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==Verbs (''daradhaus'')==
==Verbs (''daradhaus'')==
: ''Main article: [[Chlouvānem/Verbs|Chlouvānem verbs]]''
The Chlouvānem verb (''daradhūs'', pl. ''daradhaus'') is the most inflected part of speech; its most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles.
The Chlouvānem verb (''daradhūs'', pl. ''daradhaus'') is the most inflected part of speech; its most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles.
The first and most important division we can find in Chlouvānem verbs is the distinction - a category called, with noticeable metaphorical use, '''''chlærim''''' (light) by native grammarians - between '''exterior '''(''kauyāva'') and '''interior''' (''nañyāva'') verbs. This may at first seem a voice system, but it must be distinguished from the true voices in Chlouvānem conjugation. The difference between them is mostly lexical: native grammarians distinguish exterior verbs as describing "activities or states that involve interactions with outside the self", and interior verbs as affecting principally the self. Exterior verbs are those we could most easily compare to active verbs in English, while interior verbs are a somewhat "catch-all" category including many distinct meanings, most notably middle-voice, reflexive and reciprocal ones, but also all adjectival verbs as well as peculiar and somewhat independent meanings for some verbs. Many verbs can be conjugated both as exterior and as interior and they often have differences in meaning - e.g. ''gṇyauke ''means “to give birth” when exterior and “to be born” when interior - commonly, the interior has the intransitive meaning and the exterior the transitive one - cf. ''lęlširu'' "I shake" vs. ''lęlšute'' "I shake (something)".
: ''→ See [[Chlouvānem/Exterior_and_interior_verbs|Chlouvānem exterior and interior verbs]] for a more thorough explanation of these forms.''
Potentially every Chlouvānem verb form, no matter if exterior or interior, has a '''causative''' (''drildyāva'') conjugation which is considered an inflection and not a derivation, even if the meanings may vary: ''mišake'' is an extreme example as each form has a different meaning (with particularly interior forms having many meanings) - non-causative exterior ''mešu'' "I am seen", interior ''meširu'' "I know; I see myself"; and causative exterior ''maišildu'' "I am shown", interior ''maišīldru'' "I learn; I show myself <small>(trans.)</small>".
Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for seven '''voices''' (''tadgeroe'', pl. ''tadgerenī''), each one putting one of seven different core elements as the ''direct-case argument'', usually for means of topicalization or definiteness; they reflect the Austronesian-type morphosyntactical alignment of the language. The seven voices are, for exterior verbs:
* '''patient-trigger''' (''dṛṣokire tadgeroe'') (unmarked);
* '''agent-trigger''' (''darīnūkire tadgeroe'') (transitive and ditransitive verbs only);
* '''benefactive-trigger''' (''hulābādmęlīnūkire tadgeroe'');
* '''antibenefactive-trigger''' (''tatalunsusūkire tadgeroe'');
* '''locative-trigger''' (''yuñcūkire tadgeroe'');
* '''dative-trigger''' (''męliausire tadgeroe'') (mostly ditransitive verbs);
* '''instrumental-trigger'''  (''drausire tadgeroe'') (morphologically possible for all verbs, but not always meaningful).
Interior verbs only have six voices, as they do not have an agentive voice; the patientive, unmarked voice, is here called '''common voice''' (''tailcārē tadgeroe'')<ref>For simplicity's sake, voices' names are most often rendered as ''patientive'', ''agentive'', ''benefactive'' ''antibenefactive'', ''locative'', ''dative'', ''instrumental'', and ''common''.</ref>.
Chlouvānem (realis) verbs encode six different types of '''evidentiality''' (''tarlāsmrāṇa''), actually a combination of evidentiality and epistemic modality: '''experiential''' (''šukilenūkire tarlāsmrāṇa'', unmarked<ref>This same marker (-∅- or -a-), is also used for historically attested facts and scientific truths.</ref>), '''first inferential''' (''lahīla paratṛlūkire tarlāsmrāṇa'', trustworthy), '''second inferential''' (''hælinaika paratṛlūkire tarlāsmrāṇa'', doubted), '''assumptive''' (''demitṛlūkire tarlāsmrāṇa''), '''first reportative''' (''lahīla tatikilenūkire tarlāsmrāṇa'', trustworthy) and '''second reportative''' (''hælinaika tatikilenūkire tarlāsmrāṇa'', doubted).
Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for five different '''tense-aspect combinations''' (simply ''tenses'' (''avyāṣa'' - pl. ''avyāṣai'')): '''present''' (''kaminænikire avyāṣa''), '''past''' (''dāṃdenire avyāṣa''<ref>Sometimes ''ēktami avyāṣa''.</ref>), '''perfect''' (''mīraṃnajausire avyāṣa''), '''(general) future''' (''lallāmiti avyāṣa''), and '''future intentional''' (''osmešē lallāmiti avyāṣa''); other distinctions may be built periphrastically (most notably ''imperfect'', ''pluperfect'' and ''future perfect''). Tenses are the “basic unit” verbs conjugate in: all tenses conjugate for nine persons (1st-2nd-3rd in singular, dual and plural; note though that 3rd singular and 3rd plural are identical in the perfect). Note that some moods do only distinguish between imperfective and perfective aspect.
The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only three moods, which are those that cannot be combined:
* '''indicative''' (''chlåñjausire darišam'') - the realis mood;
* '''optative''' (''purmanūkire darišam'') - used to express wishes or hopes, as well as orders or commands;
* '''subjunctive''' (''milkausire darišam'') - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), unreal things that may happen or might have happened, and also syntactically conditioned by some particles.
There are a few more forms that can't be strictly considered moods because they can appear in all of the five actual moods, and are thus called '''''junya''''', pl. '''''junyai''''' (literally "shade, hue, dye") by Chlouvānem grammarians: they are actually regular derivational patterns, that are considered inflectional due to them being possible for all verbs. There are five ''junyai'':
* '''desiderative''' (''daudyūkire junya'') - used to express a desire or will (e.g. I want to X);
* '''necessitative''' (''rileyūkire junya'') - used to express need or obligation (e.g. I have to X);
* '''potential''' (''novire junya'') - used to express the ability to do something (e.g. I can [= am able to] X, also "I may [= it is possible that I] X")
* '''permissive''' (''drippūkire junya'') - used to express the permission to do something (e.g. I can [= I’m allowed to] X)
* '''intensive''' (''caṃliven junya'') - typically denotes emphasis on a stronger effort for/in an action, or on its contrastive nature, or on its completeness and exhaustiveness.
Finally, there are a further two forms which are called "secondary moods" (''šudarišam'', pl. ''-šye''). They are two '''consequential moods''', the first one expressing ''cause'' (e.g. “because X”), and the other ''opposition'' (e.g. “although X”).<br/>
Chlouvānem furthermore also have a '''non-finite form''' (''emibąukire daradhūs'') (the '''-ke''' form, called '''infinitive''' hereafter).
The high degree of synthesis of the Chlouvānem verb is often mentioned through examples such as ''įstayamāmālvisuɂutsa'', meaning "even if, apparently, (s)he regularly wanted to tie up something...", a form of the verb ''įsmāmalveke'' "to regularly tie up something", itself derived from the verb ''įsmālke'' "to tie up", ultimately from the single root ''māl-'' "to unite".
===Verb classes===
When talking about the regularity in the conjugation of Chlouvānem verbs, most Chlouvānem linguists consider the vast majority of verbs as regular. In fact, the same suffixes are used in conjugating almost all verbs and highly irregular verbs are often only small exceptions (''jalle'' "to be" and ''lulke'' "to go on foot (monodirectional)" are the most notable ones, having many suppletive stems). However, despite this regularity, Chlouvānem verbs are divided into lots of small classes, each one having only a few members, that have different stem vowels in various forms - typically, the 3SG forms of the present, past, and perfect are used as principal parts (with the infinitive often - but not always! - having the same vowel as the present).
A Chlouvānem verb's conjugation is determined by two factors: whether it is ''thematic'' and whether - and if it does, how - its root vowel changes among the different stems.<br/>
The thematic and athematic distinction is the easiest: '''thematic verbs''' add an ''-a-'' (''-e-'' in the 3SG visual past and in all present indicative causative exterior terminations) between its root and every consonantic termination; '''athematic verbs''' don't. All verbs with vowel-ending roots are athematic.
Root vowel changes are, however, more complex, and up to twelve verb classes may be distinguished depending on how the various stems are formed. The first two classes comprise about 90% of all (primary) verbs:
# The verbs of the first class do not change its vowel in any form. About 45% of verbs belong to this class, including all those whose root vowel is any of '''ā, ą, e, ē, ę, ǣ, oe, ai, ąi, au, ąu''', as well as most verbs with root vowel '''a, æ, å, o, ei''', or '''ęi'''. An example is ''męlike'' (athematic) "to give": pres. ''męlyē'', past ''męlik'', perfect ''emęlya''.
# Also called the '''basic ablauting class''', these verbs have the most basic ablaut alteration: in their present exterior forms and in the singular present interior ones, '''i ī''' become '''e''' (''širṣṭake'' "to dip, soak": ''šerṣṭē — širṣṭek — iširṣṭa''), '''u ū''' usually become '''o''' (''dhūlte'' "to write": ''dholtē, dhūltik, udhūlta''), but '''i''' in a few verbs (''kulke'' "to say": ''kilē — kulik — ukula''), and '''ṛ ṝ''' become '''ar''' (''dṛke'' "to do": ''darē — dṛk — (irr.) dadrā'')
# Also called ''strong ablauting class'', it is a subgroup of the ablauting class where instead of becoming middle-grade, the vowels ablaut to the maximum grade ('''ai, au, ār''') respectively. This class is somewhat rare: the three most common verbs in it are ''mulke'' (''mun-'') "to be able to": ''maunē — munik — umuna'', ''dīdake'' "to know a person": ''daidē — dīdek — idīda'', and ''kirake'' "to love": ''kairē — kirek — ikira''.
# Also called ''inverse ablauting class'', these verbs have either ''va'' or ''ya'' in the present (and infinitive; note that the initial semivowel may be "hidden" in a consonant!) that gets reduced to ''u'' or ''i'' respectively in the past. An easy example is ''valde'' "to open": ''valdē — uldik — vulda''; one with a hidden consonant is ''calyake'' "to harvest plums": ''calyē — kilyek — ikilda''. In verbs with ''r-va'', the '''v''' disappears, but the conjugation is otherwise regular, e.g. ''ranyake'' "to untie, loosen, dismantle": ''ranyē — runyek — urunya''.
# Verbs of this class (and the following ones) typically have a vowel change in the ''past'' form and not in the present one. This class has '''å''' in the infinitive, present, and perfect, and '''e''' in the past, for example ''påndake'' "to punch": ''påndē — pendek — apånda''). Verbs whose roots begin in ''y-'' lose it in the past, e.g. ''yåjyake'' "to float in the air; to go with a zeppelin, hot air balloon, or helicopter (monodirectional)": ''yåjyē — ejyek — ayåjya''.
# These verbs have '''ei''' in the present, '''a''' in the past, and '''a+ i''' in the perfect; e.g. ''heimake'' "to blow, to play (wind instruments)" ''heimē — hamek — ahima''.
# Verbs with '''e''' in the present, '''ya''' in the past, and '''i+ i''' in the perfect (and infinitive!); e.g. ''miṃsake'' "to risk" ''meṃsē — myaṃsek — imiṃsa''.
# Verbs with '''æ''' in the present, '''o''' in the past, and '''e+ i''' in the perfect; e.g. ''næljake'' "to turn, to screw": ''næljē — noljek — enilja''.
# Verbs with '''o''' in the present, '''ei''' in the past, and '''a+ ā''' in the perfect; e.g. ''volkake'' "to stab, to sting (esp. insects), to hit with something pointy": ''volkē — veilkek — avālka''.
# Verbs with '''æ''' in the present, '''ya''' in the past, and '''e+ ī''' in the perfect; e.g. ''kællake'' "to sew": ''kællē — kyallek — ekīlla''.
# Verbs with '''æ''' in the present, '''yau''' in the past, and '''u+ u''' in the perfect; e.g. ''nætte'' "to hold": ''nættē — nyauttek — unutta''.
# Also called '''-ah verbs''', these verbs actually never modify their root vowel, but have different present endings. ''hæṃdike'' "to dream", ''jānake'' "to feel", and ''lilke'' "to live" are the most common verbs of this class.
Moods apart from the indicative mainly just follow root structure, with different allomorphs depending on whether the root ends in a consonant or in a vowel.
====Vocalic stems====
Vocalic stems are those whose stems end in a vowel; most of them are class 1 (without any vowel change), but some are class 2 (ablauting), more rarely of other classes. They are anyway somewhat rare in Chlouvānem, but a few common verbs have vocalic stems. These stems often do not behave as in normal vowel saṃdhi when vocalic terminations are added:
* The diphthongs '''ai, ei, au''', and their breathy-voiced versions mute the second element in a semivowel; in '''ai''' and '''au''' the vowel is naturally lengthened to '''ā''' - e.g. ''gṇyauke'' "to give birth", pres. exterior ''gṇyāvu, gṇyāvi, gṇyāvē''...; past exterior ''gṇyāvau, gṇyāvei, gṇyauk''...
* The short vowels '''i, u, ṛ''' and long '''ṝ''' change into their corresponding semivowels if it forms an accepted cluster - e.g. ''vike'' "to rest" (ablauting stem ''ve-'' in the present), past exterior ''vyau, vyei, vik''...
* '''æ''' and '''ǣ''' become '''ev''' and '''oe''' becomes '''en''' - e.g. ''gæke'' "to stretch", pres. exterior ''gevu, gevi, gevē''...; past exterior ''gevau, gevei, gæk''...
Other vowels add different epenthetic consonants depending on their quality:
* '''a''', '''e''' (and long versions), and '''å''' always add '''n''', e.g. ''lyēke'' "to clap", pres. exterior ''lyēnu, lyēni, lyēnē''...; past exterior ''lyēnau, lyēnei, lyēk''.
* All other oral vowels add '''y''' (note that '''o''' contracts with '''e''' or '''ē''' to '''oe'''), e.g. ''khlūke'' "to search, look for" (abl. stem ''khlo-''), pres. exterior ''khloyu, khloyi, khloe''...; past exterior ''khlūyau, khlūyei, khlūk''...
* Breathy-voiced vowels dissimilate to vowel + '''h''': e.g. ''švęke'' "to point at": pres. ext. ''švehu, švehi, švehē<ref>Written ''švęe'' in some older texts.</ref>''...; past ext. ''švehau, švehei, švęk''...
In four basic verbs, ''-yā-'' in the infinitive and most stems becomes ''-im-'' in the present and in the subjunctive. These are:
* ''-tyāke'' (all verbs meaning "to stay", such as ''tatyāke'') — ''-timē, -tyāk, -(ɂ)atyā''
* ''vjyāke'' (to grate, grind) — ''vjimē, vjyāk, avjyā''
* ''myāke'' (to carefully look, examine) — ''mimē, myāk, amyā''
* ''sklyāke'' (to store, spare) — ''sklimē, sklyāk, asklyā''
===The causative and perfect stems===
Causative stems are easy to form: they are formed by attaching the stem extension ''-ild-'' (see below) to the infinitive stem; however, ablauting verbs always have the highest grade vowel, while inverse ablaut verbs have the "lowered" vowel in front of the normal stem (e.g. ''miš-'' → ''maiš-ild-'').
The perfect stem (used for the perfect and for the intentional future) formed by prefixing the root vowel (shortened, oral, and with the basic root ablaut) to the stem - but note that verb classes 5 to 10 have their own vowel patterns that diverge from this general one. Examples:
* ''nāmvake'' “to crush, press” = ''nāmv- → anāmv-''
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for” = ''khlu- → ukhlu-''
* ''hilkake'' “to dye, colour” = ''hilk- → ihilk-''
* ''męlike'' “to give” = ''męly → emęly-''
'''æ''', '''o''', '''å''', and '''ṛ''' all use '''a''' (except for ''ṛ-'' initial verbs, which have ''ṝ-''); diphthongs usually only take their first component:
* ''dældake'' “to speak” = ''dæld- → adæld-''
* ''kolkake'' “to be acid” = ''kolk- → akolk-''
* ''tṛlake'' “to know, understand” = ''tṛl- → atṛl-''
* ''ṛṣme'' "to plan to, to have the intention of" = ''ṛṣm- → ṝṣm-''
* ''yaudake'' “to catch” = ''yaud- → ayaud-''
* ''laitake'' “to row” = ''lait- → alait-''
* ''leike'' "to stick, press into something" = ''lei- → elei-''
Causative stems with ablaut have a full reduplication, using the first consonant plus the basic vowel grade, like ''miš- → maiš- → mimaiš-''. The causative interior forms have ''-ildr-'' with a short vowel, unlike for the past and present.<br/>''i-'' and ''u-'' initial stems have ''yai-'' and ''vau-'' respectively (e.g. ''ta-ut-'' → ''ta-vaut-'').
===The infinitive===
The '''infinitive''' (''emibąukire daradhūs'') or ''ke-form'' is a non-finite form used in certain construction (like with certain verbs (e.g. ''daudike'' (to want)) or particles). It is also the citation form, and it is simple to recognize and form:
* The infinitive is always based on the root, thus with either a basic-grade vowel for ablauting verbs or an unreduced sequence for inverse-ablauting ones.
* Thematic verbs add '''-ake''';
* All other verbs just add '''-ke'''. There are a few cases where this is not always how it surfaces:
** verbs ending in ''-y-'' turn it into the vowel ''-i-'' (e.g. ''męly-ke'' → ''męlike'' (to give));
** verbs whose roots end in any single or postnasal unvoiced dental, retroflex, or palatal stop or affricate, assimilate the ''-k-'' of the suffix (e.g. ''kit-ke'' → ''kitte'' (to put, place));
** verbs whose roots end in any single or postnasal voiced, non-velar stop, assimilate the voicing of the suffix ''-k-'' (e.g. ''dįb-ke'' → ''dįbge'' (to kick));
*** note that, due to regular saṃdhi, *-jg- resulting by this further changes to ''-jñ-'' (e.g. ''taj-ke'' → ''tajñe'' (to rub));
** verbs whose roots end in single ''-g'' or ''-gh'' assimilate the ''-k-'', with the regular saṃdhi change from double voiced stop to nasal + voiced stop (e.g. ''dig-ke'' → ''dilge'' (to pour));
*** This also happens with the cluster ''-nd'', where the assimilation ''-nd-k'' makes it ''-lg'' (e.g. ''mind-ke'' → ''milge'' (to hear));
** verbs whose roots end in any other consonant cluster only add ''-e'' (e.g. ''pudbh-ke'' → ''pudbhe'' (to sleep)).
Knowing the root form of the verb is necessary as two different roots may have the same infinitive, e.g. ''mulke'' for both ''mul-'' "to drink" (''molu'', ''mulau'', ''umulim'') and ''mun-'' "to be able to" (''maunu'', ''munau'', ''umunim'').
The infinitive can also be used as a noun, declining as ''-eh'' ones and getting a final ''-h'' in the direct case. Compared to derived ''-anah'' nouns, which denote a process, the nominalized infinitive is often more gnomic or perfective in meaning (''dhūlti baucanah'' makes sense, meaning "learning to write", while ''dholtani baucanah'' is grammatically correct but meaningless), but it can also be synonymous in some expressions (e.g. ''nenyai naviṣyi dholtanęs væse'' or ''nenyai naviṣyi dhūltęs væse'', both meaning "while writing this book" — if a distinction should be rendered in English, the first one would be translated "during the writing process of this book").
===Hues (''junyai'')===
Chlouvānem verbs are typically defined by the three (four) stems detailed above in the verb class section: present, past, perfect, and infinitive stem.
The five "hues" (better known by their native term of ''junyai'', sg. ''junya'') are regularly formed verb forms with different meanings: desiderative, necessitative, potential, permissive, and intensive. They are not considered moods because each of them may be found in all three Chlouvānem moods, even though they lack an infinitive form. All of them are built starting from the infinitive stem.
====General consonant reduplication rules====
The following rules are used in reduplicating the initial consonant while forming ''junya'' stems, as well as in the derivation of frequentative verbs. Variations on these rules are explained when referring to a particular ''junya''.
Reduplication adds the first consonant of the verb (except prefixes) and its first vowel (always oral short).There are however some special rules followed in reduplicating:
* Aspirated stops are always reduplicated as unaspirated;
* '''g-''' is always reduplicated as '''h-''', except for a few irregular verbs;
* '''h-''' is reduplicated as '''k-''';
* '''k-''' as '''š-''';

* '''ƾ-''' as '''ƾ-''', but in the root it becomes '''ɂ'''.
* '''l-''' in the initial clusters '''lk-''', '''lkh-''', '''lg-''', or '''lgh-''' reduplicates as '''n-'''.
** Some roots beginning with '''l''' have '''ħ''' as their reduplication, most notably ''lun-'' → ''ħuloṃs-'' (to go on foot, walk (monodirectional)). This is because these roots began with the Pre-Chlouvānem cluster *ħl, which was then simplified to just '''l'''; originally, the reduplication was also regular (e.g. *ħlun → *ħuħloṃs-).
* Initial clusters which begin with '''s-''', '''ṣ-''', '''š-''', or '''v-''' use the first consonant which is not one of them (but '''šv-''' reduplicates as '''š-''');
* Verbs with ablautable vowels almost always have middle-grade ablaut (there are a few exceptions, such as ''khlu-''); '''ṛ''' reduplicates as '''a''';
* Inverse-ablaut verbs have the consonant of the unreduced root but the reduced vowel;
* Roots beginning with vowels are regular, reduplicating the otherwise allophonic initial '''ɂ'''.
* Prefixes are added before the reduplicated root.
====The desiderative ''junya''====
The '''desiderative''' '''''junya''''' is formed by reduplicating of the root and suffixing '''-s'''. The vowel used in the reduplication is the base grade (always oral short), while the one in the original root position shifts to the middle grade (if possible). Inverse-ablauting roots have the reduced vowel in the root position and the original consonant (''y-'' or ''v-'') at the beginning, with saṃdhi applied as needed.
Final added '''-s''' has some special saṃdhi rules, too (in addition to the usual ones):
* '''-d-s''' and '''-dh-s''' both become '''-ts''';
* After voiced stops, '''-s''' becomes '''-r''' and aspirated stops lose aspiration. '''-j-s''' and '''-jh-s''' both become '''-jl''';
* '''-š-s'', '''-c-s-''', and '''-ch-s-''' become '''-kṣ''';
* '''-y-s''' becomes '''-š''';
* '''-l-s''' becomes '''-ly''' when prevocalic and '''-lš''' when preconsonantal, but '''-rl-s''' always becomes '''-rely-'''.
The resulting stem, athematic, is used as the present and past stem. The perfect stem vocalic augment is short if the vowel in the root is long (or ''o, å'', or a diphthong), otherwise it is long (cf. ''nanāmusute'' "I want to crush", ''ananāmusaṃte'' "I have wanted to crush" vs. ''šukhlusute'' "I want to search", ''ūšukhlusaṃte'' "I have wanted to search").
Desiderative examples:
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)”, root ''peith-'' → ''pe-peith-s'' → ''pepeits-'' (pf. stem ''epepeits-'')
* ''lgutake'' “to buy”, root ''lgut-'' → ''nu-lgot-s'' → ''nulgots-'' (pf. stem ''unulgots-'')
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for”, root ''khlu-'' → ''šu-khlu-s'' → ''šukhlus-'' (pf. stem ''ūšukhlus-'')
Four verbs have irregular stems:
* ''jalle'' "to be" → ''jijāl-''
* ''lilke'' "to live" → ''lēlikṣ-''
* ''męlike'' "to give" → ''mimęñ-''
* ''milke'' "to take" → ''mūṃchl-''
====The necessitative ''junya''====
The '''necessitative''' '''''junya''''' is formed and conjugates much like the desiderative; it uses a stem formed by reduplication, and adding '''-sū-''', with the same saṃdhi changes found in the desiderative. There are a few differences in the reduplication:
* They have higher-grade or lenghthened vowel in the ''reduplication'' and not the stem;
* Verbs with non-ablauting vowels always have ''ī'';
* Inverse-ablauting verbs have ''va'' or ''ya'' as reduplication, followed by the root with the reduced vowel (''va-u-'' and ''ya-i-'' regularly become ''vo-'' and ''e-'')
The resulting stem is a regular vocalic stem.
The perfect stem always has a short vowel; quality is still based on the root vowel.
Necessitative examples:
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)” → ''pīpeitsū-'' (pf. stem. ''epīpeitsū-'')
* ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''šokhlusū-'' (pf. stem. ''ušokhlusū-'')
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nenilšū-'' (pf. stem. ''inenilšū-'')
* ''valde'' “to open” → ''voltsū-'' (pf. stem. ''uvoltsū-'')
====The potential ''junya''====
The '''potential''' '''''junya''''' also conjugates in all tenses and aspects and has a stem formed with initial reduplication. It is formed by adding '''-(e)nā-''' to the root and behaves as a fourth conjugation verb, adding an epenthetic -n before vocalic endings. Note that ''-r-nā-'' becomes '''-rṇā-''' due to saṃdhi. Formation of the perfect stem follows the same rules as in the desiderative.
Potential examples:

* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)” → ''pepeithnā-'' (pf. stem. ''epepeithnā-'')
* ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''šukhlunā-'' (pf. stem. ''ūšukhlunā-'')
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''ninelyenā-'' (pf. stem. ''īninelyenā-'')
A special case of saṃdhi occurs in roots which end in a single '''-g''' or '''-k''': this consonant becomes '''-gh''' and the '''-n''' in the suffix becomes retroflex, e.g. ''mūmikke'' "to dance", root ''mūmik-'' > ''mumūmighṇā-'' ; ''dilge'' “to pour", root ''dig-'' > ''dideghṇā-''.
The potential is used both for the sense of "may" (to be possible that) and "can" (to be able to): two sentences such as "I may (it is possible that I) do it" and "I can (I'm able to) do it" would be both translated as ''dadrenānute''. To avoid ambiguity, the "may" sense may be rephrased with the verb ''širgake'' plus subjunctive - e.g. ''dratite šergē'' - while the "can" sense may be rephrased with ''novake'' plus subjunctive - e.g. ''dratite novē'' - or (less commonly) with the infinitive - e.g. ''dṛke novute''.
====The permissive ''junya''====
The '''permissive''' '''''junya''''' also conjugates in all tenses and aspects and is formed with a reduplication with ''-ī-'' as the only possible vowel - except for verbs with a reduplicated non-nasal labial consonant, which have ''ū'' - and ''-ūd-'' after the root. The perfect stem always has a short vowel, and is formed as in the necessitative.
Permissive examples:
* ''mišake'' “to see”, → ''mīmišūd-'' (pf. stem. ''imīmišūd-'')
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)”, → ''pūpeithūd-'' (pf. stem. ''epūpeithūd-'')
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nīnilyūd-'' (pf. stem. ''inīnilyūd-'')
====The intensive ''junya''====
The '''intensive ''junya''''' is formed by reduplication with diachronical lengthening and the base vowel in the root, plus suffixed ''-ī-'':
* ''khluke'' "to search, look for" → *šūkhluī- → ''šūkhlī-'' (pf. ''ušūkhlī-'')
* ''męlike'' "to give" → ''myamęlī-'' (pf. ''emyamęlī-'')
* ''nilyake'' "to think" → ''nīnilī-''
* ''valde'' "to open" → ''vauldī-'' (morph. ''vā-uld-ī-''; pf. stem avauldī-)
* ''nāmvake'' "to crush" → ''nānamvī-''
* ''milke'' "to take" → ''mīmilkī-''
* ''daudike'' "to want" → ''dādaudī-''
''jalle'' "to be" has a partial irregularity, deleting the root vowel entirely – ''jā-j∅l-ī-'' → ''jājlī-''.<br/>Intensives conjugate as vocalic stems, but always insert an epenthetic ''-n-'' consonant regardless of the following vowel, instead of undergoing regular saṃdhi.
The intensive, while theoretically formed from all verbs, may have different meanings depending on the verb, and some verbs are practically never used with it. Particularly, intensive forms of verbs of motion are often semantically identical to frequentatives.<br/>
Quite often, the intensive is not easily translatable into English, as it may range from simple emphatic forms (''dṝdīnaute'' "I really did it"; ''cīchlisire'' "it's fucking amazing"<ref>Intensive of ''chlisake'' (''chlaisire, chlisirek, ichlisirā''), Eastern Jade Coastal (Līlti, Līlasuṃghāṇi, Kūmanabūruyi, Līṭhalyināmi) slang for "amazing".</ref>; ''sēn mbinē dam? / mīmbunīnē!'' "do you like it? / of course I like it!"), to emphasis on the contrastive nature of an action (''pūni, pūpūnīnu ni'' "you work, but I work-<small>INT</small>." (i.e. "I work much more than you"); ''læchlyūyiri ni dā! / lǣlæchlīru!'' "come on, have some fun! / I am [already/indeed] having fun!"), or on the completeness and exhaustiveness of an action (''spṛšāvih ušūkhlīṃte'' "I've been looking for my keys in every single place"). Some verbs may be translated in different ways compared to the non-intensive form, e.g. ''læmyu jālejildekte'' "(s)he won the race" vs. ''læmyu jālejījildīkte'' "(s)he dominated the race".
===Stem extensions and terminations===
Stem extensions are bound morphemes that may be placed after the stem, and mark five different categories. Up to one for each category may be present:
# The first stem extension is the evidential category (actually combining evidentiality and epistemic modality):
#* Experientials (direct evidentiality) is the default and considered to be marked by the thematic vowel, therefore by '''-∅-''' for athematic verbs and by '''-a-''' for thematic ones.
#* The "first inferential" marks an inferred situation likely to be true, marked by a '''-u(ɂ)-''' thematic extension;
#* The "second inferential" marks an inferred situation whose truthness is unlikely or doubted, marked by '''-eb(i)-''';
#* The assumptive marks an assumption, marked by '''-ukin(a)-''';
#* The reportative (or "first reportative") marks a reported situation likely to be true, marked by '''-emi-''';
#* The dubitative reportative (or "second reportative") marks a reported situation whose truthness is unlikely or doubted, marked by '''-enab(u)-'''.
# The second stem extension is the causative marker '''-ild-''' (non-causatives are not marked)
# The third stem extension is the interior verb marker '''-ir-''' (exterior verbs are not marked)
# The fourth stem extension is '''-(a)mo-''', which marks the optative mood.
# The fifth stem extention, which is entirely optional (i.e. there is no unmarked category), marks consequentiality: '''-(n)ār-''' for a cause ("given that...") or '''-uts-''' for an opposition.
Stem extensions may be stacked and may also combine in unpredictable ways. The combinations listed here are those that do <small>''NOT''</small> follow regular saṃdhi (all other ones are regular).
* -ild-ir- → ''-ildṛ-''
* -ild-ir-(n)ār- → ''-ildṝl-''
* -ild-ir-uts- → ''-ildṝts-''
* -ir-(n)ār- → ''-irāl-''
* -ir-uts- → ''-irts-''
Finally, note that some stem extensions may trigger a change in the personal termination (e.g. the third person plural present indicative interior ''-irāhe'', not *-ir-āhai), while there are a few special personal terminations that already have the meaning of a stem extension (e.g. third person perfect indicative exterior ''-æ'' which also has the reportative meaning, therefore *-adm-a is impossible).
Note, furthermore, that ''-ir-'' (when not preceded by the causative marker) becomes '''-ęr-''' in the present of class 11 ''-ah'' verbs.
====Personal terminations====
The following table includes an overview of the sets of personal terminations in Chlouvānem. Note that, in the indicative mood, whenever a personal termination encoding evidentiality is not included, that means that the form together with the stem extension has to be used, not that that particular form is not possible.
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! colspan=2 | !! <small>1SG</small> !! <small>2SG</small> !!<small>3SG</small> !! <small>1DU</small> !! <small>2DU</small> !! <small>3DU</small> !! <small>1PL</small> !! <small>2PL</small> !! <small>3PL</small>
|-
! rowspan=2 | Indicative<br/>and Optative !! Present<br/>Opt. Imperfective
| -u || -i || -ē || -sme || -dya || -de || -mim || -šin || -āhai
|-
! Perfect<br/>Opt. Perfective
| -am || -es || -a || -ra || -ri || -a || -ima || -iša || -a
|-
! rowspan=3 | Indicative<br/>only !! Past
| -au || -ei || -(e)k || -ram || -res || -dat || -ābhe || -āṣe || -aika
|-
! Simple future
| colspan=9 style="text-align: center;" | '''''-iṣy-''''' ''plus perfect terminations''
|-
! Intentional future
| colspan=9 style="text-align: center;" | '''''-ālt-''''' ''('''-āl-''' in interior and causative forms) plus perfect terminations''
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
| -ati || -īs || -ī || -īndu || -īndi || -ī || -īnam || -īnes || -ī
|-
! Perfective
| -ēta || -ēti || -ēt || -ētham || -ēthai || -ēt || -eine || -eiše || -ēt
|}
Additional notes:
* The present indicative exterior terminations of ''-ah'' verbs are: ''-ah -aši -ah ; -ąsme -ardia -arde ; -ąim -ąšin -ah'', with no distinct evidential forms.
* The imperfective optative singular has the irregular saṃdhi forms ''-mau, -mai, -mo''.
* The ''-ir-'' root extension causes the <small>3SG</small> indicative present ''-ē'' to become ''-e'' and the <small>3PL</small> indicative present ''-āhai'' to become ''-āhe''.
* The third person interior imperfective subjunctive is ''-irya'' instead of *-ir-ī.
===Voice markers===
Chlouvānem has seven voices, marked by affixes added, in unprefixed verbs, at the end of the verb. As the patient-trigger voice (common voice in interior verbs) is unmarked, the six voice markers are:
* '''-te''' for agent-trigger voice (in exterior verbs only) — but note that ''-ē-te'' (in most 3sg verbs) becomes ''-egde'' (as ''-ē'' derives from historical *-eg);
* '''-kæ''' for benefactive-trigger voice;
* '''-tū''' ('''-tur''' non-finally) for antibenefactive-trigger voice;
* '''-rā''' for locative-trigger voice;
* '''-mǣ''' for instrumental-trigger voice;
* '''-(m)bi''' for dative-trigger voice.
Examples of voice marking are ''męlyē'' (he/she/it is given) — ''męlyegde'' (he/she/it gives) (and ''męlyu'' (I am given) → ''męlyute'' "I give") — ''męlyēkæ'' (something is given for him/her/it) — ''męlyētū'' (something is given against him/her/it) — ''męlyērā'' (something is given in him/her/it) — ''męlyēmǣ'' (something is given with him/her/it) — ''męlyēmbi'' (something is given to him/her/it).
In prefixed verbs, voice marking is a bit different as the voice marker is inserted between the prefix and the stem, thus forms like ''yāyųlē'' (he/she/it is eaten too much) → ''yāteyųlē'' (he/she/it eats too much). Saṃdhi is applied if needed, e.g. "something is eaten for him/her/it directly from a tree" is ''taktæyųlē'' (morphemically ''tad-kæ-yųlē'', verb ''tadyųlake'').
The triggered arguments are always marked with the direct case; the other roles are marked with the respective cases and/or locutions:
* Patient: accusative case
* Agent: ergative case
* Benefacted: ''nali'' (governs the direct case)
* Antibenefacted: ''ras'' (governs the direct case)
* Place: locative case
* Dative argument: dative case
* Instrument: instrumental case
Patients of intransitive and interior verbs usually require the essive case instead of the accusative. An example is the structure "there is/are ... in ...", usually cast in locative-trigger voice:
: ''keika lalāruṇęs virā.''
: garden.<small>DIR.SG</small>. lalāruṇa-<small>ESS.SG</small>. be.<small>IND.PRES.EXP.3S.EXTERIOR-LOCATIVE</small>.
: There is a lalāruṇa in the garden.
===Impersonal verbs===
Impersonal verbs, in Chlouvānem, are those verbs that are defective and only conjugated in third person exterior (with the partial exception of ''giṃšake'') and only used in patient-trigger voice. There are six such -basic- verbs:
* ''gårḍake'' (to be meant to)
* ''hælte'' (to be moved, touched)
* ''maṣvake'' (to feel compassion, pity)
* ''mbunake'' (to like)
* ''ñæṃħake'' (to repent, to feel remorse, to be sorry for)
* ''prābake'' (to be disgusted)
* ''giṃšake'' (to get/be bored) — usually termed “half-impersonal” because it has a full interior conjugation, but with a different meaning (to be boring).
These verbs all have their cause in the exessive case (or a subjunctive verb) and the affected being in the dative, except for ''gårḍake'', which usually only has a subjunctive, and ''mbunake'', whose affected being (the English subject, i.e. who likes) is in the locative. Examples:
: ''lum lūṣyi maivat hæltek'' “what Lūṣya said moved me.”
: ''sēn nanāt mbinē'' "I like that."
: ''nīdrēta lum ñæṃħē'' “I’m sorry for how I behaved.”
: ''sę nanau pryūsimęlyati gårḍek'' “you were meant to give it back to me” (literally: it was meant that you give it back to me<ref>Note that in such a phrase the perfective subjunctive would have a different meaning, namely “to have already given it back to me”.</ref>) .
Derived forms usually behave as impersonal too, like ''taprābake'' (to hate) — e.g. ''taprāblelyom taprābiṣya'' "haters gonna hate".
===Respectful verbs===
Actual usage of Chlouvānem grammatically marks respect towards the listener by using analytic constructions formed with auxiliary '''respectful verbs''' (''imatimaivi daradhaus'', i.e. verbs used in the ''imatimaiva'' (respectful language)<ref>Contrasting with the ''emmāmaiva'', (humble language), and the ''lilamaiva'' (neutral language); the three styles take their names from their respective words for "person"</ref>). They are used whenever the action being spoken of effects the listener in some way; a common mistake, made both by foreigners and young Chlouvānem people, is overusing them, thinking that in polite speech almost every single verb needs to be marked this way.
The respectful auxiliaries themselves, as well as a number of inherently respectful verbs (e.g. ''pṛdhake'' "to ask" vs. neutral ''muṣke''; ''naiṣäke'' "to give" vs. neutral ''męlike''; ''naimake'' "to meet" vs. neutral ''vuryake''), do not need to be marked with a respectful auxiliary. Inherently humble verbs (or verbal locutions; e.g. ''yacce'' "to ask" or "to order, command" vs. neutral ''muṣke'' and ''spruvyake''; ''chlašake'' "to do, act, make" vs. neutral ''dṛke''; ''tittake'' "to suggest, advise" vs. neutral ''smārṣake''), which are, in learners' materials, treated together with respectful language, are also never used with an auxiliary.
The choice of respectful verbs depends on various properties of the main verb, and using a different respectful verbs may imply different shades of meaning; some auxiliaries, in fact, act as if they were ''junyai'' of other ones. All respectful auxiliaries are used together with the main verb in the infinitive.
====The respectful copula ''nu''====
The most common of the auxiliary verbs is √''nu'', also called the respectful copula as it is a defective verb which substitutes ''jalle'' in respectful language. However, it still lacks an infinitive, optative forms, and all ''junyai''; the respective forms of ''jalle'' are used instead.
Its forms are all fairly regular, with a ''nuv-'' stem before vowels (with an irregularity in the 3SG present indicative) and ''nu-'' before consonants (e.g. the present indicative ''nuvu, nuvi, nuvē, nusme, nudya, nude, numim, nušin, nohai''). Its perfect stem is ''umu-'', the general future is ''noṣya-'', and the future intentional is ''umvālt-''.
It is used as a general respectful auxiliary which is good for almost every meaning, but is used most of the time with intransitive, unaccusative, or non-volitive verbs:
: ''mešegde'' "3SG sees" → ''mišake nuvegde'' "3SG sees (<small>RESP</small>)"
: ''tailīsa'' "3SG/DU/PL has/have come" → ''talulke umva'' "3SG/DU/PL has/have come (<small>RESP</small>)"
====Other respectful verbs====
The main auxiliary verb for transitive verbs is ''gāke'' (''gānē, gā, agā''), a partial respectful equivalent of ''dṛke''<ref>Unlike other full respectful equivalents, it cannot be used to form respectful equivalents of prefixed derivations; i.e. while ''muṣke'' has the respective equivalent ''pṛdhake'' and ''paṣmuṣke'' has ''paṣpṛdhake'', there is no verb *ālgāke as a respective equivalent to ''āndṛke'' like ''gāke'' is to ''dṛke''.</ref>
The verbs ''nacce'' (''nacē - nacek - anaca''; respectful equivalent of ''milke'' "to take") and ''naiṣake'' (''naiṣē - naiṣek - anaiṣa''; respectful equivalent of ''męlike'' "to give") are both used with transitive and unergative verbs, but the choice of one or the other (or over ''gāke'') carries a distinction in meaning, related to the benefactive argument - using ''nacce'' as an auxiliary, it is implied that the agent is also the one who benefits of the action; using ''naiṣake'', the reverse is implied, that the agent makes it for someone else (often a group):
: ''blutake gaite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>)"
: ''blutake nacite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for yourself"
: ''blutake naiṣite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for others"
The verb ''nacce'' is often used as a polite optative for imperative requests, as seen in many common forms such as ''daudike nacamai'' "please" (literally something like "may you want (<small>RESP</small>), benefitting yourself") or ''kaukulke nacamaite'' "please tell..."<ref>Note that formal Chlouvānem has a plethora of ways to form polite and respectful imperatives, and a common one, especially when talking to higher-ranked people, is to reformulate an imperative as a humble statement; in such a case, "please tell" could be reformulated as ''kaukulke yacce cīchlakṣūyute'' "I humbly have to ask to tell", or even (though quite bookishly) up to something like ''kaukulke yacce chlašatite garpirati pīpaipsūyu'' "I (<small>HUMB</small>) have to be bad (lit. "take the bad manner of") and humbly ask to tell".</ref>. The polite optative ''nacce'' followed by ''garpirati paibu'' (lit. something like "I'm taken to behave badly") is a very common set phrase for making requests.
The verb ''pṛdhake'' (''pardhē - pṛdhek - apṛdha'', respectful equivalent of ''muṣke'' "to ask") may be used with all verbs and virtually replaces the desiderative ''junya'', i.e. implies "to want to". Note that the desiderative ''junya'' of another auxiliary such as ''gāke'' (''hagās-'') or ''nacce'' (''nanākṣ-'') can still be used for virtually the same meaning - however, for some speakers, ''pṛdhake'' may imply a less strict desire.
: ''yųlake pardhite'' "you want to eat (<small>RESP</small>)"
Similarly, ''dvyūlke'' (''dvyauṇē - dvyūṇek - udvyūṇa'', respectful equivalent of ''yoṭṭe'' "to receive") replaces the necessitative ''junya'', i.e. "to have to":
: ''bislulke dvyauṇḍe'' "they<small>.DU.</small> have to walk away (<small>RESP</small>)"
===Irregular verbs===
Chlouvānem has only a very small number of truly irregular verbs, as most verbs conform in some way to one of the various stem classes. Even among irregular verbs, many of them are only irregular in the formation of one of their three basic stems; only seven verbs (''lulke, milke, mṛcce, mišake, lilke, jalle'', and ''tilah'') have at least one entirely suppletive stem.
There are two true defective verbs: ''ṛṣme'' (to plan, to be going to) and the honorific ''tilah'' (not a self-standing verb).
Excluding the highly irregular ''jalle'' and ''tilah'', treated in the next sections, the other verbs with suppletive stems are:
* ''lulke'' (to go on foot, to walk (monodirectional)) — ''lun-, dāmek, elīsa''
** The singular present indicative forms are irregular ''lå, lin, liven'' - the other ones are regular, non-ablauting (''lunasme, lunadya...'').
** Also has the irregular optative stem ''lau-'' (instead of expected *lammo-), conjugated as a regular verb (''lāvu, lāvi, lāvē...'').
* ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture, get) — ''milūk-, milkek, ilaka''
** The singular present indicative forms use the stem ''milk-'': ''milku, milki, milkē'' - the other ones are regular (''milūkṣme, milūgdya...'').
** The optative stem is irregular ''målu-'', conjugated as a regular verb (''målū, målvi, målvē...'').
** Also has the irregular stem ''mūṃchl-'' for the desiderative junya.
* ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodirectional)) — ''marcē, pañcek, amṛca''
** Suppletive in the past stem only (pañc-). The present stem is ablauting.
* ''mišake'' (to see) — ''mešē, āsmik, imiša''
** Suppletive in the past stem only (āsmy-). The present stem is ablauting.
* ''lilke'' (to live) — ''lilah, lilek, lælī''
** Suppletive in the perfect only. ''-ah'' verb in the present, non-ablauting.
** Also has the irregular stem ''lēlikṣ-'' for the desiderative junya.
=====Miscellaneous irregularities=====
''ṛṣme'' (to plan, to be going to) is an unmarked agentive verb, which is only conjugated as agentive, and is a regular class 3 verb (''ārṣmē, ṛṣmek, ṝṣma'') It usually only takes verbs or verbal phrases as arguments, e.g. ''keitu dhāsmike ārṣmē'' "(s)he is going/plans to save the whale". It is often a synonym of the future intentional, though it conveys lesser certainty and may also be used for imperfective actions or states.<br/>
Note that the defectiveness does not apply to its derived forms - e.g. ''švṛṣme'' (to believe): ''švārṣmu'' "I am believed", ''šutayārṣmu'' "I believe" - and ''ṛṣme'' itself has regular causative forms (with the meaning of "make X intend to do").
The pair ''tamišake⁓tildake'' (to look at) is not counted as one of the thirteen irregular verbs, but ''tildake'' is an unmarked agentive verb, while ''tamišake'' is used in all other voices. Note that however ''tamišake'' also has a regular agentive voice, synonymous with ''tildake'': ''teldu'' ⁓ ''tatemešu'' (I look at); also note that ''tamišake'' has the same past tense suppletion as ''mišake'', i.e. ''tamešē - tāsmik - temiša''. The verb ''najake'' "to happen" (explained below among the compounds of ''gyake'') is also sometimes considered irregular, as a verb with an unmarked dative-trigger voice.<br/>Prefixed motion verbs are also not marked for voice in the patient- and agent-trigger ones (with only cases on nouns distinguishing them), but that is considered a particular but regular behaviour of a semantically defined subset of verbs.
''ñoerake'' (to crawl (multidirectional)) has the stem ''ñoerg-'' in the indicative present singular (''ñoergu, ñoergi, ñoergē''), but is regular everywhere else (''ñoerasme, ñoeradia''...).
''vṝlke'' (to plant), in the past, may use for the 3SG visual evidential both ''vṝlik'' (regular) and ''vṝk'' (quite formal); in the perfect, both the regular stem ''avṝl-'' and the irregular, literary ''rūrl-'' are found.
Two verbs with '''-ur''' in the root have irregular vowels:
* ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands": ''parē — (pārau) pāṭ — upura''
* ''sturake'' "to fall": ''starē — (stārau) stāṭ — ustura''
Three verbs have ''(a+) -ut'' in the infinitive and perfect, ''-at'' in the past, and ''att'' in the present:
* ''lutake'' "to obtain, gain, take advantage": ''lattē — (latau) lak — aluta''
* ''ssutake'' "to attract, to bait, to seduce": ''ssattē — (ssatau) ssak — assuta''
* ''sprutake'' "to join, link": ''sprattē — (spratau) sprak — aspruta''
Two verbs have '''(a+) -agv'' but ''-avu-'' in the past:
* ''lagvake'' "to assume": ''lagvē — lavuk — alagva''
* ''ṣṭagvake'' "to carve": ''ṣṭagvē — ṣṭavuk — aṣṭagva''
Other various irregular verbs:
* ''leilge'' (''leig-ke'') "to concern, to be on the topic of": ''leigē — (lågau) lål — eleiga''
* ''ręiške'' "to tickle": ''ręišē — (rąšau) rąs — eręiša
* ''lårpake'' "to swing": ''lårpē — lerpek — alurpa''
Three vowel-ending roots have an irregular behaviour:
* ''rileike'' "to need" has the expected ''ei → ey'' change in the present, but adds ''-n-'' in the past instead: ''rileyu, rileyi, rileyē...'' but ''rileinau, rileinei, rileik''...
* ''lįke'' "to swim (monodirectional) and ''mųke'' "to jump (monodirectional)" behave before vowels as if their stems were (ablauting) *lis- and *mus-: pres. exterior ''lesu, lesi, lesē''...; past exterior ''lisau, lisei, lįk''.
====The verb "to be" (''jalle'')====
The verb "to be" is suppletive as it uses various different stems (from Proto-Lahob ''*jaʕʕ'', ''*wi(w)ʕ'', ''*ri'',  ''*nī'', and ''*gəna'') and irregularly — for example, the non-singular present forms are morphologically perfect.
Note that the indicative present, unless evidentially marked, is rarely used, as the copula is usually dropped in many cases; when used with the meaning of "to have" (e.g. ''lili mæn tulūɂa yambras jali'' "I have six pears" (lit.: I <small>TOPIC</small> six pears are)) it is considered better not to drop it, but it is often done nevertheless in common speech. It is also kept when used with the meaning "there is...".
Both future tenses are rarely used in colloquial and semi-formal speech, as the present tense of ''ndǣke'' (to become) is usually used as a replacement.
=====Indicative mood=====
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! colspan=2 | Person !! Present !! Past !! Perfect !! General future !! Future intent.
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing !! 1st
| ū || nīvau || rem || jalṣyam || nayu
|-
! 2nd
| vei || nīvei || res || jalṣyes || nayi
|-
! 3rd
| vi || nīk || ri || jalṣya || nayē
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| jella || nīram || rira || jalṣyara || nīsme
|-
! 2nd
| jelli || nīres || reri || jalṣyari || nīdya
|-
! 3rd
| jali || nīdat || ri || jalṣya || nīde
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| jalim || nyābhe || rima || jalṣīma || nīmim
|-
! 2nd
| jalis || nyāṣe || riša || jalṣīsa || nīšin
|-
! 3rd
| jali || nīkā || ri || jalṣya || nyāhai
|}
All evidential terminations (except for, obviously, the experiential) are attached to a ''∅-'' stem.
=====Other moods and ''junyai''=====
The present tense or imperfective aspect of all other primary moods included as examples in this table:
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! colspan=2 | Person !! Subjunctive !! Optative !! Desiderative !! Necessitative !! Potential !! Permissive
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
| gati || jamu || jijālyu || jājalšū || jelau || jījalūdu
|-
! 2nd
| gīs || jami || jijāli || jājalšūyi || jelai || jījalūdi
|-
! 3rd
| gī || jame || jijālye || jājalšūyē || jelai || jījalūdē
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| gīndu || jamosme || jijālkṣe || jājalšūsme || jelaisme || jījalūtsme
|-
! 2nd
| gīndi || jamodya || jijālšadya || jājalšūdya || jelādya || jījalūndya
|-
! 3rd
| gī || jamode || jijālšade || jājalšūde || jelāde || jījalūnde
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| gīnam || jamomim || jijālmim || jājalšūmim || jelmim || jījalūdmim
|-
! 2nd
| gīnes || jamošin || jijālkṣin || jājalšūšin || jelāšin || jījalūdašin
|-
! 3rd
| gī || jamāhai || jijālyāhai || jājalšūyāhai || jelāhai || jījalūdāhai
|}
=====In compound verbs=====
There are some compound verbs which are formed by a "meaning stem" + ''jalle''; they conjugate just like ''jalle'' does:
* ''najalle'' "to happen" morphologically conjugates like ''jalle'' but has some peculiarities:
** Like ''jalle'', there is no agent-, dative-, and instrumental-trigger voice, but the patient-trigger voice has a dative meaning - e.g. ''nañū'' "it happens to me".
** The basic, semantically patientive forms, are the interior ones (with a contracted stem ''nañ-j-ir''), and they only exist for the third persons - e.g. ''najire'' "it happens", ''najirde'' "they (dual) happen", ''najirāhe'' "they happen", and so on.
** It uses analytic constructions for most moods, e.g. ''najallenovake'' "can happen" > ''najallenovē'' "it can happen"; ''najalledaudike'' "to be wanted to happen" > ''najalledaudiute'' "I want it to happen" — forms such as the synthetic ''najelai'' or ''najæliašute'' are found only in archaic (mostly pre-Classical) texts or with other uses - as e.g. ''najelai'' being the most common word for "maybe".
===Analytic constructions and auxiliary verbs===
Chlouvānem uses many analytic constructions - including auxiliary and compound verbs - in order to convey some shades of meaning. Most of these use either a participle or the infinitive as the form of the lexical verb:
* ''perfective subjunctive'' in the needed voice + ''lā'' (with) + ''jalle'' in the past or future tense: compound construction used for pluperfect and future perfect. It is not wrong to use it with a present tense, but the meaning does not change from the bare perfect.<br/> Note that, for the pluperfect, the bare perfect is often used instead, both in literature as in common speech.
** ''yųlētate lā nīvau'' "I had eaten"
** ''yųlētate lā jalṣyam'' "I will have eaten"
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' in the needed voice + ''lā'' (with) + ''jalle'' in the needed tense: compound construction used for the progressive aspect in the three tenses (present, past, future). In the present, the form of ''jalle'' is omitted for the third person, or for all persons if a pronoun is present.
** ''yųlatite lā ū'' "I am eating"
** ''yųlatite lā nīvau'' "I was eating"
** ''yųlatite lā jalṣyam'' "I will be eating"
* ''infinitive'' + ''ñǣɂake'' (to be used to): compound construction used for a habitual action in present, past, or future tense. It is not used with motion verbs in the present, as the multidirectional verb already unambiguously has this meaning.
** ''yaive prājamne yahikeñǣɂute'' "I am used to read every evening"
** ''yaive prājamne yahikeñǣɂaṃte'' "I used to read every evening"
** ''yaive prājamne yahikeñǣɂiṣyaṃte'' "I will be used to read every evening"
* ''infinitive'' + ''nartaflulke'' (to reach): to come to X, to end up X-ing, to result in X-ing
** ''yųlakenartatefliven'' "(s)he ended up eating"
** ''lañšijildenartaflunirāhe'' "they ended up marrying each other"
* ''infinitive'' (or more formally ''perfective subjunctive'') + ''kitte'' (to put): to keep X-ed:
** ''valdekitē'' / ''uvaldēt kitē'' "it is kept opened"
* ''infinitive'' + either ''įstiāke'' (to hang from) or ''maitiāke'' (to be in front of): prospective aspect, to be about to X
** ''yųlakayįstetimu'' "I am about to eat"
** ''yahikemaitimē'' "it is about to be read"
* ''subjunctive'' + interior forms of ''męlike'' (to give): to do X in advance — it can also be interpreted as a (plu)perfect if with perfect subjunctive:
** ''yųlatite męliru'' "I eat in advance"
** ''yųlētate męlirau'' "I ate in advance" → "I had already eaten"
* ''infinitive'' + ''paṣmišake'' (to look further away): to let X
** ''sū yahikepaṣṭemešu'' "I let you read"
* ''infinitive'' + ''mālchake'' (to run (multidirectional)): to keep X-ing (less formal alternative to ''mai-'' prefixed verbs)
** ''nanau yahikemālchute'' "I keep reading that" (synonym of ''nanau maiteyašu'')
* ''infinitive'' + ''nūkkhe'' (to mount (unidirectional)): to be still X-ing:
** ''tatyākenūkhute'' "I'm still standing"
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''daudike'' (to want): to want to X (alternative to the desiderative ''junia'' commonly used especially in the Northeast). If the triggered argument is the same and the trigger is agent-trigger on both, it can be omitted in the subjunctive verb:
** ''kulati(te) daudyute'' "I want to talk" (= ''šukiliute'')
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''širgake'' (to be possible): may X (non-ambiguous alternative to the potential)
** ''dratite šergē'' "I may do (it)" (= ''dadrenānute'')
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' (less commonly ''infinitive'') + ''novake'' (to be able to): can X (non-ambiguous alternative to the potential)
** ''dratite novē'' / ''dṛkenovute'' "I can do (it)" (= ''dadrenānute'')
* ''infinitive'' + ''prigirake'' (to move backwards): to redo X, to do X again
** ''dhultepritegeru'' "I rewrite, I write again"
===Adverbs===
Adjectival verbs may be turned into adverbs (''khladaradhausire haloe'', pl. ''khladaradhausirāhe halenī'') by simply adding '''-ęe''' (rarely ''-e'') to the stem. Thus:
* ''tarlausake'' (scientific) → ''tarlausęe'' (scientifically, according to science)
* ''namęlyausake'' (stakanovist) → ''namęlyausęe'' (continuously; without any break)
* ''prātūkke'' (windy) → ''prātūkęe'' (windy; like the wind)
There are also some irregular adverbs, made from other speech parts:
* ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlære'' (easily) (but note its synonym ''chlærausęe'' from the related verb ''chlærausake'' (easy))
* ''dilake'' (same) → ''diledile'' (exactly the same way; emphatic version of ''dilęe''<ref>''dilęe'' also has the other meaning of "the same", as in ''lili dilęe dadrāṃte'' "I have done the same". ''diledile'' does not have this other meaning.</ref> but more common.)
* ''ṣati'' (way, mode) suffixed to a possessive adjective forms ''lilyāṣati'' (from my point of view; my way; in my opinion), ''sāmyāṣati'' (from your point of view; your way; in your opinion), ''demyāṣati'', ''tamyāṣati'', and so on.
Denominal adverbs are formed in a different way. In Archaic and Classical Chlouvānem, a noun in the instrumental plural (usually with the suffix ''-<sup>e</sup>/<sub>a</sub>nīka'') was usually meant as an adverb. However, starting from Classical Chlouvānem,&nbsp;'''-naise''', originally simply the locative singular of ''naisah'' "shape", came to be commonly used as a grammaticalized adverbial forming suffix, and it is the preferred way of forming adverbs from nouns today. Archaic and early Classical Chlouvānem only used the instrumental plural, with ''-naise'' only found sporadically when actually referring to something "in the shape of X"; later texts show the latter form becoming increasingly common, to the point of almost entirely replacing the instrumental plural as an adverbial marker, which only survives in religious texts today.
====Underived adverbs====
Some adverbs are not synchronically derived from any other part of speech (though most of them diachronically are). They include:
* All adverbial correlatives;
* ''lære'' (yesterday), ''amyære'' (today), and ''menire'' (tomorrow)
* ''mådviṣe'' (before), ''kaminæne'' (now), and ''ħærviṣe'' (after)
* ''dīdān'' (again and again); ''dǣ'' (again (archaic); the current term ''samelīsa'' is a grammaticalized verbal form); ''enibu'' (still, up to a time); ''gām'' and ''īgam'' ([[Chlouvānem/Syntax#gam_and_.C4.ABgam|just, right now, or prospective aspect markers]]); ''govyāṣa'' (not yet); ''gudēya'' (anymore, no more); ''lǣh'' and ''nāṭ'' (both "already").
* Some adverbs formed by onomatopoeia or sound symbolism (and usually reduplicated) like ''rarāre'' (roaring) or ''tanetane'' (barefoot).
===Undeclinable adjective-like words===
A few common words may be used attributively just like adjectives, but they do not decline. Most of them end in either ''-a'' or ''-i'':
* ''cami'' - great, large (figurative), important
* ''lalla'' - high, higher, next
* ''hulābdān'' - good (and ''chlǣcæm'' (better))
* ''taili'' - many, much
* ''nanū'' - more
* ''kaili'' - most
* ''ṣūbha'' - few, little
* ''yamei'' - "honorific" adjective
All numerals also belong to this category.
When used predicatively, they need a form of ''jalle'' following them; ''yamei'' is only ever used attributively.
Note that ''cami'', ''taili'', and ''kaili'', in some (but not all) Archaic Chlouvānem texts, have a singular-only declension based on the irregular one of ''ami'' (see the declensions of correlatives and possessives in the next section). Most probably this was an analogic feature of a few pre-Classical standardization Chlouvānem dialects of 2000 years ago.<br/>Particles such as ''maibu'' (enough) or ''vivāmi'' (too much/many) are semantically the same as these adjective-like words, but they are considered particles because they ''follow'' the noun they refer to (e.g. ''cūlli vivāmi virā'' "there are too many cars").
===Comparatives and superlatives===
Comparatives and superlatives are done in the same way in Chlouvānem. Comparatives are made by using either '''nanū''' (more) or '''ovat''' (less) in front of the adjective; the compared term is in ablative case; the superlative is formed by using '''yaivų''' (than all) as the compared term.
Adverbs use the same method (e.g. ''chlære'' (easily) → ''nanū chlære'' → ''yaivų nanū chlære''), but "than all" in superlatives is usually omitted, therefore they use ''nanū'' also with a superlative meaning.
This is used by both adjectival and non adjectival verbs, e.g. ''sąu nanū yæyute'' "I read more than you".
Forms expressing a continuous enhancement are made by deriving new verbs with the ''naš-'' prefix, e.g. ''yaiva pārṇame našñæñuchlire'' - (s)he becomes more beautiful each day.
Equatives are made by using '''e''' (like) (requiring essive case) instead of the ablative; optionally ''enūḍa'' (this much) may be added: ''sąs e (enūḍa) yæyute'' "I read just as much as you". For "not as ... as", use ''gu taili'' (not as much) instead of ''enūḍa''.
====Irregular forms====
There are six irregular adjectival verbs which are only used with synthetic comparatives, all synchronically suppletive:
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! Positive !! Comparative !! Superlative
|-
| ''ñikake'' (small) || rowspan=2 | ''isike'' (smaller; fewer, less) || rowspan=2  | ''iñekṣike'' (smallest; fewest, least)
|-
| ''ṣubha'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (few, little)
|-
| ''sūrṣake'' (large) || ''svaprake'' (larger) || ''sprauṣake'' (largest)
|-
| ''garpake'' (bad) || ''grāšcake'' (worse) || ''grauṣpake'' (worst)
|-
| ''hulābdān'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (good) || ''chlǣcæm'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (better) || ''chlǣcækṣike'' (best)
|-
| ''taili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (many, much) || ''nanū'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (more) || ''kaili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (most)
|}


==Pronouns==
==Pronouns==
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