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#merge centum: [+palatal +velar] → [-palatal +velar] | #merge centum: [+palatal +velar] → [-palatal +velar] | ||
#: ''*ḱléwos'' → ''*klewos'' | #: ''*ḱléwos'' → ''*klewos'' ‘fame’ | ||
#dental separation and simplification: TT → TsT → *ss | #dental separation and simplification: TT → TsT → *ss | ||
#: *''bʰreud-tós'' → ''*bʰreussós'' | #: *''bʰreud-tós'' → ''*bʰreussós'' ‘broken’ | ||
#metathesis of thorn clusters: TK > KT | #metathesis of thorn clusters: TK > KT | ||
#: ''*h₂rtkos'' → ''*h₂rktos'' | #: ''*h₂rtkos'' → ''*h₂rktos'' ‘bear’ | ||
#loss of laryngeals before vowel (triple reflex, Greek-style) | #loss of laryngeals before vowel (triple reflex, Greek-style) | ||
#: *h₁e → *e~i | #: *h₁e → *e~i | ||
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#: *eh₃ → *ō | #: *eh₃ → *ō | ||
#epenthetic *ə inserted before syllabic resonants | #epenthetic *ə inserted before syllabic resonants | ||
#: ''*septṃ'' → ''*septəm'' | #: ''*septṃ'' → ''*septəm'' ‘seven’ | ||
#loss of laryngeal between two consonants: (CHC → CəC) | #loss of laryngeal between two consonants: (CHC → CəC) | ||
#: *H → *ə (except: #_R where *H → h) | #: *H → *ə (except: #_R where *H → h) | ||
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# nasal + velar → *nn | # nasal + velar → *nn | ||
# PT, KT join TT in → *ss | # PT, KT join TT in → *ss | ||
#: ''*kh₂ptós'' → ''*kəssós'' | #: ''*kh₂ptós'' → ''*kəssós'' ‘taken’ | ||
#merger of *ə and short *a | #merger of *ə and short *a | ||
#fricativization and devoicing of syllable-initial velar consonants before *w, *r, *l | #fricativization and devoicing of syllable-initial velar consonants before *w, *r, *l | ||
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#lengthening of *a in closed and stressed syllables | #lengthening of *a in closed and stressed syllables | ||
#labiovelar sequences simplify to *w / V_V | #labiovelar sequences simplify to *w / V_V | ||
#: ''*ákwā'' → *''áwā'' | #: ''*ákwā'' → *''áwā'' ‘water’ | ||
#raising of *o after *w | #raising of *o after *w | ||
#:''*déywos'' → ''*déywus'' | #:''*déywos'' → ''*déywus'' ‘god’ | ||
#[-voice +stop] → [+voice +stop] / R_V | #[-voice +stop] → [+voice +stop] / R_V | ||
#lowering of *e → *æ when following syllable has a low vowel. (active surface filter) | #lowering of *e → *æ when following syllable has a low vowel. (active surface filter) | ||
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#Shift to strong initial expiratory stress | #Shift to strong initial expiratory stress | ||
# *p *t *k → *β *ð *ɣ / V_V, R_ | # *p *t *k → *β *ð *ɣ / V_V, R_ | ||
#: ''*kā́pyæān'' → ''*kā́βyæān'' | #: ''*kā́pyæān'' → ''*kā́βyæān'' ‘I seize’ | ||
# *z → *r / V_V, V_# | # *z → *r / V_V, V_# | ||
#: ''*wī́uz'' → ''*wīur'' | #: ''*wī́uz'' → ''*wīur'' ‘alive’ | ||
#merger of locative and instrumental cases | #merger of locative and instrumental cases | ||
# *x → *s / _s | # *x → *s / _s | ||
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|}</ref> | |}</ref> | ||
# fortition of *β *ð *ɣ → *bʰ *dʰ *gʰ | # fortition of *β *ð *ɣ → *bʰ *dʰ *gʰ | ||
#: ''*néβāt'' → ''*nébʰāt'' | #: ''*néβāt'' → ''*nébʰāt'' ‘nephew’ | ||
# unstressed *ē → ai (operating during period of contraction) | # unstressed *ē → ai (operating during period of contraction) | ||
#: ''*pádʰēr'' → ''*pádʰair'' | #: ''*pádʰēr'' → ''*pádʰair'' ‘father’ | ||
# contraction | # contraction | ||
#: *o + *e → *ē | #: *o + *e → *ē | ||
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#: ''*hrāra'' → ''*rāra'' ( < *Hroseh₂ ) | #: ''*hrāra'' → ''*rāra'' ( < *Hroseh₂ ) | ||
#shortening of long final vowels after a stressed syllable | #shortening of long final vowels after a stressed syllable | ||
#: ''*wórān'' → ''*wóran'' ( < *gʷʰor-éy-oh₂-m) | #: ''*wórān'' → ''*wóran'' ‘prepare’ ( < *gʷʰor-éy-oh₂-m) | ||
#vocalisation of semi-vowels / #C_V | #vocalisation of semi-vowels / #C_V | ||
#: ''*dyáur'' → ''*diáur'' | #: ''*dyáur'' → ''*diáur'' | ||
#<s>V:, V:C and VCC become standard</s> | #<s>V:, V:C and VCC become standard</s> | ||
#<s>: ''*wóran'' → ''*wṓrann'' </s> | #<s>: ''*wóran'' → ''*wṓrann'' </s> | ||