelun''
| ''høm kelan''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''ėbe xėl''
| ''nėk bė kėl''
| ''tėbe xėl''
| ''at bė kėl''
| ''jėbe xėl''
| ''hu bė kėl''
| ''nėbe xėl''
| ''nan bė kėl''
| ''tėbu xėl''
| ''atøm bė kėl''
| ''jėbu xėl''
| ''høm bė kėl''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=3| ''-''
|colspan=6| ''-''
|colspan=3| ''-''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=3| ''myhwuj wėxel''
|colspan=6| ''fuj wėkel''
|colspan=3| ''myhwuji wėxel''
|-
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wėkel''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''xėl''
|colspan=6| ''kėl''
|}
|}


===''høbė'' 'should; ought'===
===''høvė'' 'should; ought'===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ ''høba'' 'should; ought'
|+ ''høba'' 'should; ought'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
Line 1,132: Line 1,253:
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past
| ''nėk fit høbė''
| ''at fit høbė''
| ''hu fė høbė''
| ''nan fu høbu''
| ''atøm fu høbu''
| ''høm fu høbu''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''høbiti''
| ''nėk høbė''
| ''høbit''
| ''at/et høbė''
| ''høbė''
| ''hu/hi høbė''
| ''høbinė''
| ''nan høbu''
| ''høbitøm''
| ''atøm høbu''
| ''høbu''
| ''høm høbu''
|}
|}


===''ryšė'' 'to want'===
===''ryžė'' 'to like'===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ ''ryšė'' 'to want'
|+ ''ryžė'' 'to like'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
Line 1,154: Line 1,283:
|-
|-
! past; conditional
! past; conditional
| ''yrši''
| ''nėk yrži''
| ''tyrši''
| ''at yrži''
| ''jyrši''
| ''hu yrži''
| ''nyrši''
| ''nan yržu''
| ''tyršu''
| ''atøm yržu''
| ''jyršu''
| ''høm yržu''
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''hwiti wyrši''
| ''nėk fit wyrži''
| ''hwit wyrši''
| ''at fit wyrži''
| ''hwė wyrši''
| ''hu fė wyrži''
| ''hwinė wyrši''
| ''nan fu wyrži''
| ''hwitøm wyrši''
| ''atøm fu wyrži''
| ''hwu wyrši''
| ''høm fu wyrži''
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''ryšiti''
| ''nėk ryžė''
| ''ryšit''
| ''at/et ryžė''
| ''ryšė''
| ''hu/hi ryžė''
| ''ryšinė''
| ''nan ryžu''
| ''ryšitøm''
| ''atøm ryžu''
| ''ryšu''
| ''høm ryžu''
|-
|-
! future
! future
| ''ėbe ryšėþ''
| ''nėk bė ryžėt''
| ''tėbe ryšėþ''
| ''at bė ryžėt''
| ''jėbe ryšėþ''
| ''hu bė ryžėt''
| ''nėbe ryšėþ''
| ''nan bė ryžėt''
| ''tėbu ryšėþ''
| ''atøm bė ryžėt''
| ''jėbu ryšėþ''
| ''høm bė ryžėt''
|-
|-
! w-form
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wyrši''
|colspan=6| ''wyrži''
|-
|-
! active participle
! active participle
|colspan=3| ''-''
|colspan=6| ''rėži''
|colspan=3| ''-''
|-
|-
! passive participle
! passive participle
|colspan=3| ''ryšuj''
|colspan=6| ''ryžuj''
|colspan=3| ''ryšuj''
|-
|-
! infinitive
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''ryšėþ''
|colspan=6| ''ryžėt''
|}
|}
===''sėr'' 'to want'===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ ''sėr'' 'to want'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
|-
! past; conditional
| ''nėk sør''
| ''at sør''
| ''hu sør''
| ''nan sru''
| ''atøm sru''
| ''høm sru''
|-
! past subjunctive
| ''nėk fit wasar''
| ''at fit wasar''
| ''hu fė wasar''
| ''nan fu wasar''
| ''atøm fu wasar''
| ''høm fu wasar''
|-
! present
| ''nėk wasar''
| ''at/et wasar''
| ''hu/hi wasar''
| ''nan wasar''
| ''atøm wasar''
| ''høm wasar''
|-
! future
| ''nėk bė sėr''
| ''at bė sėr''
| ''hu bė sėr''
| ''nan bė sėr''
| ''atøm bė sėr''
| ''høm bė sėr''
|-
! w-form
|colspan=6| ''wasar''
|-
! active participle
|colspan=6| ''sėr''
|-
! passive participle
|colspan=6| ''sur''
|-
! infinitive
|colspan=6| ''sėr''
|}
=== The auxiliary ''vė'' ===
The defective auxiliary ''vė'' (inf. and w-form ''vė'', past and imperative ''vu'', passive participle ''vuj''; from the conflation of two roots, one a cognate of Hebrew בא 'to come' and the other a cognate of Hebrew אבה 'to be willing')  is used to form dynamic passives (with the passive participle) and the future (with the infinitive), like the German verb ''werden''.
* ''Yn γalt lu vė fytuh'' = The door is opening (being opened)
* ''Yn γalt vu fytuh'' = The door (was) opened
* ''Yn γalt lež vuj fytuh'' = The door has been opened
* ''Yn γalt fytuh'' = The door is open (lit. opened)
** ''vė'' is not repeated for future + passive: both 'The door opens' and 'The door will open' are ''Yn γalt vė fytuh''.
* ''Dawid vė ftėh yn γalt'' = David will open the door


===Gzarot===
===Gzarot===
:''Main article: [[Togarmite/Gzarot]]''
:''Main article: [[Togarmite/Gzarot]]''
In Semitic languages, ''gzarot'' (Hebrew, sg. ''gizra'' 'figure, form, pattern') are variations of an inflectional (especially verbal) paradigm that are determined by the choice of consonants in the consonantal root. Thus, a paradigm has not only a regular gizra but various irregular ones, which occur most commonly when
In Semitic languages, ''gzarot'' (Hebrew גְּזָרוֹת‎, sg. ''gizra'' גִּזְרָה 'figure, form, pattern') are variations of an inflectional (especially verbal) paradigm that are determined by the choice of consonants in the consonantal root. Thus, a paradigm has not only a regular gizra but various irregular ones, which occur most commonly when
* the consonantal root contains a "guttural" (''ʔ ȝ h'') or a semivowel (''j w'');
* the consonantal root contains a "guttural" (''ʔ ȝ h'') or a semivowel (''j w'');
* the consonantal root contains a ''n'', since ''nC'' tends to assimilate into ''CC''
* the consonantal root contains a ''n'', since ''nC'' tends to assimilate into ''CC''
* the consonantal root has 2 letters.
* the consonantal root has 2 letters.


Most of the irregularities occur in binyan ''fȝøl''.
Because Togarmite only uses the prefix conjugation, modern Togarmite gzarot are in some ways less bad than Hebrew gzarot; most of the irregularities occur in binyan ''fȝøl''. However, there are often so many irregularities even within each gizra, and cases of analogy between verbs of different gzarot, that the concept of gzarot in Modern Togarmite has been questioned: in Togarmite, a "gizra" just describes general tendencies of verbs with a certain root consonant.


==Prepositions==
==Prepositions==
Some prepositions:
Some prepositions:
*''en'' 'in' [from PSem *ina]
*''in'' 'in' [from PSem *ina], ''in yn'' > ''nyn''
*''ly'' (''l'' before V) 'to'
** ini, inak, inek, inau, ina, inė, inkøm, inaum
*''by'' (''b'' before V) 'by, at'
*''ly'' (''l' '' before V) 'of (possessive)'
*''šydo'' 'outside'
*''vy'' (''v' '' before V) 'by, at, with (instrumental), in (language)'
** vi, vak, vek, vau, va, vanė, vakøm, vaum
*''šyðe'' 'out of' (from *śadiy-ah 'to the field')
*''me'' (''men'' before V) 'from'
*''me'' (''men'' before V) 'from'
*''ȝem'' 'with'
** ''meni, menak, menek, menau, mena, menė, mekøm, menaum''
*''ȝal'' 'on'
*''ȝem'' 'with (comitative)'
*''lid'' 'of (possessive)'
** ''3emi, 3emak, 3emek, 3emau, 3ema, 3emnė, 3emkøm, 3emaum''
*''ȝbar'' 'over'
*''ȝal'' 'on'; with definite article ''ȝlėn/ȝlėm''
*''þaþ'' 'under'
** ''3lei, 3lėk, 3lėk, 3lėju, 3lėja, 3lėnė, 3lėkøm, 3lėjøm''
*''lið'' 'to' (from ''*la-yad'' 'to the hand of')
*''løv'' 'into, in' (from ''*la-libb'')
**''Nėk wamen løv žinė'' - I believe in this
**''Hu tyhev løva'' - He fell in love with her
*''ȝvar'' 'over'
*''tat'' 'under'
*''aržo'' 'down' (from *ʔarč̣-ah "earthward")
*''ðarkyn'' 'along'
*''vlėš'' 'without'
===Syntax of prepositions===
===Syntax of prepositions===


==Numerals==
==Numerals==
===Cardinal===
<poem>
0: cefry
0: cefry
1: yhad
1: hað
2: šnain / attributive šnė
2: šnein / attributive šnė
3: šlėš
3: šlėš (animate šlėšt)
4: yrbaȝ
4: yrvaȝ (animate yrvaȝt)
5: hymes
5: mes (animate mest)
6: sec/sets
6: setš (animate setšt)
7: sabȝy
7: savȝy (animate savȝyt)
8: šmėni
8: šmėni (animate šmėnt)
9: þesȝy
9: tesȝy (animate tesȝyt)
10: ȝašry
10: ȝašry (animate ȝašryt)
11: ȝašry wy hað
12: ȝašry šnein
20: ȝešrin
20: ȝešrin
30: šlėšin
30: šlėšin
40: yrbȝin
40: yrvȝin
50: hymsin
50: hymsin
60: setsin
60: setšin
70: sybȝin
70: syvȝin
80: šmėnin
80: šmėnin
90: þesȝin
90: tesȝin
100: me'yþ
100: met
1000: alfy
101: met wy hað
200: metein
300: šlėš met
400: yrvaȝ met
1000: alf
2000: alfein
3000: šlėš alf
1000000: alfun
1000000: alfun
10^9: vėtfun
10^12: γamfun
etc.
</poem>
Plural numerals usually take plural nouns. They used to take singular nouns, however this is considered archaic.
Numbers ending in digits "3" through "9" (thus ending in ''šlėš'' through ''tesȝy''), or "10" (thus ending in ''ȝašry''), have two forms depending on the animacy of the noun: ''hymes myrtemi'' 'five abacuses', but ''hymest ahwėt'' 'five sisters'. The animate forms come from the masculine forms (reverse polarity) marked with ''*-t'' in Proto-Semitic.
===Ordinal===
Ordinals are formed using the pattern CCuC; as in English, "1st" and "2nd" are irregular, from elatives ''*ʔaʕlay-'' 'topmost' and ''*ʔaʕqab-'' 'the immediately following' respectively. In compound numerals, the last number word is inflected to the ordinal form.
*1st = olė
*2nd = ogav
*3rd = šluš
*4th = rvuȝ
*5th = mus
*6th = stuš
*7th = svuȝ
*8th = smun
*9th = tsuȝ
*10th = ȝšur
*11th = ȝašry w-olė
*12th = ȝašry w-ogav
*13th = ȝašry šluš
etc.
===Fractional===
Fractional numerals are formed with the segolate pattern CøCCy (pl. CøCaCi). Compound numerals can be inflected as well, like in the case of ordinal numerals. The analogized form ''øhðy'' is used for numerals ending in "1".
*half = γøv (from *gunb- 'side')
*3rd = šølšy
*4th = røvȝy
*11th = ȝašry w-øhðy
To express "m/n", Togarmite uses "m nths": "2/3" is ''šnė šølaši''.


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Accusative marker===
===Faulty accusative marker===
The accusative marker ''iþ'' is used when the object is animate.
The faulty accusative marker ''it'' is used. It behaves like the MSA accusative case and the Welsh soft mutation for direct objects: when there is a constituent separating the verb or predicate from a second constituent, ''it'' comes between the two constituents regardless of whether the second constituent is actually a direct object. Example:
 
*''Halek wyfė li '''it''' šlėšt klavi, wy ȝeto lėš li '''it''' nuk.'' = I used to have three dogs, and now I don't have any.
*''Yn ðėrest li ryšė li '''it''' ȝyšėt rab tamuni veit.'' = My teacher wants me to do a lot of homework.
 
===Questions===
Yes-no questions require the question marker ''ha'' to be placed at the beginning of the sentence.
 
What-questions have a syntax similar to English.
===Existentials===
===Existentials===
The word ''iš'' is used to indicate existence. It is also used with the preposition ''ly'' 'to' or the possessive pronouns to indicate possession. The negative of ''iš'' is ''lėš''.
The word ''iš'' is used to indicate existence. It is also used with the preposition ''ly'' 'to' or the possessive pronouns to indicate possession. The negative of ''iš'' is ''lėš''.
*''Iš mykėm ėn...'' = There is a place where...
*''Lėš mygėm ėn kølšar nyȝum.'' = There is no place where everyone is happy.
*''A iš lex zman?'' = Do you have time?
*''Ha iš lek ša3t?'' = Do you (f. sg.) have time?


The particle ''iš'' uses the accusative marker ''iþ'' when the "object" is animate.
=== Clauses ===
*"if" = ''em''
*"then" = ''šøm''
*"though" = ''ak'', ''kenak''


===Relative clauses===
===Relative clauses===
The relative pronoun ''xi'' is used for both relative and complement clauses. It takes prepositional cases, just like English relative pronouns.
The relative pronoun ''žė'' is used for both relative and complement clauses. It may takes prepositional cases, just like English relative pronouns. The word ''žė'' is from PSem *ðā, the accusative singular form of the demonstrative *ðū; cf. Biblical Hebrew זו ''zu'', Aramaic די ''dī''.
 
For relative clauses whose heads are prepositional objects in the relative clause, there are three strategies:
 
*the relativizer is treated as a resumptive pronoun which takes the preposition, like English ''which'': ''yn γavry lið žė nėk ohav ym mauhav'', lit. 'the man to which I gave the gift'. This syntax arose from the influence of surrounding languages like English.
*the preposition goes to the end of the clause: ''yn γavry žė nėk ohav ym mauhav lið'' lit. 'the man which I gave the gift to'. This syntax arose from the native Semitic construction which used a resumptive pronoun on the preposition: after the resumptive pronoun lost the stress, the preposition lost its pronominal suffix and moved to the end of the clause.
*A combination of both strategies can be used: ''yn γavry lið žė nėk ohav ym mauhav lið'', lit. 'The man to which I gave the gift to'. This is the most common strategy with the other two considered archaic.


==Derivation==
==Derivation==
===Noun and adjective patterns===
===Noun and adjective patterns===
*''CaCCy, CeCCy, CøCCy'' = segolates
*''CaCCy(t), CeCCy(t), CøCCy(t)'' = segolates
*''myCCaC(t)'' = place
*''maCCaC(t)'' = causative + place
*''myCCeC(t)'' = instrument
*''þyCCuC'' = verbal noun
*''þyCCiC'' = verbal noun
*''þyCCøCt'' = (hypothetical cognate of Hebrew tiCCóCet) = system of things
*''CyCiC'' = adjective; -able
*''CyCiC'' = adjective; -able
*''CyCuC'' = adjective; color
*''CyCuC'' = adjective; color
*''CaCCėn'' and ''CeCaCėn''
*''CyCėC'' = some adjectives
*''CaCCyþ''
*''CyCaCt, CyCeCt, CyCøCt''
*''CaCøCt'' = describes a condition
*''CyCeCCaC'' = diminutive
*''myCCaC(t)'', ''meCCaC(t)'', ''myCCėC'': noun, often denoting place
*''maCCaCt'' = causative version of ''myCCaC(t)''
*''myCCeC(t)'' = instrument
*''maCCeCt'' = causative version of ''myCCeC(t)''
*''tyCCuC'', ''tyCCiC'', ''tyCCėC'' = action or process
*''ryCCøCt'' (cognatized from Hebrew tiCCóCet) = system of things
*''CaCėC'' = agentive
** ''katėv'' 'writer'
*''CaCCan'' = agentive; ''-an'' is an agentive
** ''lamsan'' 'philanthropist' (''felantrøb'' is also common)
*''CaCCėn'', ''CeCCėn'', and ''CøCCėn'' = nouns, often an augmentative


===Affixes===
===Affixes===
*''-an'' = forms adjectives
*''-an'' = forms agentives and adjectives
*''-uþ'' = (borrowed from Hebrew) abstract noun
*''-in'' = collectives
**''lamusin'' 'charity'
*''-ut'' = abstract noun
*''-i'' = forms adjectives
*''-i'' = forms adjectives
*''-it'' = forms adverbs
*''i-'' = non-, un-
*''i-'' = non-, un-
**''ivyšari'' 'incorporeal'
**''iwøxli'' 'impossible'
*''-yr'' = someone who is characterized by X (from English)
**''iðuȝyr'' 'know-it-all', from ''iduȝ'' 'knowledgeable'
*''-ri'' = -ry (from English)
**''gðėsri'' = sanctimoniousness, from ''gðės'' '(archaic) holy'
**''kal'anri'' = double standard or hypocrisy, from the agentive ''kal'an'' 'hypocrite' of √''x-l-ʔ'' 'double'
*''afto-'' = self-
*''e-'' = a- (from ʔiC-, an assimilated form of the OTog preposition ''ʔin'' 'in'); these adjectives can usually only be predicative
**''e'est'' 'ablaze'
**''eðarky'' 'away'
**''etal'' 'galore' (lit. a-mound)
**''emein'' 'drowned, lost forever', lit. awater
*''-vyl'' = -able (from English -able and native ''avȝel'' 'to be able to')
*''ty-'' 're-' (from the tD-stem)
**''tynawer'' 'to reflect', from ''naur'' 'light'
**''tybarkes'' 'to react', from ''barkis'' 'action'
**''tysalem'' 'to repay', from √s-l-m 'peace, whole'
**''tyȝanė'' 'to satisfy', from √ȝ-n-j 'distress, need'; probably influenced by a now obsolete meaning 'to answer' of the same root
**unpredictable change in meaning stem)


==Lexicon==
==Phrasebook==
===ʔ===
some phrases in Togarmite:
*√ʔ-b-b
**''ybib'' 'spring'
*√ʔ-(w)-r
**''aur'' 'light'
**''awer'' 'to illuminate'
*√ʔ-d-m
**''ydum'' 'red'
*√ʔ-ž-n
**''øžny'' 'ear'
*√ʔ-y-s
**''is'' 'equal'
**''ajes'' 'to equate'
***''ajus'' 'metaphor; simile'
*√ʔ-x-l
**''yxal'' 'to eat'
**''exly'' 'food'
**''þaxil'' 'comsumption'
***''þaxili'' 'to consume'
*√ʔ-m-n
**''amėn'' (in some religions) 'Amen'
**''hy'ymen'' 'to trust, to believe'
*√ʔ-m-r
**''ymar'' 'to say'
**''emry'' 'remark'
**''amer'' 'to assert, to affirm'
*√ʔ-r-þ
**''arþy'' 'earth'
*√ʔ-þ-j
**''yþė'' 'to come'


===B===
*Slėm! - Hello! / Goodbye!
*''bajþ'' 'house'
*Slėm ȝlėkøm! - Hello! (formal)
*√b-r-ʔ
*Leil dėv! / Num vy dėv! - Good night! / Sleep well!
**''bra'' 'to create'
*Jaum dėv! - Good day!
**''bri'' 'healthy'
*Ekarus! / Ekarus tak/tek/takøm! - Thanks!
*Ȝem ryžan - Please / You're welcome
*Tryhef ti - Excuse me, Pardon
*Nėk nyhum - I'm sorry
*Ma yn sem lak/lek/lakøm? - What's your name?
*Yn sem li [name] - My name is [name]
*Keik wymar iþ [thing] in Tėrmit? - How do you say [thing] in Togarmite?
*H' at/et/atøm wyðėver [language]? - Do you speak [language]?
*Ȝem ryžan, mør že šėnėn - Please say it again
*Hė lak/lek/lakøm - Here you go! (i.e. I just granted your request) (the source of the English expression is misinterpreted Togarmite)
**Note: In Ethiopia it's spelled without the space.
*Yn ryhaft li hu myli ȝem clėfi - My hovercraft is full of eels
*''En'' = Yes.
*''Lė'' = No.


===G===
==Sample texts==
*√g-d-l
=== Schleicher ===
**''gdėl'' = big
''Yn kavš w' yn frasi''
**''eþygdel'' = to grow


===D===
''Kavš ly žė lė fė žamry ly jar frasi: hað γor maȝrevt šgul, hað mol hemly kvur, wy hað mol vennės vy fiz. Yn kavš mar: "Mrur li yn lev, oryn nėk wyrė vennės wyrkav frasi." Yn frasi mar: "Ažen, kavš! Mrur lanė yn lev oryn nan wyrė žinė: vennės, ym vol, woši lið afau mylvast mum me žamry lyn kavš. Wy lėš lyn kavš it žamry." Oryn yn kavš smaȝ žinė, hu mnaȝ lið yn šðe.''
*√d-m
**''dam'' = blood
**''damem'' = to bleed
*√d-n
**''dun'' = to think (to be of the opinion that); to deem
**''dajen'' = to judge
*√d-r-x
**''darxy'' = road
**''drax'' = to go, to walk
**''hydrex'' = to lead
*√d-r-s
**''drøs'' = to study, to learn
**''dares'' = to demand
**''þydares'' = to teach
**''mydras'' = school
***''jymydrasi'' = he schooled
**''þydrus'' = lesson


===H===
Old Tog.:
*√h-d-š
**''hydiš'' 'new'
*√h-t-ʔ
**''heta'' 'sin'
**''hatė'' 'to sin'
*√h-m-d
*√h-m-l
**''hymal'' 'to suffer'
**''hymil'' 'patient'
*√h-m-m
**''hymum'' 'warm'
*√h-r-c
**''hyruc'' 'yellow'


===W===
''An xabše wan φarasīn''
*√w-l-d
**''waldy'' 'child'
**''molad'' 'birth'
**''wlad'' (archaic) 'to give birth to (of a woman)'
**''holed'' 'to give birth to, to sire, to father' (for both genders in the modern language)
*√w-r-š
**''waršy'' 'inheritance'
**''reš'' 'to inherit'
**''wriš'' 'heritable'
**''wrišt'' 'gene'
**''morašt'' 'heritage'
**''twarešt'' 'tradition'


===Z===
''Χabše, žė lė hawė čamre lawh, φarasīn yarʔe: yagōr ʔaħād marχabaθ šakūlaθ, wa-yaħmōl ʔaħād ħemle χabūr, wa-yaħmōl ʔaħād ħaφīzan ʔinės. Yāmār an χabše: Mār lī an lēb, bi-riʔėθī ʔinės rėχib φarasīn. Yāmārū an φarasīn: Sumaʕ an χabše! Mār lanė an lēb bi-riʔėθinė žīnė: ʔinės an baʕle yaʕšē lawh malbasaθ ħamūmaθ mēn čamre an χabšīn. Wa-lėš len-χabše čamre. Bi-šimėʕ an χabše žīnė, yamnāȝ ʔilė an šadi.''
*√z-h-r (?)
**''hazhėr'' 'to warn'
*√z-m-r
**''myzmer'' 'kantele'
*√z-r-ȝ
**''zarȝe'' 'seed'
**''zraȝ'' 'to sow'


===Ž===
Hebrew:
*√ž-b-h
**''tyžbuh'' 'sacrifice (the act of sacrifice)'
**''žbih'' 'sacrifice (the thing or person sacrificed)'
*''žbi'' 'antelope'
*√ž-h-b
**''žahab'' 'gold'
**''žaheb'' 'to gild'
*√ž-h-r
**''žohri'' 'noon'
*√ž-m-r
**''žemyrt'' 'might'
*√žxr
**''žyxar'' 'to remember'
**''žaxer'' 'to record; to memorize'
**''hažxer'' 'to remind'
**''hyždyxer'' 'to come to mind'
**''styžxer'' 'to make note of'
*√ž-r-ȝ
**''žerėȝ'' (f.) 'arm'


===T===
{{rtl|הכבש והסוסים}}
*√t-ȝ-m
**''tȝam'' 'to choose; (archaic) to taste'
**''taȝem'' 'to elect'
***''taȝum'' 'election'
**''þytaȝem'' '(literary) to be pleased with, to take pleasure in'
**''stytȝem'' 'to try out'


===J===
{{rtl|כבש שלא היה לו צמר ראה סוסים: אחד גרר עגלה כבדה, אחד נשא עומס גדול, ואחד נשא בן אדם וזז מהר. אמר הכבש: "כואב לי לראות איך בן אדם רוכב סוסים." אמרו הסוסים: "הקשב, כבש, כואב לנו לראות זאת: בן אדם, האדון, עושה לעצמו בגד חמים מצמרו של הכבש. ולכבש אין צמר." לאחר ששמע זאת, ברח הכבש לתוך המישור.}}
*''jad'' 'hand'
*√j-b-s
**''jabas'' 'dry'
*√j-m-n
**''jymin'' 'right'


===X===
===Lysėn Tėrmi, lysėn tlul===
*√x-s-f
* ''Hað arž, rav arži; hað γalt, rav γalti!''
**''xasfy'' 'silver, money'
* ''Jaumyn nėk wyktav, amsyn nėk yktøv; jaumyn nėk wydȝam, amsyn nėk ydȝøm! ''
**''myxsaf'' 'bank'


===L===
===A biology abstract===
*''lė'' = not; no
*''ly'' = to, for
*√l-b-s
*√l-m-d
**''lymad'' 'to notice, to experience, to come to know'
**''lamed'' 'to show, to point out'
**''hylθymed'' 'to find one's way around'
*''lysėn'' 'tongue; language'


===M===
''Nan wymðøð yn tyγlim efgarjodeg metycrer lyn irišt TSP3 in ''Vruchorjon sbonerču''. TSP3 wygaðeg ginas nahelan rėkes ly brødezenjon, mygėma vym migrosbørelada gødognėji lyn rivosøm bosadeðeg, wy kahus ly TSP3 rahivyn ma'man ly fėt ym mojan ly garčin gøvothrødeg. In tyktøvt žinė nan wystyðrek wyngad tyvhin kyli-ȝywur Rɪᴄᴇʀ-Jᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋɪ, žė rykės TSP3 lið yn ȝakuvan følochrøpsenas wygrė (p = 0.04) nyn øbodreløma ly gød ''Vrukorjon'' slim møran ety'yfusi aðenodoksen nyhut. Ly tymacu žinė vė fėt ramuzi mø'avjunė lið yn ðrės ly ðesglørøma sømvrøchi.''
*√m-l-x
**''malxy'' 'king'
*√m-n-w
**''myno'' 'to count'
*''main'' 'water'


===N===
We measure the nucleating eukaryotic folding of the TSP3 gene in ''Bruchorium sponercii''. TSP3 encodes a protezine-binding receptor kinase located at the cytotubular microsporellata of the quanticular ribosome, and malfunction of TSP3 is commonly believed to be the source of cybothrotic cancer. In this paper we prove using a Rɪᴇᴛᴢᴇʀ-Yᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋʏ double-blind test that TSP3 binding to the phyllochrypsinase inhibitor occurs (p = 0.04) in the hypotrellome of a healthy ''Bruchorium'' cell when adenotoxin concentrations are low. This research will have significant implications for the study of symbrychous descloroma.
*√n-b-ʔ
**''nybi'' 'prophet, truthteller'
**''nabė'' 'to call out (a wrongdoing)'
**''heþynbe'' 'to hector'
*√n-b-t
**''þynabet (by)'' 'to look (at)'
*√n-f-l
**''føl'' 'to fall'
**''nøfl'' 'fall (season)'
*√n-š-ʔ
**''še'' 'to carry'
*√n-þ-n
**''þen'' 'to give'
===Ȝ===
*√ȝ-n-y
**''ȝne'' 'to answer'
**''þyȝane'' 'to satisfy'
*√ȝ-š-j
**''ȝyše'' 'to do, to make'
**''maȝše'' 'act'


===F===
===Newton's laws of motion===
*√f-l-ʔ
''I: Ðvar wyšvat vy ðemi, o vy ȝytėg enomorf, lulė yðraȝ wybarkes ȝal že.''
**''føla'' 'miracle'
**''hafle'' 'to amaze'
**''miføla'' 'wonderful'


===P===
I: An object stays at rest, or at a constant speed, unless a force acts on it.
*√p-rk-s
**''parkes'' 'to act'
*√p-s-f
**''psif'' 'vote'
**''psifin'' 'voting'
**''psaf'' 'to vote'
===C===
*√c-b-ȝ
*√c-d-k
**hycdek = to justify
**þycadek = to make right, to set right


===K===
''II: Yn šanuj nyn tyȝtig ly všar že mytkøni lið yn øtisi møtyfacar ȝlėm všar; w' yn šanuj wygrė ðarkyn yn gau tygin ȝal žė øtisi ži vė møtyfacar ȝal.''
*√k-d-s
**''kdės'' 'specific, not arbitrary'
**''hykdes'' 'to sanctify'
**''mykodas'' 'holy'
***''mykosyn'' (a swear word)
*√k-j-ž
**''kaiž'' 'summer'
*√k-m
**''kam'' 'he stood up; he rose'
**''mykėm'' 'place'
**''jymykėmi'' 'to locate'
*√k-r-ʔ
**''kra'' 'to read, to call'
**''mekra'' 'scripture'
**''tykru'' 'invocation, prayer'
*√k-s-m
**''hyksem'' 'to curse'


===R===
II: The change in the momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied to the body; and the change occurs along the straight line on which that force is applied.
*√r-ʔ-j
**ry'ė 'to see'


===S===
''III: Iš ly køl barkis it tybarkis is w' andethed.''
*√s-x-n
**''sxan'' 'to live (at a certain place)'
**''mesxan'' 'apartment'
**''saxen'' 'to inhabit'
*√s-l-m
**''slėm'' 'peace; hello!'
*√s-m
**''sem'' 'name'
*√s-m-ȝ
**''smaȝ'' 'to hear'
*√s-þ-w
**''seþaw'' 'winter'


===Š===
III: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
*''šmėl'' 'left'
 
*√š-l-g
===O how quickly the sculpture of life===
**''šalgy'' 'snow'
<poem>
*''šol'' 'fox'
''O! Kma fizit ym myglaȝ ly heiwėt''
''Šaver in demaša zydarder!''
''Ym mγilut lym malk ȝlėn trøn lau''
''Vė klilit γruf ðak vy γali jam.''
''Atøm, žė watė mancavta hė,''
''Ȝavry hen yn Ylėh lawani ȝlėn arž.''
''Køl lanė møðawan ȝal ym barkisi lanė;''
''Hamnė wyhėv lið yn ȝni, w' aγatheržijėt lið hajðuð.''


===Þ===
O how quickly the sculpture of life
*√þ-g-m
Shattered into tiny fragments!
**''hyþgem'' 'explain'
The splendor of the king on his throne
*√þ-l-l
Is completely swept away by sea-waves.
**''þlul'' 'steep; difficult'
Ye who come hither stationed here,
By the grace of God ye are guests on earth.
All of us are judged according to our actions;
Let us give to the needy, and do charity towards one another.
</poem>


==Sample texts==
===Warming Up To You===
===O how quickly the sculpture of life===
<poem>
<poem>
O! Xma myhir þykliȝyn lid hajin,
'''Wetyhmem liðak'''
Jyšbėber ly temaša zȝiri!
Kenak at vė mėt in klėt,
Mygiluþyn lid malxyn ȝal þronos lau
Nėk wyrtyvec nym mimut lak,
'Še xlil mygruf by gali jam.
Ym mimut žė azė'en yn hagranut,
Aþøm lyxi maþuj heno mømancabta hen,
Yn ȝyli lyn jeðȝy;
By hen Elah aþøm ėrehi.
Yn γant žė lak stul in žinė ryvuȝ aðmyt
Xmė nanė, aþøm tėbu hwėþ mødajan ȝal parkusi laxøm;
Wy žė at vė nyžėr lið ðėr wy ðėr.
Naþenan ly ȝnijel, w nagaþeržijan had ly wdud.
</poem>
</poem>


===Lysėn þėgamiþ, lysėn þlul===
===Stairway To Heaven===
*''Yhad texni, rab texnes; yhad þėgami, rab þėgames'' = one skill, many skills; one Togarmite, many Togarmites (the correct plural of ''þėgami'' is ''þėgamije'')
<poem>
'''Maȝlyt lið yn Symeinit'''
Iš volt žė hi šur
Køl žė nėher že žahav
Wy hi wyzvan maȝlyt lið yn symeinit
</poem>


===UDHR===
===UDHR===
''Xøl ynėsi še mewøladi hyruri w isi in akšoprepjan w žyxawil laum. Høm še møþyhanani ȝym ložeki w synidisi w høbu ly parkus l odšni in ruh lid ahwuþ.''
''Køl nės mewølað rur w' is in akšobrebja wy žykawi. Høm møtyhanan by ložegi wy syniðisi wy høvu barkus lið hajðuð vyn ruh l'ahwut.''


all human-PL COP be.born/PASS.PART-PL free-PL and equal-PL in dignity-DEF.SG and right/PL-DEF.PL 3PL.POSS. 3PL COP grant/PASS.PART-PL with reason and conscience and ought-3PL to act.VN to one_another in spirit of brotherhood


/xøl ə'nesi ʃɛ mɛvø'ladi hə'ruri 'visi in akʃo'prepjan v ʒə'xavil løym || høm ʃɛ møθəha'nani ɣəm lo'ʒɛki fsəni'disi və 'høbu lə 'parkus 'lotʃni bə ruh lid 'ahvuθ/
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]

Latest revision as of 16:09, 29 July 2022

Togarmite/Lexicon
Togarmite/Swadesh list
דף זה בעברית
Togarmite
yn Tėrmit
Pronunciation[/ən thermith/]
Created byPraimhín
SettingIrta
Afro-Asiatic

Togarmite or Thermite (yn Tėrmit /ən thermith/ or yn lysėn Tėrmi) is a Northwest Semitic language (as distant from Hebrew as Aramaic is). It is inspired by Hebrew, Lithuanian, Germanic languages (particularly Icelandic), Greek, Welsh and Alashian, a Semitic conlang.

Modern Togarmite retains the Semitic root-and-pattern morphology of Old Togarmite, but has undergone some phonological and grammatical restructuring:

  • loss of grammatical gender
  • loss of the passive binyanim
  • loss of the suffix conjugation except in a few verbs (where they form the w-form); erosion of the prefix paradigm (used for the past tense, like the Hebrew waw-consecutive preterite) to the point where subject pronouns are required
  • the use of the w-form (inherited from the Old Togarmite waw-consecutive) for the present progressive, mirroring English -ing < PIE *-nd-kwe
  • the development of a productive concatenative verb paradigm used to form verbs from other words, analogous to Germanic weak verbs

Todo

  • Dalet tet tav > ð d t (d = /d~t/, t aspirated); more of a Hivantish/Spanish/Tsarfati Hebrew aesthetic and gives a Welsh aesthetic to Greek loans
  • Should have initial w- > j- like Hebrew and Aramaic
  • Should be spoken in our Turkey?
  • A few verbs derived from historical passive binyanim, analogized so they're weak verbs
  • Gzarot
  • Syntax
  • Declensions
  • Lots of triconsonantified Greek words
  • A bit more Aramaic isoglosses / semantic shifts in a general Aramaic direction
  • Much less of an English relex: more consistent do-support, progressive forms used for imperfectives and VSO as in Welsh? Most "Englishy" bits should be literal translations of idioms, phrasal verbs and pragmatics, loss of grammatical gender, intense dialectal mixing in the early modern period with what appears to be occasional random unpredictable changes, and some vocabulary and affixes
  • Relex Modern Greek in places where it differs grammatically from English: yn before proper names?
  • Prepositional pronouns
  • more binyanim like syfȝel, asøfȝel, tasøfȝel and tystyfȝel?
  • Taxonomic names get calqued into Greek
  • CiCV:C > CyCVC, CaCV:C > CCVC

History

The Old Togarmite name for the language, Θėgarmīθ, is thought to have been borrowed from a pre-Togarmite source *Tāgarma. The name Togarmah from the same source is also attested in the Hebrew Bible. (The Greeks and the Romans called the Togarmite people Θηγαρμικοί and Thegarmici respectively.) The name of the language shows the Togarmite shift of Proto-Semitic ā to ė /e:/, mirroring the Canaanite shift ā > ō occuring in Hebrew.

Phonology

Consonants

Togarmite has 26 consonants, 22 of them inherited from Proto-Semitic. It gained /p=/ during the Old Togarmite stage by adapting loans from Greek, Aramaic and Persian, e.g. barkes 'to act', from Ancient Greek praxis. It also merged Old Togarmite ħ /ħ/ and h /h/ into h /h/, OTog č /tʃ/, ž and j into ž.

  • m n /m n/ (PSem *m *n)
  • b d g ' /p=~b t=~d k=~g ʔ/ ((not in PSem) *T *q *2)
  • t k /th kh/ (*t *k)
  • th ch /θ x/ (in Greek loans)
  • v ð γ /v ð γ/ (*b *d *g)
  • f s š h /f s ʃ h/ (*p *s/*š *þ/*ś *h/*H/*x)
  • z ž ȝ /z ʒ (Philly L)/ (*z *ð/*D/*Z *3/*ğ)
  • c č /ts= tʃ=/ (*S (not in PSem))
  • w l r j /w l r j/ (*w *l *r *w-/*j)

Vowels

Modern Togarmite has 9 vowels in stressed syllables.

a e ė i o ø u y /ɑ æ e i o ø u (ə)/

ei au /ɛi ɔu/

Contrastive vowel length is present from elision of h in colloquial Togarmite: møtyhanan = [mø'ta:nan] instead of /møtə'hanan/

Stress

Stress in native words is similar to our Maltese.

Orthography

In addition to the Latin and Greek alphabets, Togarmite uses an abugida (a form of cursive linear Hangul) based on the Phoenician alphabet, called yn alvėt (after the first 2 letters).

The abjadi letter names: al, vėt, γam, ðal, hė, wau, zėn, žėn, dėt, jøð, kaf, lam, mėm, nun, ȝėn, fė, bė, cað, čað, gøf, rėš, sin, šin, tau

Traditional Romanization

The traditional romanization of Togarmite is very unphonetic.

  • aCe for ė
  • English style unetymological OSL gone crazy
  • the orthography should also be templatic, gemination in weird places i.e. not necessarily related to Old Togarmite gemination
  • two scripts, Latin and Greek? works like hiragana and kanji
  • v for the vowel /ø/!

Dialects

Ethiopian dialect

some different vocab e.g. tėt instead of wyhėv for 'give', ðøvrėn instead of tėma for 'topic'

some words can have different meanings in Ethiopian and Levantine leading to some funny misunderstandings

phonological differences ("ear" -> ødny)

a e ė i o ø u y [a e̞ ɛi i ɔ ɵ u (ə)]
ei au [ɒi ø:~øo]

a broad Ethiopian accent in Togarmite has random variation in some words like heno, šamo, šyðo etc are pronounced hena, šama, šyða

-an -> -en is common in a broad Ethiopian accent (ðarkan -> ðarken); this should typically happen only with agentives, otherwise møsaken / møsakan would be mixed up (that would be one of the telltale signs of a non-Ethiopian faking an accent)

Indian dialect

a e ė i o ø u y /a: e~ɪ ɛ: i o: ʊ u: ə/
ei au /ai ɔ:/

New World dialect

a e ė i o ø u y /a e ɪə i o ø u ə/ ei au /ɛi ɔu/

Pronouns

Personal

Modern Togarmite pronouns work similarly to modern Hebrew pronouns. The accusative pronouns derive from inflected foms of Old Togarmite ʔiθ (emphasis particle and accusative, related to Hebrew et and Arabic iyya-). The possessive pronouns are derived from inflected forms of Old Togarmite la-. The reflexive pronouns come from inflected forms of af 'nose'.

The semantics of hu, hi and že work like in West Country English. (Clarify)

I thou (m.) thou (f.) he she it we you (pl, polite) they
Nominative/Conjunctive nėk at et hu hi že nan atøm høm
Objective/Disjunctive ti tak tek tau ta tež tanė takøm taum
Possessive li lak lek lau la lež lanė lakøm laum
Reflexive/Intensive afi afak afek afau afa afež afnė afkøm afaum

The plural pronouns atøm and høm can be used as gender-neutral pronouns in the singular, like English they.

Demonstrative

who? what? which? where? whither? whence? when? how? why? how much?
this žinė (sg); elinė (pl) hė heno me hė ȝeto hėk ež kėrav
that ži (sg); eli (pl) šam šamo me šam šøm
what man ma ėjo ein eino men ein møran keik maž kma, marvy
all; every kølšar kølvar; køl køl kølein køleino me kølein kølam køl ør - -
any nukšar nukvar nuk nukein nukeino me nukein kølam nuk ør me nuk sevt -
some vilšar vilvar vil vilein vileino me vilein ly zman; vil zman vil ør me vil sevt -
none lėmšar lėmvar lėm lėmein lėmeino me lėmein lėfȝam lėm ør me lėm sevt -

Demonstratives come after nouns.

  • veit žinė 'this house'
  • gawi eli 'those lines'

Nouns

In some ways declension has simplified: Modern Togarmite has lost grammatical gender. The construct state has been lost, and the Old Togarmite definite state ʔan- has been reanalyzed as a separate definite article yn. Yn becomes ym before /m f v p=/.

However, declension has become more complicated in other ways. For example, Modern Togarmite has innovated more declension paradigms.

Regular declension

Most nouns have a regular plural in -i, from a conflation of Middle Togarmite absolute -in and construct -ė.

Example: ȝėlam 'world'

ȝėlam 'world'
singular plural
indefinite ȝėlam ȝėlami
lysėn 'language'
singular plural
indefinite lysėn lysėni

Segolates

These nouns come from CVCC nouns in Proto-Semitic and thus are related to segolates in Hebrew.

kalv 'dog'
singular plural
indefinite kalv 'klavi

Nisba nouns

An important declension class is comprised of nouns with the nisba suffix -i:

Tėrmi 'Togarmite'
singular plural
indefinite Tėrmi Tėrmin

Singulative-collective nouns

These nouns have a marked singular in -t.

šeȝart '(strand of) hair'
singular plural
indefinite šeȝart šeȝar

Former feminines

This class consists of nouns that were feminine in Old Togarmite, which typically end in -t and take a plural in -ėt:

frit 'fruit'
singular plural
indefinite frit frijėt
γalt 'door' (altered from *ðalt)
singular plural
indefinite γalt γlatėt
tyktøvt 'document'
singular plural
indefinite tyktøvt tyktøvėt

-a nouns

These are mainly Greek and Aramaic words.

aboloža 'excuse (pretext)'
singular plural
indefinite aboloža aboložes

Greek ending in -ma can have a plural in -mada:

tėma 'topic'
singular plural
indefinite tėma tėmes / tėmada


By analogy, even native words ending in -a are declined this way:

heda 'sin'
singular plural
indefinite heda hedes

Irregulars

vennės 'human'
singular plural
indefinite vennės nės


ašt 'woman'
singular plural
indefinite ašt nysi

Adjectives

Adjectives do not decline.

Degree

Adjectives have a comparative form in yn-/ym- and a superlative in køl-:

  • yn-kvur = bigger
  • kølkvur = biggest

A dedicated particle šøm (cognate to Arabic þumma) is used for 'than'.

Verbs

  • Past = (eroded) suffix conjugation that became analogized with the prefix present
    • The y- prefix is only used when the verb directly follows the subject pronoun: nėk yktøv 'I wrote', nėk lė ktøv 'I didn't write'.
  • Present = from the bare w-form
  • Imperative
    • The imperative is negated with al: Ktøv! 'write!', Al ktøv! 'don't write!'
  • w-form = w + stem from the 3ms suffix conjugation in the f3øl binyan, past tense but with w- for the prefix in other binyanim
  • Infinitive
  • Participles
  • Progressive lu from *ȝalė-hu, c.f. wrthi in Welsh

The suffix conjugation does not survive unlike in most other Semitic languages, except in certain irregular verbs like fė 'to be'.

The citation form is the 2nd person singular imperative.

Binyanim

Modern Togarmite inherits all 8 binyanim of Old Togarmite. The ty- of Binyan 7 (tyfaȝel) verbs has become a productive derivational prefix, however.

Binyan 1: fȝøl

This binyan can take -ø- (e.g. ktøv 'to write'), -e- (sen 'to sleep') or -a- (dȝam 'to choose') as the theme vowel.

Binyan 1 conjugation: ktøv 'write'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk yktøv at/et yktøv hu/hi ktøv nan ktøv atøm ktøv høm ktøv
past imperfective; past subjunctive nėk fit wyktav at/et fit wyktav hu/hi fė wyktav nan fu wyktav atøm fu wyktav høm fu wyktav
present nėk wyktav at/et wyktav hu/hi wyktav nan wyktav atøm wyktav høm wyktav
present progressive nėk lu wyktav at/et lu wyktav hu/hi lu wyktav nan lu wyktav atøm lu wyktav høm lu wyktav
present subjunctive nėk yktøvan at/et yktøvan hu/hi ktøvan nan ktøvan atøm ktøvan høm ktøvan
future nėk bė ktėv at/et bė ktėv hu bė ktėv nan bė ktėv atøm bė ktėv høm bė ktėv
perfect li ktuv lax/lex ktuv lau/la ktuv lanė ktuv laxøm ktuv laum ktuv
imperative ktøv!
active participle xėtev
passive participle ktuv
w-form wyktav
infinitive ktėv
Binyan 1 conjugation: num 'sleep'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ynum at/et ynum hu/hi num nan num atøm num høm num
past progressive; past subjunctive nėk fit wynaum at/et fit wynaum hu/hi fė wynaum nan fu wynaum atøm fu wynaum høm fu wynaum
present nėk wynaum at/et wynaum hu/hi wynaum nan wynaum atøm wynaum høm wynaum
present progressive nėk lu wynaum at/et lu wynaum hu/hi lu wynaum nan lu wynaum atøm lu wynaum høm lu wynaum
present subjunctive nėk ynuman at/et ynuman hu/hi numan nan numan atøm numan høm numan
future nėk bė nwėm at/et bė nwėm hu/hi bė nwėm nan bė nwėm atøm bė nwėm høm bė nwėm
perfect li num lax/lex num lau/la num lanė num laxøm num laum num
imperative num!
active participle nėwem
passive participle num
w-form wynaum
infinitive nwėm

Binyan 2: faȝel

This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic D-stem (related to Hebrew pi33el and Arabic fa33ala)

Binyan 2 conjugation: saken 'inhabit'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ysaken at/et ysaken hu/hi saken nan saken atøm saken høm saken
past progressive; past subjunctive nėk fit wysaken at/et fit wysaken hu/hi fė wysaken nan fu wysaken atøm fu wysaken høm fu wysaken
present nėk wysaken at/et wysaken hu/hi wysaken nan wysaken atøm wysaken høm wysaken
present progressive nėk lu wysaken at/et lu wysaken hu/hi lu wysaken nan lu wysaken atøm lu wysaken høm lu wysaken
present subjunctive nėk ysakenan at/et ysakenan hu/hi sakenan nan sakenan atøm sakenan høm sakenan
future nėk bė sakun at bė sakun hu bė sakun nan bė sakun atøm bė sakun høm bė sakun
perfect li møsakan lax/lex møsakan lau/la møsakan lanė møsakan laxøm møsakan laum møsakan
imperative saken!
active participle møsaken
passive participle møsakan
w-form wysaken
infinitive sakun

Binyan 3: fėȝel

Binyan 3 conjugation: ðėver 'speak'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk yðėver at/et yðėver hu/hi ðėver nan ðėver atøm ðėver høm ðėver
past progressive; past subjunctive nėk fit wyðėver at/et fit wyðėver hu/hi fė wyðėver nan fu wyðėver atøm fu wyðėver høm fu wyðėver
present nėk wyðėver at/et wyðėver hu/hi wyðėver nan wyðėver atøm wyðėver høm wyðėver
present subjunctive nėk yðėveran at/et yðėveran hu/hi ðėveran nan ðėveran atøm ðėveran høm ðėveran
future nėk bė ðėvur at bė ðėvur hu bė ðėvur nan bė ðėvur atøm bė ðėvur høm bė ðėvur
perfect li møðėvar lax/lex møðėvar lau/la møðėvar lanė møðėvar laxøm møðėvar laum møðėvar
imperative - ðėver! - - ðėveru! -
active participle møðėver
passive participle møðėvar
w-form wyðėver
infinitive ðėvur

Binyan 4: afȝel

This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic Š-stems thus corresponds to Hebrew hif3il and Arabic ʔaf3ala.

Binyan 3 conjugation: ažker 'remind'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ažker at/et ažker hu/hi ažker nan ažker atøm ažker høm ažker
past progressive; past subjunctive fiti wažker fit wažker fė wažker finė wažker fitøm wažker fu wažker
present nėk še wažker at/et še wažker hu/hi še wažker nan še wažker atøm šu wažker høm šu wažker
present subjunctive nėk ažkeran at/et ažkeran hu/hi ažkeran nan ažkeran atøm ažkeran høm ažkeran
future nėk bė hažkur at bė hažkur hu bė hažkur nan bė hažkur atøm bė hažkur høm bė hažkur
perfect li mažkar lax/lex mažkar lau/la mažkar lanė mažkar laxøm mažkar laum mažkar
imperative ažker!
active participle mažker
passive participle mažkar
w-form wažker
infinitive ažkur

Binyan 5: ftyȝel

This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic t-stem and shares similarities with the Hebrew binyan hitpa33el and Arabic ifta3ala. It is characterized by the t- prefix that comes from the *t infix.

Meanings:

  • reflexive
  • reciprocal

The prefix t metathesizes with C1 when

  • C1 = f x s š c h z ž ȝ: tf tx ts tš th tz tž tȝ > ft xt st št ct ht zd žd ȝd
  • C1 = ð d t: tð td tt > ð d t
Binyan 4 conjugation: tlymeð 'find one's way around'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ytlymeð at/et ytlymeð hu/hi tlymeð nan tlymeð atøm tlymeð høm tlymeð
past progressive; past subjunctive fiti wytlymeð fit wytlymeð fė wytlymeð finė wytlymeð fitøm wytlymeð fu wytlymeð
present nėk ytlėmeð at/et ytlėmeð hu/hi tlėmeð nan tlėmeð atøm tlėmeð høm tlėmeð
present progressive nėk še wytlymeð at/et še wytlymeð hu/hi še wytlymeð nan še wytlymeð atøm šu wytlymeð høm šu wytlymeð
present subjunctive nėk ytlymeðan at/et ytlymeðan hu/hi tlymeðan nan tlymeðan atøm tlymeðan høm tlymeðan
future nėk bė hytlymuð at bė hytlymuð hu bė hytlymuð nan bė hytlymuð atøm bė hytlymuð høm bė hytlymuð
perfect li møtlymað lax/lex møtlymað lau/la møtlymað lanė møtlymað laxøm møtlymað laum møtlymað
imperative ytlymeð
active participle møtlymeð
passive participle møtlymað
w-form wytlymėð
infinitive hytlymuð

Binyan 6: etyfȝel

This binyan comes from the Nt-stem, with the mediopassive n- marker and the reflexive/reciprocal t-marker: the stem comes from *intap3il. cf. Hebrew nitpa33el, a variant of the hitpa33el binyan and the Arabic infa3ala binyan.

Binyan 5 conjugation: etyγðel 'grow up'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk etyγðel at/et etyγðel hu/hi etyγðel nan etyγðel atøm etyγðel høm etyγðel
past progressive; past subjunctive fiti wetyγðel fit wetyγðel fė wetyγðel finė wetyγðel fitøm wetyγðel fu watyγðel
present nėk še wetyγðel at/et še wetyγðel hu/hi še wetyγðel nan še wetyγðel atøm šu wetyγðel høm šu wetyγðel
present subjunctive nėk etyγðelan at/et etyγðelan hu/hi etyγðelan nan etyγðelan atøm etyγðelan høm etyγðelan
future nėk bė hetyγðul at bė hetyγðul hu bė hetyγðul nan bė hetyγðul atøm bė hetyγðul høm bė hetyγðul
perfect li metyγðal lax/lex metyγðal lau/la metyγðal lanė metyγðal laxøm metyγðal laum metyγðal
imperative - hetyγðel! - - hetyγðelu! -
active participle metyγðel
passive participle metyγðal
w-form watyγðel
infinitive hetyγðul

Binyan 8: styfȝel

This binyan comes from the Št-stem and is directly related to the binyan istaf3ala in Arabic and the very rare binyan hishtaf3el in Biblical Hebrew. Binyan 7 tends to form verbs involving conscious decision.

Binyan 8 conjugation: stydȝem 'try out'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ystydȝem at/et ystydȝem hu/hi stydȝem nan stydȝem atøm stydȝem høm stydȝem
past progressive; past subjunctive fiti wystydȝem fit wystydȝem fė wystydȝem finė wystydȝem fitøm wystydȝem fu wystydȝem
present nėk ystytėȝem at/et ystytėȝem hu/hi stytėȝem nan stytėȝem atøm stytėȝem høm stytėȝem
present progressive nėk še wystydȝem at/et še wystydȝem hu/hi še wystydȝem nan še wystydȝem atøm šu wystydȝem høm šu wystydȝem
present subjunctive nėk ystydȝeman at/et ystydȝeman hu/hi stydȝeman nan stydȝeman atøm stydȝemun jystydȝemun
future nėk bė stydȝum at bė stydȝum hu bė stydȝum nan bė stydȝum atøm bė stydȝum høm bė stydȝum
perfect li møstydȝam lax/lex møstydȝam lau/la møstydȝam lanė møstydȝam laxøm møstydȝam laum møstydȝam
imperative - stydȝem! - - stydȝemu! -
active participle møstydȝem
passive participle møstydȝam
w-form wystydȝem
infinitive stydȝum

Concatenative verbs

The concatenative paradigm, analogous to Germanic weak verbs, is formed by adding prefixes and suffixes, without changing the stem. The past and imperative forms are formed by adding -i or -ji to the noun, when no other suffix is added.

It is used for recent loan verbs like maksimezi 'to maximize', but can also be used to derive verbs from native nouns:

  • myðrasi 'to school' (from myðras 'school')
  • takili 'to consume' (from takil 'consumption', itself from the root √ʔ-k-l 'to eat')
  • žakoji 'to entitle, to allow' (from žako 'right')
  • ȝeini 'to eye' (from ȝein 'eye')

The endings are mainly derived from Middle Togarmite forms of 3-y verbs.

  • [STEM]-i = active
  • ty-[STEM]-i = re-
  • mø- = active participle
  • -ėt = infinitive
Weak verb conjugation: myðrasi 'to school'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ymyðrasi at/et ymyðrasi hu/hi myðrasi nan myðrasi atøm myðrasi høm myðrasi
past progressive; past subjunctive fiti wymyðrasi fit wymyðrasi fė wymyðrasi finė wymyðrasi fitøm wymyðrasi fu wymyðrasi
present nėk wymyðrasi at/et wymyðrasi hu/hi wymyðrasi nan wymyðrasi atøm wymyðrasi høm wymyðrasi
present progressive nėk lu wymyðrasi at/et lu wymyðrasi hu/hi lu wymyðrasi nan lu wymyðrasi atøm lu wymyðrasi høm lu wymyðrasi
present subjunctive nėk ymyðrasan at/et ymyðrasan hu/hi myðrasan nan myðrasan atøm myðrasun høm myðrasun
future nėk bė myðrasėt at bė myðrasėt hu bė myðrasėt nėbu myðrasėt atøm bė myðrasėt høm bė myðrasėt
perfect li mømyðrasa lax/lex mømyðrasa lau/la mømyðrasa lanė mømyðrasa laxøm mømyðrasa laum mømyðrasa
imperative myðrasi!
active participle mømyðrasė
passive participle myðrasa
w-form wymyðrasi
infinitive myðrasėt

fe 'to be'

The verb fe 'to be' is perhaps the most irregular verb of the language; it uses the Proto-Semitic suffix conjugation in the past tense.

fe 'to be'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk fit at fit hu fė nan fu atøm fu høm fu
past progressive; past subjunctive nėk fit fė at fit fė hu fė fė nan fu fė atøm fu fė høm fu fė
present (nėk) (at/et) (hu/hi) (nan) (atøm) (høm)
present progressive nėk lu fė at/et lu fė hu/hi lu fė nan lu fė atøm lu fė høm lu fė
present subjunctive nėk yfijan at yfijan hu fijan nan fijan atøm fijan høm fijan
future nėk bė fėt at bė fėt hu bė fėt nan bė fėt atøm bė fėt høm bė fėt
imperative fe!
active participle hėwi
passive participle fuj
w-form fė
infinitive fėt

kėl 'can'

kėl 'can'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk ikel at/et ikel hu/hi kel nan kel atøm kel høm kel
past subjunctive nėk fit wėkel at fit wėkel hu fė wėkel nan fu wėkel atøm fu wėkel høm fu wėkel
present nėk wėkel at wėkel hu wėkel nan wėkel atøm wėkel høm wėkel
present subjunctive nėk ikelan at/et ikelan hu/hi kelan nan kelan atøm kelan høm kelan
future nėk bė kėl at bė kėl hu bė kėl nan bė kėl atøm bė kėl høm bė kėl
active participle -
passive participle fuj wėkel
w-form wėkel
infinitive kėl

høvė 'should; ought'

høba 'should; ought'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past nėk fit høbė at fit høbė hu fė høbė nan fu høbu atøm fu høbu høm fu høbu
present nėk høbė at/et høbė hu/hi høbė nan høbu atøm høbu høm høbu

ryžė 'to like'

ryžė 'to like'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk yrži at yrži hu yrži nan yržu atøm yržu høm yržu
past subjunctive nėk fit wyrži at fit wyrži hu fė wyrži nan fu wyrži atøm fu wyrži høm fu wyrži
present nėk ryžė at/et ryžė hu/hi ryžė nan ryžu atøm ryžu høm ryžu
future nėk bė ryžėt at bė ryžėt hu bė ryžėt nan bė ryžėt atøm bė ryžėt høm bė ryžėt
w-form wyrži
active participle rėži
passive participle ryžuj
infinitive ryžėt

sėr 'to want'

sėr 'to want'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl
past; conditional nėk sør at sør hu sør nan sru atøm sru høm sru
past subjunctive nėk fit wasar at fit wasar hu fė wasar nan fu wasar atøm fu wasar høm fu wasar
present nėk wasar at/et wasar hu/hi wasar nan wasar atøm wasar høm wasar
future nėk bė sėr at bė sėr hu bė sėr nan bė sėr atøm bė sėr høm bė sėr
w-form wasar
active participle sėr
passive participle sur
infinitive sėr

The auxiliary vė

The defective auxiliary vė (inf. and w-form vė, past and imperative vu, passive participle vuj; from the conflation of two roots, one a cognate of Hebrew בא 'to come' and the other a cognate of Hebrew אבה 'to be willing') is used to form dynamic passives (with the passive participle) and the future (with the infinitive), like the German verb werden.

  • Yn γalt lu vė fytuh = The door is opening (being opened)
  • Yn γalt vu fytuh = The door (was) opened
  • Yn γalt lež vuj fytuh = The door has been opened
  • Yn γalt fytuh = The door is open (lit. opened)
    • vė is not repeated for future + passive: both 'The door opens' and 'The door will open' are Yn γalt vė fytuh.
  • Dawid vė ftėh yn γalt = David will open the door

Gzarot

Main article: Togarmite/Gzarot

In Semitic languages, gzarot (Hebrew גְּזָרוֹת‎, sg. gizra גִּזְרָה 'figure, form, pattern') are variations of an inflectional (especially verbal) paradigm that are determined by the choice of consonants in the consonantal root. Thus, a paradigm has not only a regular gizra but various irregular ones, which occur most commonly when

  • the consonantal root contains a "guttural" (ʔ ȝ h) or a semivowel (j w);
  • the consonantal root contains a n, since nC tends to assimilate into CC
  • the consonantal root has 2 letters.

Because Togarmite only uses the prefix conjugation, modern Togarmite gzarot are in some ways less bad than Hebrew gzarot; most of the irregularities occur in binyan fȝøl. However, there are often so many irregularities even within each gizra, and cases of analogy between verbs of different gzarot, that the concept of gzarot in Modern Togarmite has been questioned: in Togarmite, a "gizra" just describes general tendencies of verbs with a certain root consonant.

Prepositions

Some prepositions:

  • in 'in' [from PSem *ina], in yn > nyn
    • ini, inak, inek, inau, ina, inė, inkøm, inaum
  • ly (l' before V) 'of (possessive)'
  • vy (v' before V) 'by, at, with (instrumental), in (language)'
    • vi, vak, vek, vau, va, vanė, vakøm, vaum
  • šyðe 'out of' (from *śadiy-ah 'to the field')
  • me (men before V) 'from'
    • meni, menak, menek, menau, mena, menė, mekøm, menaum
  • ȝem 'with (comitative)'
    • 3emi, 3emak, 3emek, 3emau, 3ema, 3emnė, 3emkøm, 3emaum
  • ȝal 'on'; with definite article ȝlėn/ȝlėm
    • 3lei, 3lėk, 3lėk, 3lėju, 3lėja, 3lėnė, 3lėkøm, 3lėjøm
  • lið 'to' (from *la-yad 'to the hand of')
  • løv 'into, in' (from *la-libb)
    • Nėk wamen løv žinė - I believe in this
    • Hu tyhev løva - He fell in love with her
  • ȝvar 'over'
  • tat 'under'
  • aržo 'down' (from *ʔarč̣-ah "earthward")
  • ðarkyn 'along'
  • vlėš 'without'

Syntax of prepositions

Numerals

Cardinal

0: cefry
1: hað
2: šnein / attributive šnė
3: šlėš (animate šlėšt)
4: yrvaȝ (animate yrvaȝt)
5: mes (animate mest)
6: setš (animate setšt)
7: savȝy (animate savȝyt)
8: šmėni (animate šmėnt)
9: tesȝy (animate tesȝyt)
10: ȝašry (animate ȝašryt)
11: ȝašry wy hað
12: ȝašry šnein
20: ȝešrin
30: šlėšin
40: yrvȝin
50: hymsin
60: setšin
70: syvȝin
80: šmėnin
90: tesȝin
100: met
101: met wy hað
200: metein
300: šlėš met
400: yrvaȝ met
1000: alf
2000: alfein
3000: šlėš alf
1000000: alfun
10^9: vėtfun
10^12: γamfun
etc.

Plural numerals usually take plural nouns. They used to take singular nouns, however this is considered archaic.

Numbers ending in digits "3" through "9" (thus ending in šlėš through tesȝy), or "10" (thus ending in ȝašry), have two forms depending on the animacy of the noun: hymes myrtemi 'five abacuses', but hymest ahwėt 'five sisters'. The animate forms come from the masculine forms (reverse polarity) marked with *-t in Proto-Semitic.

Ordinal

Ordinals are formed using the pattern CCuC; as in English, "1st" and "2nd" are irregular, from elatives *ʔaʕlay- 'topmost' and *ʔaʕqab- 'the immediately following' respectively. In compound numerals, the last number word is inflected to the ordinal form.

  • 1st = olė
  • 2nd = ogav
  • 3rd = šluš
  • 4th = rvuȝ
  • 5th = mus
  • 6th = stuš
  • 7th = svuȝ
  • 8th = smun
  • 9th = tsuȝ
  • 10th = ȝšur
  • 11th = ȝašry w-olė
  • 12th = ȝašry w-ogav
  • 13th = ȝašry šluš

etc.

Fractional

Fractional numerals are formed with the segolate pattern CøCCy (pl. CøCaCi). Compound numerals can be inflected as well, like in the case of ordinal numerals. The analogized form øhðy is used for numerals ending in "1".

  • half = γøv (from *gunb- 'side')
  • 3rd = šølšy
  • 4th = røvȝy
  • 11th = ȝašry w-øhðy

To express "m/n", Togarmite uses "m nths": "2/3" is šnė šølaši.

Syntax

Faulty accusative marker

The faulty accusative marker it is used. It behaves like the MSA accusative case and the Welsh soft mutation for direct objects: when there is a constituent separating the verb or predicate from a second constituent, it comes between the two constituents regardless of whether the second constituent is actually a direct object. Example:

  • Halek wyfė li it šlėšt klavi, wy ȝeto lėš li it nuk. = I used to have three dogs, and now I don't have any.
  • Yn ðėrest li ryšė li it ȝyšėt rab tamuni veit. = My teacher wants me to do a lot of homework.

Questions

Yes-no questions require the question marker ha to be placed at the beginning of the sentence.

What-questions have a syntax similar to English.

Existentials

The word iš is used to indicate existence. It is also used with the preposition ly 'to' or the possessive pronouns to indicate possession. The negative of iš is lėš.

  • Lėš mygėm ėn kølšar nyȝum. = There is no place where everyone is happy.
  • Ha iš lek ša3t? = Do you (f. sg.) have time?

Clauses

  • "if" = em
  • "then" = šøm
  • "though" = ak, kenak

Relative clauses

The relative pronoun žė is used for both relative and complement clauses. It may takes prepositional cases, just like English relative pronouns. The word žė is from PSem *ðā, the accusative singular form of the demonstrative *ðū; cf. Biblical Hebrew זו zu, Aramaic די dī.

For relative clauses whose heads are prepositional objects in the relative clause, there are three strategies:

  • the relativizer is treated as a resumptive pronoun which takes the preposition, like English which: yn γavry lið žė nėk ohav ym mauhav, lit. 'the man to which I gave the gift'. This syntax arose from the influence of surrounding languages like English.
  • the preposition goes to the end of the clause: yn γavry žė nėk ohav ym mauhav lið lit. 'the man which I gave the gift to'. This syntax arose from the native Semitic construction which used a resumptive pronoun on the preposition: after the resumptive pronoun lost the stress, the preposition lost its pronominal suffix and moved to the end of the clause.
  • A combination of both strategies can be used: yn γavry lið žė nėk ohav ym mauhav lið, lit. 'The man to which I gave the gift to'. This is the most common strategy with the other two considered archaic.

Derivation

Noun and adjective patterns

  • CaCCy(t), CeCCy(t), CøCCy(t) = segolates
  • CyCiC = adjective; -able
  • CyCuC = adjective; color
  • CyCėC = some adjectives
  • CyCaCt, CyCeCt, CyCøCt
  • CaCøCt = describes a condition
  • CyCeCCaC = diminutive
  • myCCaC(t), meCCaC(t), myCCėC: noun, often denoting place
  • maCCaCt = causative version of myCCaC(t)
  • myCCeC(t) = instrument
  • maCCeCt = causative version of myCCeC(t)
  • tyCCuC, tyCCiC, tyCCėC = action or process
  • ryCCøCt (cognatized from Hebrew tiCCóCet) = system of things
  • CaCėC = agentive
    • katėv 'writer'
  • CaCCan = agentive; -an is an agentive
    • lamsan 'philanthropist' (felantrøb is also common)
  • CaCCėn, CeCCėn, and CøCCėn = nouns, often an augmentative

Affixes

  • -an = forms agentives and adjectives
  • -in = collectives
    • lamusin 'charity'
  • -ut = abstract noun
  • -i = forms adjectives
  • -it = forms adverbs
  • i- = non-, un-
    • ivyšari 'incorporeal'
    • iwøxli 'impossible'
  • -yr = someone who is characterized by X (from English)
    • iðuȝyr 'know-it-all', from iduȝ 'knowledgeable'
  • -ri = -ry (from English)
    • gðėsri = sanctimoniousness, from gðės '(archaic) holy'
    • kal'anri = double standard or hypocrisy, from the agentive kal'an 'hypocrite' of √x-l-ʔ 'double'
  • afto- = self-
  • e- = a- (from ʔiC-, an assimilated form of the OTog preposition ʔin 'in'); these adjectives can usually only be predicative
    • e'est 'ablaze'
    • eðarky 'away'
    • etal 'galore' (lit. a-mound)
    • emein 'drowned, lost forever', lit. awater
  • -vyl = -able (from English -able and native avȝel 'to be able to')
  • ty- 're-' (from the tD-stem)
    • tynawer 'to reflect', from naur 'light'
    • tybarkes 'to react', from barkis 'action'
    • tysalem 'to repay', from √s-l-m 'peace, whole'
    • tyȝanė 'to satisfy', from √ȝ-n-j 'distress, need'; probably influenced by a now obsolete meaning 'to answer' of the same root
    • unpredictable change in meaning stem)

Phrasebook

some phrases in Togarmite:

  • Slėm! - Hello! / Goodbye!
  • Slėm ȝlėkøm! - Hello! (formal)
  • Leil dėv! / Num vy dėv! - Good night! / Sleep well!
  • Jaum dėv! - Good day!
  • Ekarus! / Ekarus tak/tek/takøm! - Thanks!
  • Ȝem ryžan - Please / You're welcome
  • Tryhef ti - Excuse me, Pardon
  • Nėk nyhum - I'm sorry
  • Ma yn sem lak/lek/lakøm? - What's your name?
  • Yn sem li [name] - My name is [name]
  • Keik wymar iþ [thing] in Tėrmit? - How do you say [thing] in Togarmite?
  • H' at/et/atøm wyðėver [language]? - Do you speak [language]?
  • Ȝem ryžan, mør že šėnėn - Please say it again
  • Hė lak/lek/lakøm - Here you go! (i.e. I just granted your request) (the source of the English expression is misinterpreted Togarmite)
    • Note: In Ethiopia it's spelled without the space.
  • Yn ryhaft li hu myli ȝem clėfi - My hovercraft is full of eels
  • En = Yes.
  • Lė = No.

Sample texts

Schleicher

Yn kavš w' yn frasi

Kavš ly žė lė fė žamry ly jar frasi: hað γor maȝrevt šgul, hað mol hemly kvur, wy hað mol vennės vy fiz. Yn kavš mar: "Mrur li yn lev, oryn nėk wyrė vennės wyrkav frasi." Yn frasi mar: "Ažen, kavš! Mrur lanė yn lev oryn nan wyrė žinė: vennės, ym vol, woši lið afau mylvast mum me žamry lyn kavš. Wy lėš lyn kavš it žamry." Oryn yn kavš smaȝ žinė, hu mnaȝ lið yn šðe.

Old Tog.:

An xabše wan φarasīn

Χabše, žė lė hawė čamre lawh, φarasīn yarʔe: yagōr ʔaħād marχabaθ šakūlaθ, wa-yaħmōl ʔaħād ħemle χabūr, wa-yaħmōl ʔaħād ħaφīzan ʔinės. Yāmār an χabše: Mār lī an lēb, bi-riʔėθī ʔinės rėχib φarasīn. Yāmārū an φarasīn: Sumaʕ an χabše! Mār lanė an lēb bi-riʔėθinė žīnė: ʔinės an baʕle yaʕšē lawh malbasaθ ħamūmaθ mēn čamre an χabšīn. Wa-lėš len-χabše čamre. Bi-šimėʕ an χabše žīnė, yamnāȝ ʔilė an šadi.

Hebrew:

הכבש והסוסים
כבש שלא היה לו צמר ראה סוסים: אחד גרר עגלה כבדה, אחד נשא עומס גדול, ואחד נשא בן אדם וזז מהר. אמר הכבש: "כואב לי לראות איך בן אדם רוכב סוסים." אמרו הסוסים: "הקשב, כבש, כואב לנו לראות זאת: בן אדם, האדון, עושה לעצמו בגד חמים מצמרו של הכבש. ולכבש אין צמר." לאחר ששמע זאת, ברח הכבש לתוך המישור.

Lysėn Tėrmi, lysėn tlul

  • Hað arž, rav arži; hað γalt, rav γalti!
  • Jaumyn nėk wyktav, amsyn nėk yktøv; jaumyn nėk wydȝam, amsyn nėk ydȝøm!

A biology abstract

Nan wymðøð yn tyγlim efgarjodeg metycrer lyn irišt TSP3 in Vruchorjon sbonerču. TSP3 wygaðeg ginas nahelan rėkes ly brødezenjon, mygėma vym migrosbørelada gødognėji lyn rivosøm bosadeðeg, wy kahus ly TSP3 rahivyn ma'man ly fėt ym mojan ly garčin gøvothrødeg. In tyktøvt žinė nan wystyðrek wyngad tyvhin kyli-ȝywur Rɪᴄᴇʀ-Jᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋɪ, žė rykės TSP3 lið yn ȝakuvan følochrøpsenas wygrė (p = 0.04) nyn øbodreløma ly gød Vrukorjon slim møran ety'yfusi aðenodoksen nyhut. Ly tymacu žinė vė fėt ramuzi mø'avjunė lið yn ðrės ly ðesglørøma sømvrøchi.

We measure the nucleating eukaryotic folding of the TSP3 gene in Bruchorium sponercii. TSP3 encodes a protezine-binding receptor kinase located at the cytotubular microsporellata of the quanticular ribosome, and malfunction of TSP3 is commonly believed to be the source of cybothrotic cancer. In this paper we prove using a Rɪᴇᴛᴢᴇʀ-Yᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋʏ double-blind test that TSP3 binding to the phyllochrypsinase inhibitor occurs (p = 0.04) in the hypotrellome of a healthy Bruchorium cell when adenotoxin concentrations are low. This research will have significant implications for the study of symbrychous descloroma.

Newton's laws of motion

I: Ðvar wyšvat vy ðemi, o vy ȝytėg enomorf, lulė yðraȝ wybarkes ȝal že.

I: An object stays at rest, or at a constant speed, unless a force acts on it.

II: Yn šanuj nyn tyȝtig ly všar že mytkøni lið yn øtisi møtyfacar ȝlėm všar; w' yn šanuj wygrė ðarkyn yn gau tygin ȝal žė øtisi ži vė møtyfacar ȝal.

II: The change in the momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied to the body; and the change occurs along the straight line on which that force is applied.

III: Iš ly køl barkis it tybarkis is w' andethed.

III: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

O how quickly the sculpture of life

O! Kma fizit ym myglaȝ ly heiwėt
Šaver in demaša zydarder!
Ym mγilut lym malk ȝlėn trøn lau
Vė klilit γruf ðak vy γali jam.
Atøm, žė watė mancavta hė,
Ȝavry hen yn Ylėh lawani ȝlėn arž.
Køl lanė møðawan ȝal ym barkisi lanė;
Hamnė wyhėv lið yn ȝni, w' aγatheržijėt lið hajðuð.

O how quickly the sculpture of life
Shattered into tiny fragments!
The splendor of the king on his throne
Is completely swept away by sea-waves.
Ye who come hither stationed here,
By the grace of God ye are guests on earth.
All of us are judged according to our actions;
Let us give to the needy, and do charity towards one another.

Warming Up To You

Wetyhmem liðak
Kenak at vė mėt in klėt,
Nėk wyrtyvec nym mimut lak,
Ym mimut žė azė'en yn hagranut,
Yn ȝyli lyn jeðȝy;
Yn γant žė lak stul in žinė ryvuȝ aðmyt
Wy žė at vė nyžėr lið ðėr wy ðėr.

Stairway To Heaven

Maȝlyt lið yn Symeinit
Iš volt žė hi šur
Køl žė nėher že žahav
Wy hi wyzvan maȝlyt lið yn symeinit

UDHR

Køl nės mewølað rur w' is in akšobrebja wy žykawi. Høm møtyhanan by ložegi wy syniðisi wy høvu barkus lið hajðuð vyn ruh l'ahwut.

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