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====Transitivity and inversion==== | ====Transitivity and inversion==== | ||
Transitivity is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. | Transitivity is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The glosses saying TOP are a simplification of a concept that will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs. | ||
{| | {| | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao bahbo e<u>hh</u>ea | |phrase=ao go bahbo e<u>hh</u>ea | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿je̞çˈçɛ̯ɑː] | ||
|gloss=ao dog PROX-<u>TR</u>-see.ACT.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TR</u>-see.ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog | |translation=Ao is looking at the dog | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao bahbo e<u>ss</u>ea | |phrase=ao go bahbo e<u>ss</u>ea | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː] | ||
|gloss=ao dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog | |translation=Ao is being watched by the dog | ||
}} | }} | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao bahbo od<u>sãmm</u>oyya | |phrase=ao go bahbo od<u>sãmm</u>oyya | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃mˌmʊʝ.ʝɐ] | ||
|gloss=ao dog DIST-TR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND | ||
|translation=Ao gave the dog water to drink | |translation=Ao gave the dog water to drink | ||
}} | }} | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=meh<u>da</u> | |phrase=ao go bahbo meh<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿ˈme̞ħ.t̠ɐ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃mˌmʊʝ.ʝɐ] | ||
|gloss=fire-<u>LOC</u> | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>LOC</u> DIST-TR-water-consume.CAUS.IND | ||
|translation=Ao gave the dog water to drink by the fire | |translation=Ao gave the dog water to drink by the fire | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate | ||
| ''bahbo ahhoo'' "dogs eat it" | | ''bahbo go ahhoo'' "dogs eat it" | ||
| ''bahbo assoo'' "dogs are eaten" | | ''bahbo go assoo'' "dogs are eaten" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Inanimate | ! Inanimate | ||
| ''sãã ahhoo'' "water is drunk" | | ''sãã sa ahhoo'' "water is drunk" | ||
| ''*sãã assoo'' (ungrammatical) | | ''*sãã sa assoo'' (ungrammatical) | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Topicalisation=== | ===Topicalisation=== | ||
New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. | New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus will also receive a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate | ||
| ''ao <u>bahbo</u> ohhea'' "Ao was looking at the dog" | | ''ao go <u>bahbo</u> ohhea'' "Ao was looking at the dog" | ||
| ''<u>bahbo</u> ao ossea'' "it was the dog Ao was looking at" | | ''<u>bahbo go</u> ao ossea'' "it was the dog Ao was looking at" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Inanimate | ! Inanimate | ||
| ''ao <u>sãã</u> ohhoo'' "Ao who was drinking water" | | ''ao go <u>sãã</u> ohhoo'' "Ao who was drinking water" | ||
| ''<u>sãã</u> ao ohhoo'' "it was water Ao was drinking" | | ''<u>sãã sa</u> ao ohhoo'' "it was water Ao was drinking" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=[oo oahdago bahbo ossoyya]<sup>1</sup> [ee oahdago esseana]<sup>2</sup> | |phrase=[oo oahdago bahbo go ossoyya]<sup>1</sup> [ee oahdago esseana]<sup>2</sup> | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔu̯oː‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ. | |IPA=[ˈʔu̯oː‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿ˌɣo̞‿wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊʝ.ʝɐ‿ˈji̯eː‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː.n̠ɐ] | ||
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.IND]<sup>1</sup> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND]<sup>2</sup> | |gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.IND]<sup>1</sup> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND]<sup>2</sup> | ||
|translation=[today I saw]<sup>2</sup> [the dog that you fed yesterday]<sup>1</sup> | |translation=[today I saw]<sup>2</sup> [the dog that you fed yesterday]<sup>1</sup> | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=boonas bahbo | |phrase=boonas bahbo go | ||
|IPA=[ˈbu̯oː.n̠ɐs̠‿ˈpɑ̞ħ. | |IPA=[ˈbu̯oː.n̠ɐs̠‿ˈpɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿ˌɣʊ] | ||
|gloss=grow.TRANS.IND-ATTR dog | |gloss=grow.TRANS.IND-ATTR dog TOP:ACT | ||
|translation=a large dog | |translation=a large dog | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|phrase=oadas ao ammõõ bo | |phrase=oadas ao ammõõ bo | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑ̞ː.ðɐz̠‿ˈɑːʊ̯‿ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ] | |IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑ̞ː.ðɐz̠‿ˈɑːʊ̯‿ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ] | ||
|gloss=shine.STAT.IND-ATTR ao POSS-head | |gloss=shine.STAT.IND-ATTR ao POSS-head TOP:CRESC | ||
|translation=Ao's fair hair | |translation=Ao's fair hair | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|phrase=ammõõ bo | |phrase=ammõõ bo | ||
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ] | |IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ] | ||
|gloss=POSS-head | |gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC | ||
|translation=hair (on the head) | |translation=hair (on the head) | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|phrase=ammõõ la | |phrase=ammõõ la | ||
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ] | |IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ] | ||
|gloss=POSS-head | |gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT | ||
|translation=head (on the body) | |translation=head (on the body) | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|phrase=ammõõ go | |phrase=ammõõ go | ||
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵑɡʊ] | |IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵑɡʊ] | ||
|gloss=POSS-head | |gloss=POSS-head TOP:ACT | ||
|translation=head (detached from the body) | |translation=head (detached from the body) | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|phrase=ao ammõõ bo oada | |phrase=ao ammõõ bo oada | ||
|IPA=[ʔɑːʊ̯‿ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ] | |IPA=[ʔɑːʊ̯‿ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ] | ||
|gloss=ao POSS-head | |gloss=ao POSS-head TOP:CRESC shine.STAT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao's hair is fair | |translation=Ao's hair is fair | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsa | |phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsa | ||
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐ] | |IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐ] | ||
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head | |gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TR-hand.FREQ.ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair | |translation=Ao is braiding my hair | ||
}} | }} | ||
Since the locative verbs are only necessary when introducing new information, this ties neatly into the established system of topicalisation by fronting and so the net effect is that this limitation does not make much of a difference to normal syntax. Nominals can then be unambiguously reüsed without the classifying verb as the information is thenceforth known from the previously established context. Note that if the classified nominal had been animate in the above example (''mõõ'' is not) inversion would have been necessary in order to specify it as the patient rather than the agent as usual. | Since the locative verbs are only necessary when introducing new information, this ties neatly into the established system of topicalisation by fronting and so the net effect is that this limitation does not make much of a difference to normal syntax. Nominals can then be unambiguously reüsed without the classifying verb as the information is thenceforth known from the previously established context. Note that if the classified nominal had been animate in the above example (''mõõ'' is not) inversion would have been necessary in order to specify it as the patient rather than the agent as usual. | ||
Unstressed locatives are only less commonly applied to the pronominal-like ''ee'' "this", ''oo'' "that", ''nõõ'' "what" and ''mao'' "none". | |||
===Specification=== | ===Specification=== | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao algoo | |phrase=ao go algoo | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞‿ʔɬ̠̩ˈku̯oː] | ||
|gloss=ao AND-LOC:ACT.STAT.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT AND-LOC:ACT.STAT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao moves (away) | |translation=Ao moves (away) | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao aŋgoo | |phrase=ao go aŋgoo | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞‿ʔŋ̩ˈɡu̯oː] | ||
|gloss=ao VEN-LOC:ACT.STAT.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT VEN-LOC:ACT.STAT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao moves (hither) | |translation=Ao moves (hither) | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao negoo | |phrase=ao go negoo | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː] | ||
|gloss=ao SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao is below | |translation=Ao is below | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao nelgoo | |phrase=ao go nelgoo | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ɲɪɬˈku̯oː] | ||
|gloss=ao SUB-MOT-LOC:ACT.STAT.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-MOT-LOC:ACT.STAT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao moves down | |translation=Ao moves down | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ahda | |phrase=ahda sa | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ. | |IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐ‿ˌz̠ɐ] | ||
|gloss=ocean-LOC | |gloss=ocean-LOC TOP:LIQ | ||
|translation=in the ocean; at sea | |translation=in the ocean; at sea | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|phrase=ahda la | |phrase=ahda la | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐ‿ˌɮɐ] | |IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐ‿ˌɮɐ] | ||
|gloss=ocean-LOC | |gloss=ocean-LOC TOP:LIQ | ||
|translation=by the ocean | |translation=by the ocean | ||
}} | }} | ||