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==Positional verbs== | ==Positional verbs== | ||
Positional verbs are semantically static verbs (dynamic in their causative and interior forms) that are formed by a base root that never appears alone otherwise and a prefix; the root denotes three basic states of position (to be upright, to be seated, to lie), while 24 different prefixes convey the meaning of placement (on, over, under, near, far...). | |||
The complete list of Chlouvānem positional verbs follows: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Prefix !! To stay (tiā-/tim-) !! To be seated (mirt-) !! To lie (ut-) | |||
|- | |||
| Generic position ('''ta-''') || tatiāke || tamirte || tokte | |||
|- | |||
| On, over, above ('''ān-''') || āntiāke || āmmirte || ānukte | |||
|- | |||
| Under, below ('''šu-''') || šutiāke || šumirte || šūkte | |||
|- | |||
| In the middle of, between ('''khl-''') || khlatiāke || khlumirte || khlukte | |||
|- | |||
| Together with, among ('''gin-''') || gintiāke || gimmirte || ginukte | |||
|- | |||
| Within inside ('''nī-''') || nītiāke || nīmirte || nyukte | |||
|- | |||
| Near ('''ū(b)-''') || ūtiāke || ūmirte || ūbukte | |||
|- | |||
| Far ('''bis-''') || bistiāke || bismirte || bisukte | |||
|- | |||
| Physically attached; mounting an animal/a bike ('''tad-''') || tandiāke || tadmirte || tadukte | |||
|- | |||
| Hanging from; upside down ('''įs-''') || įstiāke || įsmirte || įsukte | |||
|- | |||
| In(to), inside ('''na(ñ)-''') || natiāke || namirte || nañukte | |||
|- | |||
| Outside, outwards ('''kau-''') || kautiāke || kaumirte || kavukte | |||
|- | |||
| Opposite to; somewhere else ('''viṣ-''') || viṣṭyāke || viṣmirte || viṣukte | |||
|- | |||
| Around ('''kami-''') || kamitiāke || kamimirte || kamyukte | |||
|- | |||
| Behind ('''prь-''') || pritiāke || primirte || priukte | |||
|- | |||
| In front of ('''mai-''') || maitiāke || maimirte || mayukte | |||
|- | |||
| In a corner; on a border; at the limits of ('''vai-''') || vaitiāke || vaimirte || vayukte | |||
|- | |||
| Next to; alongside ('''sāṭ-''') || sāṭṭyāke || sāṭmirte || sāṭukte | |||
|- | |||
| In the center of ('''lā(d)-''') || lātiāke || lāmirte || lādukte | |||
|- | |||
| On the left ('''vyā-''') || vyātiāke || vyāmirte || vyokte | |||
|- | |||
| On the right ('''māha-''') || māhatiāke || māhamirte || māhokte | |||
|- | |||
| Facing; towards ('''pid-''') || pindiāke || pidmirte || pidukte | |||
|- | |||
| Facing inside; near the center; <small>''mot.:'' convergent</small> ('''nalь-''') || nalьtiāke || nalьmirte || naliukte | |||
|- | |||
| Facing outside; far from the center; <small>''mot.:'' divergent</small> ('''vād-''') || vāndiāke || vādmirte || vādukte | |||
|} | |||
As for conjugation, ''-mirt-'' and ''-ut-'' are regular class 2 athematic roots, e.g.: | |||
* ''āmmirte'' "to be seated on": ''āmmertē, āmmirtek, ānimirta'' | |||
* ''ānukte'' "to lie on": ''ānotē, ānutek, ānuɂuta'' | |||
''-tiā-'' is a vocalic root with the -ьā-～-im- alternation in the present indicative and in the subjunctive: | |||
* ''āntiāke'' "to stand on": ''āntimē, āntiāk, ānatiā''; <small>SUBJ.IMPF.</small> ''āntimīti'', <small>SUBJ.PF.</small> ''āntimevite'' | |||
===Meanings of forms=== | |||
The basic (exterior non-causative) forms of these verbs all have a static meaning and are always intransitive: | |||
: ''tatimu'' – I am standing. | |||
: ''kamilire lædьle āmmertē'' – (s)he is sitting on the blue chair. | |||
: ''phēcam eṇāt švotē'' – the cat is lying under the table. | |||
The interior forms have a dynamic, middle-voice meaning: | |||
: ''tatiairu'' – I stand up. | |||
: ''kamilire lædьlom āmmertire'' – (s)he is sitting down on the blue chair. | |||
: ''phēcam eṇom švotire'' – the cat is lying down under the table. | |||
The causative exterior forms have a dynamic, causative meaning, while the causative interior ones are morphologically possible but practically never used: | |||
: ''kåmbu tatetiaildu'' – I put the bag down [in a standing position]. | |||
: ''samin tatemairtildede'' – they two seat the baby down. | |||
: ''kåmbu tatayautildu'' – I put the bag down [in a horizontal position]. | |||
The English verb "to remain" is translated by ''lįnake'' (class 2 thematic). For the ''-tiā-'' verbs, it is used alone (with the appropriate prefix), while for the other two columns it is used as an auxiliary together with the infinitive of the positional verb: | |||
: ''lęnu'' – I remain [standing]. | |||
: ''kamilire lædьle āmmirtelęnē'' – (s)he remains sitting on the blue chair. | |||
: ''phēcam eṇāt švuktelęnē'' – the cat remains lying under the table. | |||
===Case usage=== | |||
Case usage depends on a mostly semantic criterion that distinguishes two possible position types: '''absolute''' (or ''real'') position (in Chl. ''dhusmire tajalya'') and '''relative''' position (''pritimē tajalya''). Absolute position is denoted by the locative case, while relative position is denoted by the exessive.<br/>The criterion is semantic, as shown by a sentence like ''jñūmat ūnime primertu'' "I'm sitting in the street, behind the tree", where the prefix in the verb ''primirte'' (to sit behind) refers to being behind the object marked for relative position (''jñūm'', tree), while absolute position marks the overall place (''ūnima'', street). | |||
In some cases, the two may contrast with relative position marking non-inclusion in the place, see e.g.: | |||
: ''dvārme vaimertu'' – I'm sitting in a corner of the room. (absolute position) | |||
: ''dvārmat vaimertu'' – I'm sitting in a corner outside the room. (relative position) | |||
With the ''ān-'' prefix, the two different cases often have the same difference in meaning that English expresses with "on" vs. "over, above": | |||
: ''eṇē ānotē'' – it lies on the table. | |||
: ''eṇāt ānotē'' – it lies over the table. | |||
=====Positional prefixes as derivational affixes===== | |||
Positional prefixes are commonly used as derivational affixes, often with only a figurative representation of the positional meaning. Some examples: | |||
* '''mai-''' (in front of) is often used for something done ''in advance'', or ''to someone''. It is also used for iteratives (e.g. ''maimilge'' "to keep hearing" (but also "to hear in advance")) | |||
* '''ān-''' (above) and '''na(ñ)-''' (in, inside) may be used as intensives (but ''cam-'' is more common) or inceptives. | |||
* '''šu-''' (down, below) (and also ''kau'' (outside), especially for states) may be used with a terminative meaning. | |||
The root ''męlь-'' (to give) is a good example for this: from the basic verb ''męlike'' we can find derivations such as ''primęlike'' (to give back <small>(exterior)</small>, to return <small>(interior)</small>), ''maimęlike'' (to prepare), ''āmmęlike'' (to dedicate oneself (mentally) to), ''namęlike'' (to dedicate oneself (physically) to), or ''šumęlike'' (to renounce). An inceptive/terminative pair is ''pugle'' (to sleep) → ''nampugle'' (to fall asleep) and ''kaupugle'' (to wake up). | |||
=====Positions without positional verbs===== | |||
Positional prefixes may be used to express positions without position verbs. There are three possible strategies. | |||
The morphologically easiest is to simply attach the positional prefix in front of the verb and express that position with the locative, so for example we have: | |||
: ''lilǣ dvārme nateyašu'' "I read in my room". | |||
: ''lilǣ dvārme natekilįm'' "we talk in my room". | |||
However, while always correct, there may be some ambiguities because of the use of positional prefixes as derivational ones: the latter example shows one of these ambiguities, as ''nakulke'' means both "to talk (in somewhere)" and "to begin to talk/speak". Another strategy, very common in speech, is to use the appropriate positional verb followed by the action verb. This has the advantage of showing the type of position: | |||
: ''lilǣ dvārme nañotu yašute'' "I read while laying in my room" (note that "to lay in one's room" idiomatically means "to lay on the bed"). | |||
: ''lilǣ dvārme namerįm kilįṃte'' "we talk while sitting in my room". | |||
The third strategy, correct but more proper in formal writings than in speech is to put the position as the derived noun (in ''-timas'' / ''-mirtas'' / ''-utis'') in the locative and the location in the genitive: | |||
: ''liliai dvārmi nañutie yašute'' "I read while laying in my room" (lit. "in a sitting position in the inside of my room"). | |||
: ''liliai dvārmi namirte kilįṃte'' "we talk while sitting in my room". | |||
Note that some locations are often expressed with the last one anyway, especially if they're idiomatic — a notable example being ''yųljavyī ūtime/ūmirte'' "standing/sitting in the kitchen", as ''yųljavyāh'' originally meant "fire for [cooking] food" and while it later was extended to "kitchen" the location is still expressed as such ("in the kitchen" = "near the fire"). | |||
==Motion verbs== | ==Motion verbs== | ||