User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51/Lexicon
User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51/Swadesh list
User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51/Names

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51
an User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51
Pronunciation	[[Help:IPA|ə ˈʃtʃoːʟʊ]]
Created by	–
Setting	User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51verse
Native speakers	100 million L1 speakers (300 million L2 speakers) (fT 1670dd (2676))
Language family	Quihum Talmic Thensaric Old Eevo User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51
Language codes
ISO 639-3	qtg

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is a Talmic language inspired by Irish. In Tricin, it is somewhat an analogue of German in terms of influence and grammar. User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is an official language of Sċôla and Sċôlan colonies and is the second-largest Talmic language in terms of number of speakers. Like most modern Talmic languages, User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is a descendant of Thensarian. It is spoken on the northwest coast of the continent of Etalocin (called Eħa /ˈɛħə/ in User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51) on the planet of Clotricin. Thanks in large part to the printing press, Modern User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 rapidly gained prominence over a larger area in Northern Talma and came to serve as a lingua franca for northern mainland Talma. Today, User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 still enjoys status as a "cultured" language and is one of the most widely taught foreign languages.

Originally I called this language Tíogall, or variants, and it was a thought experiment posing the question "What would Irish look like with umlaut instead of palatalization?". For a while it developed as an Irish-German hybrid. At one point I decided to remove all "giblangs" from modern Tricin, or languages with the aesthetics of one natlang (unless the premise was funny, like Bhadhagha or Phormatolidin). Since Tíogall was basically an Irish with German characteristics, it was abandoned. I still decided that Talmic languages needed somewhat more internal diversity (in particular, a "German" analogue to Eevo's "English"), so I decided to revive this project. Since I don't want a German analogue to be so obviously Hiberno-German, this time I'm eschewing obviously German features in the aesthetic such as front rounded vowels, and I'm trying a somewhat Old English aesthetic. Also grammar-wise, while keeping a somewhat Celtic grammar (e.g. mutations, head-initial syntax), I'm playing with decidedly non-Celtic grammatical features such as split-ergativity (which was in my original Tíogall), and a singulative-collective-plurative system, and an imperfective-perfective aspectual distinction.

Todo

• Should have had more dh's
• Single vs. double negatives: use both, do something weird
• Old Eevo prefixes:
  • ar-: on, at
  • (deut.) as-: telic
  • (prot.) de-, (deut.) do-: in, at
  • é-: with, co-
  • fin-/sin- = well, thoroughly
  • for-: causative, through
  • (prot.) ful-, (deut.) fol-: around, back
  • (prot.) gel-, (deut.) gol-: up, out
  • ro-: down
  • sol-: a causative
  • (prot.) sur-, (deut.) sor-: back
  • (prot.) su-, (deut.) so-: towards
  • (prot.) u(cc)-, (deut.) oc-: from
• a few transitive verbs should randomly have that m (and it should be a different set in tiogall and bhadhagha)
• if ng is common, slender ng = ñ
• "inb4"
• graduate high school = ?
• Definitions in law codes look like "Given X, we say that P(X) if ..."
• Translation exercises:
  • Haggadah
  • Literature:Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
  • Literature:Through the Looking-Glass
• irregular constructs

Notes

Symbols

• ⁱ - i-umlaut
• ^L - lenition/aspiration
• ^N - eclipsis

Special readings

• When unstressed, -adh is devoiced to /əθ/ or /ət/.
• The ending -aigh/-igh is pronounced /ɨ/.

Note on the Anglicization of User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51

The User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 liquids r and l are consistently mapped to /r/ and /l/. (This is in fact a legitimate pronunciation in User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 provided you always velarize the /l/ as in American English.)

The following mapping for vowels is recommended:

/a aː ɛ eː ɪ iː ɔ ɵː ʊ ʉː œ øː ʏ yː iə yə uə aw ɛj ɛw œj œw ɛ:j ɛ:w œ:j œ:w iəw yəw yəj uəj/ → /æ ɑː ɛ eɪ ɪ iː ɑ oʊ ʊ uː ɛ eɪ ɪ iː iːə iːə uːə aʊ aɪ aʊ eɪ oʊ eɪ oʊ eɪ oʊ iːə iːə iːə uːə/

For User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 post-tonic /ð/, the pronunciation /ð/ is recommended, but /d/ is also allowed for ease of pronunciation.

For onset clusters that are disallowed in English, such as /tn/, we allow the addition of an epenthetic /ə/.

For syllable-initial /ŋ/ or /sŋ/, we recommend adding an epenthetic unstressed /ə/ or /ɪ/ before the /ŋ/. /ŋ/ after a tense vowel can be replaced with /n/.

The reduced vowels /ə/ and /ɨ/ should map to /ə/ and /ɪ/. If you have the weak-vowel merger, you can merge these two vowels.

Orthography

File:User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 script.png

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 script

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is written in the Talmic script, which is written from left to right. The letters ħ /h/, j /j/ and v /v/ are used in Netagin and other loanwords. The letter h is used for lenition as in Irish. So the User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 alphabet is usually considered to have 23 letters (r d z i a ħ f l m g c h b s v o j ŋ t n p e u) (disregarding digraphs and length diacritics).

The native orthography is extremely conservative and in part reflects Old Eevo pronunciation. The romanization used in this article reflects the native spelling.

Numerals

Written User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 uses a base-12 positional numeral system.

• digits: ɔ ı ʎ ɺ ħ ʕ ʑ ɛ ɴ κ ə ʋ = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X E
• duodecimal point: :
• 1728's separator (optional): ·
• minus sign: ʳ
• plus, minus, multiply, divide, mod = ?

Examples:

2017 = 1,201dd = ı·ʎɔı

π = 3.184809493b918...dd = ɺ:ıɴħ·ɴɔк·ħкɺ·кʋı·ɴ...

Sound changes

Thensarian to Old Eevo

Thn. sb, sd, sg > OBh dhbh, d, dhgh

Medial sm, sn, sȝ, sl, sr > m, nn, ŋŋ, ll, rr

Thn. a e i o u y ā ē ī ō ū ȳ ae ao ui ia iā iō iū > OBh a e i o u a á é í ó ú uí ae ao oí ea eá eó iú

In stressed syllables: a e i o u á é í ó ú ae ao eá eó iú oí uí >

• before a syllable with no e/ē/i/ī: a e io o u á é ío ó ú ae ao eá eó iú oío uío
• before a syllable with e/ē/i/ī: ai ei i oi ui ái éi í ói úi aei aoi eái eói iúi oí uí

Unstressed vowels reduce to a

Harmonization: a > e (when final) or i after i in the previous syllable

Sometimes:

• éa, ó, ói > ia, ua, uai

Old Eevo to Modern User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51

• aspirated stops start to become fricatives: /mʰ pʰ bʰ tʰ dʰ kʰ gʰ fʰ sʰ/ > /ʍ f v θ ð x ɣ h h/
• prenasalized stops coalesce
• /k g x ɣ/ > [c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ] allophonically before front vowels
• Vowel simplifications:
  • i(o) > /ɪ/; í(o) oí(o) uí(o) > /iː/
  • eá(i) eó(i) iú(i) merge into á(i) ó(i) ú(i), preventing further palatalization; /c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ/ become phonemic.
• Further monophthongization
  • ae ao > /eː oː/
  • ai ái ei éi oi ói ui úi aei aoi uai > /ɛ eː ɪ iː œ øː ʏ yː eː øː yə/
• Fricativization of aspirates complete; /c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ/ have become /tʃ dʒ ʃ j/
• a lot of z's from Netagin loans by this time; s eclipses to z and z lenites to /Ø/, by analogy
• unstressed vowels reduce to /ə/
• voiceless stops gain aspiration except after /s/
• /ʍ/ > /w/; /ɣ/ > /ː/ when not word-initial
• /oː uː/ front to /ɵː ʉː/ except before /l/ and possibly /r/
• /l/ > /ʀ~ʟ/; /r/ > /ɾ~l/
• Some dialects: /s/ > /ʃ/ before /p t k m n ŋ ʟ ɾ/

Phonology

Étaoin (Standard) User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is defined by a set of grammar rules, rather than by an accent (as long as it is intelligible to the majority of User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 speakers). Certain defined phonemes and phonetic processes can be observed within Standard User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 which in turn display diaphonemic variation based on the accent region.

The following describes User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 as spoken in Smeola, the capital of Duínidhe which is often called the "Duínidhe accent".

Stress

In native words, primary stress usually falls on the first syllable, except for some inflected prepositions. In loans, stress may not be initial; in that case, vowels before the stressed syllable are not reduced.

Consonants

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a relatively average consonant inventory of around 25 consonants. The phonology is unusual for having two liquids that do not distinguish "rhoticity".

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 consonants

		Labial	Dental/Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Glottal
Nasal		m /m/	n /n/	ñ /ɲ/	ŋ /ŋ/
Stop	fortis	p /p/	t /t/		c /k/		(ʔ)
	lenis	b /b/	d /d/		g /g/
Affricate	fortis		ts /ts/	tx, ċ /tʃ/
	lenis		/dz/	/dʒ/
Spirant	unvoiced	f /f/			/x/	/ħ/
	voiced	v /v/			/ɣ/	/ʕ/
Sibilant			s /s/	x /ʃ/			h /h/
Liquid			r /ɾ~ɺ~l/			l /ʟ/
Approximant				j /j/

Notes

• An initial /ʔ/ can be added to null initials (but is not mandatory).
• Voiceless stops are aspirated syllable-initially; voiced stops devoice after voiceless sounds.
• Smeola User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a form of Auslautverhärtung: voicing is neutralized for word-final stops but not word-final fricatives.
• /n, t, d, θ, ð/ are usually dental [n̪, t̪, d̪, θ, ð].
• /s, z/ are laminal alveolar [s, z].
• The coronal liquid /ɺ/ has 3 allophones broadly:
  • After a consonant, it is a postalveolar [ɾ̞].
  • Word-initially or intervocalically, it is a postalveolar [ɾ], [l̠̆] or [l̆].
  • Before a consonant or word-finally, it is a prevelar approximant [j̠] or a postalveolar [l̠] with varying resonances (though never velarized) depending on speaker.
• /ŋ, k, g/ are usually velar [ŋ, k, g], but are often labialized pharyngealized uvular [qʷ, qʷˁ, ɢʷˁ] next to /ʀ~ʟ/. /kʟ/ becomes an affricate or a trilled affricate [qχ].
• /ŋ, k, g, x, ɣ/ are prevelar before front vowels.
• The uvular liquid, transcribed as /ʟ/ for convenience' sake, has the following allophones:
  • The allophone occuring before vowels is a pharyngealized uvular flap [ɢ̆ᵝˤ] or trill [ʀᵝˤ] in careful speech which devoices to [χᵝˤ] after an aspirate or another fricative. In casual speech it tends to become an approximant [ʁᵝ] or velar [ɰᵝ].
  • The allophone occuring before consonants is phonetically a pharyngealized uvular approximant with compressed rounding [ʁ̞ᵝˤ~ʁ̠̞ᵝ]; the vocalic quality resembles [ɤ]. It is similar to the Philadelphia English vocalized L.
  • In classical singing and drama, [ɫ] is used in all positions.
• After a vowel, /ɣ/ colloquially disappears with compensatory lengthening of the vowel if the vowel is short (unless the /ɣ/ begins a stressed syllable.)

Fortis and lenis resonants

Certain conservative accents and dialects preserve to varying degrees the Old Eevo distinction between fortis and lenis resonants: /l L n N r R/. In fact, the Tumacaimh dialect has:

• /l/ > /ʁᵝˤ/
• /L/ > /l̪ˠ/
• /n/ > /ð̞̃/
• /N/ > /n/
• /r/ > /ɹ/
• /R/ > /ɾ/

Mutations

Consonant mutations

Grapheme	m	p	b	f	n	t	d	s*	z	x	r	ŋ	c	g	l	ħ	0
IPA	/m/	/p/	/b/	/f/	/n/	/t/	/d/	/s/	/z/	/ʃ/	/ɺ~l/	/ŋ/	/k/, /tʃ/	/g/, /dʒ/	/ʟ/	/h/	/ʔ/
Lenited	mh	ph	bh	fh	-	th	dh	sh	zh	-	-	-	ch	gh	-	-	h-
IPA	/v/	/f/	/v/	/h/	-	/ħ/	/ʕ/	/h/	silent	-	-	-	/x/, /ʃ/	/ɣ/, /j/	-	-	/h/
Eclipsed	-	bp	mb	bhf	-	dt	nd	zs	-	-	-	-	gc	ŋg	-	-	n-
IPA	-	/b/	/m/	/v/	-	/d/	/n/	/z/	-	-	-	/g/, /dʒ/	/ŋ/	-	-	/n/

^*The clusters written sp, st, sc do not mutate.

Vowels

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a vowel system with a complexity comparable to that of German, with 7 basic vowel qualities with a tense-lax distinction, and the effects of L-vocalization.

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 vowels

	Front				Central		Back
	unrounded		rounded		unrounded	rounded	unrounded	rounded
	short	long	short	long	short	long	short	short	long
Close	/ɪ/	/iː/	/ʏ/	/yː/	/ɨ/	/ʉː/		/ʊ/	[uː]1
Mid	/ɛ/	/eː/	/œ/	/øː/	/ə/	/ɵː/	[ɤˁ]	/ɔ/	[oː]1
Open					/a/	/aː/

¹ /ʉː, ɵː/ retain fully back allophones [uː, oː] before /ɾ~l/ in some accents, especially in Sceola User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51.

Diphthongs: /iə yə uə aw ɛj ɛw œj œw ɛ:j ɛ:w œ:j œ:w iəw yəw uəj/

The vowels /ə/ and /ɨ/ occur only in unstressed syllables; they merge before l.

L-colored vowels

L-colored vowels and diphthongs result from combinations of any vowels or diphthongs with the back liquid /ʟ/ (phonetic values are as in Smeola User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51):

• /iː/, /iə/ + /ʟ/ > /iʟ/ [iɤˁ]
• /ɪ/ + /ʟ/ > /ɪʟ/ [ɪɤˁ]
• /yː/, /yə/ + /ʟ/ > /yʟ/ /yɤˁ/
• /ʏ/ + /ʟ/ > /ʏʟ/ [ʏɤˁ]
• /ʊ/, /ʉː/, /uə/ + /ʟ/ > /ʊʟ/ [ʊˁː~ʊɤˁ]
• /eː/ + /ʟ/ > /eʟ/ [eɤˁ]
• /ɛ/ + /ʟ/ > /ɛʟ/ [ɛɤˁ]
• /øː/ + /ʟ/ > /øʟ/ [øɤˁ]
• /œ/ + /ʟ/ > /œʟ/ [œɤˁ]
• /ɔ/, /ɵː/ + /ʟ/ > /ɔʟ/ [ɔˁː~ɔɤˁ]
• /ɐ/, /aː/ + /ʟ/ > /ɑʟ/ [ɒˁː~ɑɤˁ]

Accents that are lambdic may realize the /ʟ/ in one of several ways (pharyngealization, nasalization, [ɴ], [ʀ]). Non-lambdic accents are those in which vocalization of l after vowels is complete; the L-coloring is purely a difference in vowel quality and displays no secondary articulation.

Notes

Close vowels

• /iː/ is close front unrounded [iː] (listen).
• /iə/ is phonetically [iə] (listen).
• /iʟ/ is phonetically [iːɤˁ] (listen).
• /yː/ is usually close near-front rounded [y̠ː] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
• /yə/ is phonetically [yə], [y̠ə] or [ʏə] (listen).
• /yʟ/ is phonetically [y̠ːɤˁ] (listen).
• /ʉː/ is somewhat retracted close central rounded [ʉ̠ː] (listen). Its rounding is protruded.
• /uə/ is phonetically [uə] or [ʊə] (listen). It is a monophthong [uː] for some speakers.
• /ʊʟ/ is near-close back rounded [ʊ̠ˁː] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
  • In careful speech, this is a diphthong [ʊ̠ɤˁ].
• /ɪ/ is near-close near-front unrounded [ɪ] (listen).
• /ʏ/ is near-close near-front rounded [ʏ] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
• /ʏʟ/ is phonetically [ʏɤˁ] (listen).
• /ʊ/ is near-close near-back rounded [ʊ] or back rounded [ʊ̠] (listen). Its rounding is protruded.

Mid vowels

• /eː/ is close-mid front unrounded [eː] (listen).
• /eʟ/ is phonetically [eːɤˁ] (listen).
• /øː/ is close-mid near-front rounded [ø̠ː] or mid front rounded [ø̞ː] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
• /øʟ/ is phonetically [ø̠ːɤˁ] (listen).
• /ɵː/ is somewhat retracted close-mid central rounded [ө̠ː] (listen). Its rounding is protruded.
• /ɔʟ/ is open-mid near-back rounded [ɔˁː] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
  • In careful speech, this is a diphthong [oɤˁ] or [ɔɤˁ].
• /ɛ/ is open-mid front unrounded [ɛ] or mid near-front unrounded [ɛ̽] (listen).
• /ɛʟ/ is phonetically [ɛ̞ɤˁ] (listen).
• /œ/ is open-mid near-front rounded [œ] (listen). Its rounding is compressed.
• /œʟ/ is phonetically [œɤˁ] or [ɞɤˁ] (listen).
• [ə] is mid central unrounded [ə]. It is often fronted [ə̟] in pausa.
• [ɤˁ] is close-mid compressed pharyngealized [ɤᵝˁ].
• /ɔ/ is open-mid back rounded [ɔ] or mid back rounded [o̞] (listen). Its rounding is protruded.

Open vowels

• /aː/ is central unrounded [äː] (listen); historically, upper-class accents used [ɑː].
• /a/ is near-open central unrounded [ɐ] (listen).
• /ɑʟ/ is most often phonetically a diphthong [ɑɤˁ] or [äɤˁ] (listen).

Umlaut

Vowels in the first syllable of roots may undergo i-mutation or umlaut or under the addition of some affixes.

Phonotactics

Allowed initial clusters in roots (in native words):

• bl br cl cn cr dl dr fl fr gl gn gr ml mn mr ŋl ŋr (pl) (pr) sc scl scr (sp) sl sm sn sŋ sr st tn tl tr

Some phonological rules

• unstressed /əwə/ > -ú- /ʉː/
• /ʏw/, /yəw/, /yːw/ > /ʉː/

Prosody

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 has a distinctive intonation paradigm. Within said paradigm, some accents (e.g. Smeola) can sound like a stereotypical Cork accent, while some accents (e.g. Óc Eo) sound more like Valspeak.

• In declarative sentences, the stressed syllable of the focus word (if there is no focused constituent, the last word) has a lower pitch than the immediately preceding syllable. ("...mid ꜜ LOW mid...") This originates from discursive uptalk in older forms of User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51, which has since generalized to all declarative sentences. A few accents, such as Tumacan accents, do not use this pattern.
• In interrogative sentences, the stressed syllable of the focus word has a higher pitch than the syllable immediately before. ("... mid ꜛ HIGH mid ... ?")
• In exclamations, the pattern is "... mid ꜜ LOW-HIGH mid ... !", possibly with a gradual drop to low pitch in the end. Angry or indignant questions also use an exclamatory intonation.

Dialectology

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is subject to a fair amount of accentual and dialectal variation due to the number of speakers.

/ʉː, ɵː/ retain fully back allophones before /ɾ~l/ in some accents, especially in Duínidhean accents.

Scádar accent

This dialect is most prominent in and around the Óc Eo (/ɵːk ɵː/ 'white rock', English: /ˈoʊk.oʊ/ "oak-oh") metropolitan area in Anbhair.

• l = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic
• /Vʟ/ = [Vɴ] before a consonant
• r = [l] in all positions
• /θ, ð/ = [ts, dz] when not before a plosive
• No Auslautverhärtung at all (except -ig and -igh)
  • Word-final -ig and -igh pronounced as [-ɪç].
• /ɛ, œ, ɔ/ > [ɪ, ʏ, ʊ] before nasals
• /ɛj/ > [aj]
• /a/ = [æ] before coronals
• /aː/ is backed to [ɑː~ɒː]

Cnólta accent

Spoken in the largely rural areas of Cnólta (/ˈknɔːˁtə/, English: /kəˈnɔːltə/ or /kəˈnoʊltə/). Stereotypically associated with backwardness and boorishness.

• l = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic
  • /Vʟ/ = [Ṽ~Vɰ̃]
• /tʃ, dʒ/ = [ts~tɕ, dz~dʑ]
• /eː, øː/ = [eə, øə]
• /eːj, øːj, ɛj, œj/ = [eː, øː, ɛː, œː]
• r is pronounced as a bunched [ɹ], which retracts preceding front vowels /ɪ, ɛ/ to /ɨ, ɜ/.
• /ʉː, ɵː, aw/ = [ʉu, ɵu, æu]
  • /ʉː, ɵː/ = [u:, o:] before r
• /aː/ = [æ:]
• /sp, st, sk, sm, sn, sŋ, sʟ, sɾ/ = [ʃp, ʃt, ʃk, ʃm, ʃn, ʃŋ, ʃʁ, ʃɹ]

Códha accent

Códha (/ˈkɵːðə/, English: /ˈkoʊðə/) is a Duínidhe accent. It is non-lambdic.

• l = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise:
  • /iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː]
  • /yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː]
  • /ʊʟ/ = [ʊː]
  • /eʟ/ = [eːɔ]
  • /ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ]
  • /øʟ/ = [øːɔ]
  • /œʟ/ = [œɔ]
  • /ɔʟ/ = [uː]
  • /aʟ/ = [ɒː]
• r = [ɾ] before a vowel, [l] before a consonant or word-finally
• /ʉː, ɵː/ = [uː, oː] before /ɾ/
• (other features)

Tumaca accent

A conservative accent used in the mountainous regions of Tumaca /tʊməkə/ in Duínidhe; continuous with Tumacan.

• /b d dʒ g/ are devoiced to (unaspirated) [p t c k] in all positions.
• /tʃ, dʒ, ʃ/ = [c, ɟ, ç]
• /n, ʟ, ɾ/ distinguish between "fortis" or unlenited [n̪, ɫ, r] and "lenis" or lenited [ð̞̃, ʀ, z].
• th, dh are [ħ, z] word-initially and become [h, z] word-finally.
• /ʉ, ɵ/ are always fully back [uː, oː].

Tecadh an bhFuŋŋ accent

non-lambdic, L-colored vowels similar to Códha

• l = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise:
• r = [l] in all positions
  • /iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː]
  • /yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː]
  • /ʊʟ/ = [uː]
  • /eʟ/ = [eːɔ]
  • /ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ]
  • /øʟ/ = [øːɔ]
  • /œʟ/ = [œɔ]
  • /ɔʟ/ = [oː]
  • /aʟ/ = [ɑə~ɔ]
• /a/ = [æ]
• /aː/ = [ɑː]

Éise accent

This accent is primarily used in the Éise (/ˈiːsə/) province (including the famous city Flian).

Vowel length is mainly realized as tenseness:

• /ɪ i ʏ y ʉ ʊ/
• /ɛ e œ ø ə ɵ ɔ/
• /ɐ ɑ/
• /iə yə uə aw æj œj ej øj/
• /Vʟ/ = [Ṽ~Vɰ̃] (nasalization)
• r = [l] in all positions
• ú ó backed before r
• In sp st sc, the s is weakened so that these are voiceless unaspirated [p t k/tS] initially and preaspirated [hp ht hk/htS] medially. These are distinguished from b d g by having a higher pitch.
• Reduced ai = [ʊ], reduced i = [ʏ]

Phormatin accent

The majority accent of User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 native speakers in Phormatin is a lot like Éise, except most notably the short vowels /ɛ œ ɔ/ raise to /ɪ ʏ ʊ/ before nasals and /ʟ/. Lax vowels are also slightly laxer than in Éise; Éise speakers often hear Phormatian lax vowels as schwas.

"Stage User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51"

So-called "Stage User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51" is a semi-artificial standard developed for use in classical singing and other elevated stage performances.

• /ʟ/ is always pronounced [ɫ]
• /ɾ/ may be trilled [r]
• Short vowels before single C + V - the C is allophonically geminated
• Non-lambdic vowels are close to their Smeola counterparts, except /aː/ is pronounced [ɑː~ɒː] (close to its Classical Netagin counterpart)
• /ɨ/ is pronounced [ɪ]

Early Modern User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51

• ae/ái, aoi, ao were pronounced /ɛː, œː, ɔː/ as opposed to é, ói, ó /eː, øː, oː/; these two sets have merged to /eː, øː, ɵː/ in most modern dialects.
• /ɨ/ was pronounced [ɪ].

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns are classed into two genders, masculine (reist ŋullán /ˈɾɪst ˈŋʊʟaːn/) and feminine (reist dhéán /ˈɾɪst ˈðeːaːn/); they are also inflected in two numbers (singular and plural) and three states (indefinite, definite, construct). There are some trends in gender assignment of nouns: for example, substances tend to be masculine, and abstract concepts and processes tend to be feminine. The construct suffix is usually -adh/-edh for singular nouns and -ann/-enn for plural nouns; however, for Netagin loans no suffix is used for the singular construct.

There are no possessive suffixes, unlike in Thensarian or other Talmic languages. If the possessor is a pronoun, the disjunctive form of the pronoun is used with the construct state: e.g. suaradh scainedh ná 'my friend's house'.

már 'tree' (masculine, declension 1)

Number→ State↓	Singular	Plural
Indefinite	már	máir
Definite	an már	na máir
Construct	máradh	máirenn

búta 'cave' (masculine, declension 1)

Number→ State↓	Singular	Plural
Indefinite	búta	bútaí
Definite	an búta	na bútaí
Construct	bútadh	bútaíonn

scain 'friend' (masculine, declension 2)

Number→ State↓	Singular	Plural
Indefinite	scain	scaine
Definite	an scain	na scaine
Construct	scainedh	scainenn

sert 'pole' (feminine, declension 3)

Number→ State↓	Singular	Plural
Indefinite	sert	sertar
Definite	an zsert	na sertar
Construct	sertadh	sertann

Adjectives

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 adjectives have three principal parts: the predicative (the unmarked form), the masculine absolute plural form and the feminine absolute plural form.

The predicative determines:

• the indefinite and definite singular, which are the same as the predicative (modulo mutations for gender and definiteness).
• the construct singular: specifically, if the adjective ends in a -th or a -dh, the suffix -adh is not added in the construct singular.

The feminine absolute plural determines:

• the construct plural

árd 'big'

Number→ State↓	Singular	Plural
Predicative	árd
Indefinite	árd (m.) h-árd (f.)	áird (m.) árdar (f.)
Definite	árd (m.) n-árd (f.)
Construct	árdadh	árdann

caraimh 'human'

Number→ State↓	Singular	Plural
Predicative	caraimh
Indefinite	caraimh (m.) charaimh (f.)	carú (m.) carúr (f.)
Definite	caraimh (m.) gcaraimh (f.)
Construct	carúdh	carúnn

Degree

The comparative form of adjectives is formed with the suffix -ta/-te /-tə/ which becomes -ata/-eata /-ətə/ after t, d, th, dh and -tha/-the /θə/ after b, p, g, c. The comparandum is marked with the particle rá /ɾaː/ 'than'.

The superlative is formed with the suffix -as /-əs/.

Forming adverbs

Adverbs are formed by adding go 'with' before the predicative form of the adjective.

Pronouns

Personal

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 personal pronouns

	1sg	2sg	2pol	3sg.m	3sg.f	1pl.ex	1pl.in	2pl	3pl
Conjunctive	ná	fiar	dTlá	hú	hí	cámh	céid	séid	hár
Disjunctive	ná	iar	dTlá	ú	í	ámh	chéid	héid	ár

The disjunctive iar is often shortened to 'r in informal speech.

To emphasize a pronoun or an inflected preposition, -na/-ne is added to the pronoun.

Politeness

In archaic usage, séid is used as an honorific pronoun when speaking to a person of high social standing. In modern User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51, this usage is restricted to e.g.:

• books, movies, games, ... when depicting the past or past-like settings (such as historical fiction or fantasy)
• when addressing a deity or a king
• in BDSM contexts when a "slave" refers to their "master".

In modern User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51, fiar and séid are used for family members, friends, children or teens, animals, people on the Internet, or to address people of lower social position, and dTlá is used to an addressee of higher position and for strangers; for example, it is considered acceptable for a professor to address his students, or for a boss his employees, using familiar pronouns.

Correlatives

• mé = this
• cé = that
• tá = what?
• tua = who?
• tach = where?
• tuín, tiann = why?
• tér = how?
• tís = when?

Prepositions

Prepositions are inflected, as in the ancestral Thensarian. The pronoun dTlá is not fused with the preposition, however.

ebh = 'after', ebhta = near/next to

ful = 'around' (fulan, fulas, fula, fuli, fulam, fulad, fulac, fular)

The sequences le + an and de + an contract to len /ʟɛn/ and den /dɛn/.

The 1sg and 2sg forms of prepositions are stressed on the last syllable; all other forms have initial stress.

Inflection of prepositions

	1sg	2sg.m	3sg.m	3sg.f	1pl.ex	1pl.in	2pl	3pl
de-L, d'- 'in, at'	dian	dias	diú	dí	diam	diad	diac	diar
ar 'on'	aran	aras	or	ari	aram	arad	arac	arar
geil 'from'	geilan	geilas	gela	geili	geilem	geiled	geilec	geiler
go 'with'	guan	góis	gú	gúi	guam	guad	guac	guar
le-L 'to'	lion	leis	leo	léi	liom	liod	lioc	lior
nae 'with (instrumental)'	naen	naes	nae	naí	naem	naed	naec	naer
ŋal 'before'	chaoin	chaois	chao	chaoi	chaoim	chaoid	chaoic	chaoir
ro (ergative)	rún	rús	rú	rúi	rúm	rúd	rúc	rúr

Ar 'on' can be used to indicate obligation, similarly to Irish and Hebrew:

Aran an cáin le descach.

on-1SG DEF.SG.M food to eat-VN

I have to eat the food.

Verbs

Old Eevo had a verb system with complex alternations, almost comparable to that of Old Irish. Modern User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 simplified this system substantially, leaving behind a mixture of synthetic forms (used without a subject pronoun) and analytic forms (used with a subject noun or pronoun), similar to the Modern Irish system. However, many basic verbs are irregular, with many "principal parts"; some common verbs even retain the Old Eevo allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.

Ex:

• cáigh ná 'I eat'; cáir 'you eat'
• ní dhesc ná 'I don't eat'; ní dhescar 'you don't eat'

Present tense

The present tense is conjugated as follows. For some verbs, umlaut occurs with certain affixes. For verb stems ending in -gh or -igh, the -gh or -igh is deleted: tnáigh hú < *tnáighigh hú 'he believes'.

Template:Col-3

Present tense
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	STEM-((a)igh) ná STEM-an/en	STEM-ú
1.in	-	STEM-((a)igh) céid STEM-ad/ed (poetic)
2	STEM-(e)ar	STEM-((a)igh) séid STEM-as/es (poetic)
3.m	STEM-((a)igh) hú/hí	STEM-((a)igh) hár
Impersonal	STEM-a1ra/-e1ra

Present tense of the verb molaigh 'thank'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	mol(aigh) ná molan	molú
1.in	-	mol(aigh) géid molad (poetic)
2	molar	mol(aigh) séid molas (poetic)
3.m	mol(aigh) hú mol(aigh) hí	mol(aigh) hár
Impersonal	molara

Present tense of the verb idigh 'lie in a place'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	id(igh) ná iden	idú
1.in	-	id(igh) céid ided (poetic)
2	idear	id(igh) zéid ides (poetic)
3.m	id(igh) hú/hí	id(igh) hár
Impersonal	idre

¹ The buffer -e- is added when the previous consonant is a cluster, r or l.

The -igh ending in analytic forms must be deleted when a preverbal particle such as ní 'not', ri 'REL', bhfá 'COMP': molaigh hú 'he thanks', but ní mhol hú 'he does not thank'. For verbs that have a separate stem for imperatives, the imperative stem is used with a preverbal particle. The -igh may also be deleted or added in poetry. This is a remnant of Middle User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 where there was a distinction between molamh hú 'he thanks (once)' (dependent mola hú or mol hú) and molaigh hú 'he thanks (regularly)'.

Present progressive

Laidh ná de dhescach = I'm eating

Níl ná de dhescach = I'm not eating

Imperfect tense

To form the imperfect tense, the particle go is used before the verb, and the verb undergoes lenition.

• go mhola ná 'I used to thank'
• go h-airde hí 'she used to lie'

Preterite tense

The suffix -ín is added to the preterite stem to form the past participle. The subject is preceded by an ergative marker lu. For the impersonal the subject is simply omitted. This is the standard way of forming the preterite in Étaoin User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51.

Déicín luc rúin.

I ate/have eaten a fruit.

Pluperfect tense

g'lao + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.

• g'lao moilín ná 'I had thanked'
• g'lao fairdín hí 'she had lain'

Future tense

The future tense is formed by suffixing the future marker t and conjugating the result like a present tense verb, except that the analytic form is invariably -ta/-te.

The future marker -t- becomes -at-/-et- after t, d, th, dh or any time when a resulting cluster does not consist of two obstruents and would violate the sonority hierarchy (voiced C between two voiceless C's) and -th- after b, p, g, c.

Future perfect tense

fácht + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.

Jussive

The jussive is mainly used for third-person imperatives and sometimes to specify a wish or a requirement.

Modern User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 just uses molúr in every person: molúr ná, mólúr fiar, etc. The passive form is molrúr.

This form uses dá-L for the negative, not tir-L.

Geilan bhfá ŋgríciúr hí guan.

I want her to stay with me.

Imperative

Template:Col-3

Imperative
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	-	-
1.in	-	STEM-ad!
2	STEM!	STEM-as!
3.m	-	-
Impersonal	-

Imperative of the verb mol 'thank'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	-	-
1.in	-	molad!
2	mol!	molas!
3.m	-	-
Impersonal	-

Imperative of the verb id 'lie in a place'
	Singular	Plural
1.ex	-	-
1.in	-	airded!
2	aird!	airdes!
3.m	-	-
Impersonal	-

The polite 2nd person equivalents are molúr dTlá and airdúr dTlá.

The imperative stem is used in a Hebrew-style "infinitive absolute" construction: deasc déctha hú ú = 'he will indeed eat it'

Verbal noun

The verbal noun serves many important syntactic functions.

Some markers for verbal nouns:

• -ach/-ech
• -as/-es
• -t/-ta/-te
• ablaut
• bare stem
• -a/-e
• -ú
• umlaut/-e

Emphatic forms

To emphasize the subject the clitic -nna is added to:

• the verb if the verb is in a synthetic form;
• the subject if the verb is in an analytic form.

Numbers

• 0: ħaŋíts /ha'ŋi:ts/
• 1: ciamh /tʃiəw/
• 2: tioth /tɪθ/
• 3: náidh /neːð/
• 4: daoibh /døːv/
• 5: soil /sœʟ/
• 6: stámh /staːw/
• 7: ruai /ɾyə/
• 8: lóidh /ʀøːð/
• 9: bairbh /bɛlv/
• 10: uar /uəl/
• 11: eáichemh /eːʃəw/
• 12: cnae /kneː/

Numbers must be used with singular nouns. The numbers ciamh comes after the noun, while other numbers come before it.

The suffix -ar/-er is used for 'nth', and -tar/-ter is used for 'n times'.

1/n = n-bhedh = "n-part" (half = drá)

Derivational morphology

Below are some common User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 derivational affixes. In addition to derivational affixes, User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 uses compound nouns like German; also, some productive prefixes has been re-analyzed into existence from Old Eevo prefix combinations. This allowed User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 to coin new native words instead of using loanwords.

		From...
		Noun	Verb	Adjective or Determiner	Adverb
To...	Noun
	Verb
	Adjective or Determiner
	Adverb				-

• -a/e (f): nominalizer of verbs and adjectives
• -ach/-ech, -achar/-echar (f): verbal noun (the most common suffix)
• -acht/-echt = forms adjectives from verbs
• -ám, -áma (m/f): augmentative (from Netagin)
• -án/-eán, -áin/-eáin: adjectivizer
• -ar, -ara: augmentative (Talmic)
• -(a)im, -(a)imer = female suffix
  • -óiŋ > -óiŋim
• -ú (f.): abstract nouns; -hood
• -ín, -íne = used to form adjectives in Netagin loans; also used with native words sometimes
• -ín, -íní = patient, passive participle
• -aí/-í/-aíche/-íche = diminutive
• -gán, -gáin = -able
• é- = co-, con-, together
• for- = causative
• má-L: un-
• mí-L: mis-
• ní-L (hyphenated): non-
• -óiŋ, -óiŋe (m) = agent suffix
• sin-L: "well"
• Nouns can often be verbed

Syntax

Main article: User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51/Syntax

Vocabulary

User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 is relatively purist; most User:IlL/Spare pages 1/51 vocabulary is of Talmic origin. However, a non-trivial fraction of the vocabulary is loaned from Netagin (either Classical Netagin or Koine Netagin) and, to a lesser extent, Clofabic. Most recently, Clofabosin words are entering the language, mostly in the domains of information technology and culture.

Kinship terms

• annar, annta = father
• iamh, iamhar = mother
• có, cótha = son

Phrasebook

• An Saichte leis! (to one person)/An Saichte lec! (to ≥2 people) = Hello! (lit. "the spirit-complex [give blessing] to you")
• Moile! = Thank you!
• Le h-éganta! = Goodbye! (lit. "to meeting")
• Arbára ná [NAME]. = My name is [NAME].
• Stánsa boire leis! = Happy Stannsa!
• Sŋaoichré bhoire leis! = Happy birthday!
• Ither huiŋeán lion. = Nice to meet you.
• Aeilligh ná iar. / Aeilligh ná 'r. = I love you.
• Ní thnáighin leis! = I don't believe you!
• Brós na dellar iar guirenta. = Lower your standards. ("Put your eyes lower.")
• Suinmigh hú = it makes sense ("it tunes")
• [repeat verb] = Yes, X does [verb]. (reply to Is [verb] ... ?)
• [repeat adjective] = Yes, X is [adjective]. (reply to Is [adjective] ... ?)
• [inflected form of de] = Yes, X is Y.
• Ní + lenition + [verb/adjective/inflected form of de] = No.
• Níl. = No. (reply to Is laidh ... ?)

Sample texts

E pur si muove!

Sóibh argann argannaigh hú!